目录

内容简介

前言

Section One Greek Culture

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

Section Two Christian Cultur

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

Section Three British Culture

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

Section Four American Cultu

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

References

内容简介

本教材是在多年通识教育选修课教学实践的基础上，撷取了西方文化中影响较大、较为常识性的内容加以介绍，并通过对英文经典影片中以“希腊文化”“基督文化”“英国文化”“美国文化”为题材的电影进行赏析，从而向学生展开一部西方文化画卷，为学生的英语学习提供相关文化背景知识，最终在对比中西文化差异的基础上进一步提高学生的文化意识和素养。

本教材适用于非英语专业的素质拓展课程，也可作为英语文化爱好者的自学教材。

前言

随着全球经济的发展和文化交流的深入，国际交往日益频繁，英语作为一门国际性语言已被人们广泛用于各种交流场合。要掌握一门语言就必须了解该语言使用国的文化背景，因此，了解西方文化，特别是希腊文化、基督文化及英美文化，对学好英语十分重要。经典的英文电影反映了西方文化的各个层面，是学生了解西方文化最形象生动、最全面概括、最简便快捷的媒介。

本教材是在多年通识教育选修课教学实践的基础上编写而成的。本教材撷取了西方文化中影响较大、较为常识性的内容进行介绍，并通过对以“希腊文化”“基督文化”“英国文化”“美国文化”为主题的英文经典电影进行赏析，向学生展开了一部西方文化画卷，为学生的英语学习提供相关文化背景知识，并最终在对比中西文化差异的基础上进一步提高学生的文化意识和素养。

本教材以“西方文化”为核心，以“英文电影”为媒介，包括四大文化板块、五部经典英文影片，并按照文化板块分为四个部分。每部分分别由影片简介、语言知识、文化介绍及配套练习四个模块构成。其中，“影片简介”是对导演与主演、剧情梗概等与影片导入相关的知识进行简要介绍；“语言知识”是针对影片中出现的重点单词与短语和难点术语进行影片赏析前的清障学习；“文化介绍”为本教材学习的重点，是关于某部影片中涉及的文化知识的专题介绍，以便更好地帮助学生了解文化背景知识，从而加深对该影片的理解；“配套练习”包括单项选择题和讨论题，读者可登陆ftp://ftp.tup.tsinghua.edu.cn/下载其参考答案。本教材还有与之配套的慕课资源及电影资源，可登陆http://jlu.fy.chaoxing.com，搜索课程“英文电影中的西方文化”后进行学习、观看。

《英文电影与西方文化》的编写工作由吉林大学公共外语教育学院“英文电影中的西方文化”课程团队的五位老师负责完成。其中，冯彦教授担任主编，杨桢副教授（第1部分“希腊文化”，约5万字）、张磊老师（第2部分“基督文化”，约4万字）、高杨老师（第3部分“英国文化”，约3.5万字）和刘卓群老师（第4部分“美国文化”，约3.5万字）负责具体的编写工作。

本教材是编者在大学英语教学内容和课程体系改革方面的一次大胆尝试，书中错漏之处在所难免，恳请专家和读者批评指正。

编者

2018年5月

Section One Greek Culture

The city of Troy was already in ruins with its halo fading away after three thousand years of erosion. However, an eternal romance and heroic epic is still circulating in today's world.

—Troy

1 Brief Introduction

1.1 Director and Stars

Director:

Wolfgang Petersen

Stars:

Brad Pitt as Achilles

Eric Bana as Hector

Orlando Bloom as Paris

Diane Kruger as Helen

1.2 Synopsis

In Sparta, Prince Hector and his young brother Paris want Troy and Sparta to have peace, but Paris falls in love with Helen, Queen of Sparta, and takes her back to Troy. So Menelaus, Helen's husband, declares war on Troy to retrieve his queen, now called Helen of Troy. This leads to the Trojan War. The Greeks come and take control of a beach at Troy. Achilles and the Myrmidons kill many Trojans. Achilles and Hector meet for the first time but do not fight. Later, the Trojans make a surprise attack. As the Greeks are close to losing, Achilles comes with the Myrmidons and joins the fight. Then, Achilles fights with Hector, and Hector is killed. After Hector's death, the Greeks make a plan to come into Troy by using a wooden horse. The Trojans think the wooden horse is a gift to the Gods, so they take it into the city and celebrate. It is totally unexpected that the Greeks come out of the horse at night, opening the doors to the city. This lets the army enter the city and the Trojans are defeated. At last, Paris kills Achilles but dies after the war.

1.3 Movies on the Trojan War

The Fall of Troy, 1911

How Troy Was Collared, 1923

The Private Life of Helen of Troy, 1927

Helen of Troy, 1956

The Trojan Horse, 1961

Troy, 2004

2 Language Points

2.1 Words and Phrases

eternity

n.time without an end

永恒；永生

e.g. The fifth chapter is an extended discourse on God's relationship to both time and eternity and the last expounds the doctrine of the Trinity.

第五章是一个扩展的话题，是关于上帝与时间和永恒的关系；最后一章阐述了三位一体教义。

(Movie) Men are haunted by the vastness of eternity.

人类总想追求永生。

impudence

n.the quality of not showing due respect for another person

傲慢；厚颜无耻；冒失

e.g. His arrogance and impudence had offended many.

他的傲慢和无礼冒犯了许多人。

(Movie) I should have you whipped for your impudence!

你这样傲慢，我真该抽你一顿！

massacre

n.an indiscriminate and brutal slaughter of many people

大屠杀

e.g. I thought that I had seen one tiny corner of an indiscriminate massacre of students and intellectuals, a bloodbath.

我想我看到的只是对学生和知识分子任意屠杀的冰山一角，这简直就是一场血淋淋的大屠杀。

(Movie) I don’t want to watch another massacre.

我不想看到另一场屠杀。

wrong

v.to act unjustly or dishonestly towards

对不起；委屈；无理地对待

e.g. They would kill a man who wronged a family.

他们会杀死一个背叛家庭的人。

(Movie) What you’re saying is true. I’ve wronged you. I’ve wronged our father.

你说的都对，我对不起你，对不起父亲。

forge

v.to create (sth.) strong, enduring, or successful

铸造；锻造

e.g. The country is forging a bright new future.

这个国家正在开辟一条崭新的未来之路。

(Movie) Empires are forged by war.

战争成就帝国。

the way of the world

the manner in which people typically behave or things typically happen

世道常情；理所当然的事

e.g. All those millions of pounds are not going to create many jobs, but that's the way of the world.

那数百万英镑不会带来太多的就业机会，但世道就是这样。

(Movie) You’re the elder; you reap the glory. This is the way of the world.

你是兄长，荣耀属于你，这是理所当然的。

devastate

v.to cause (someone) severe and overwhelming shock or grief

使伤心欲绝

e.g. She was devastated by the loss of Damian.

达米安不见了，她伤心欲绝。

(Movie) The young men of Troy were devastated when Briseis chose the virgin robes.

布里塞伊斯选择做了女祭司，特洛伊城里的少年为此伤心欲绝。

become legend

to become popular

流传开来；变成传奇

e.g. History became legend; legend became myth...

历史演变成传奇，传奇变成了神话……

(Movie) Your reputation for hospitality is fast becoming legend.

你的大方好客很快远近闻名。

have a silver tongue

to have a clever way with words

有口才；善于雄辩

e.g. I know our products well and I have a silver tongue.

我对我们的产品很了解，而且我有三寸不烂之舌。

(Movie) They say the King of Ithaca has a silver tongue.

据说以色卡王舌灿莲花。

hand in hand

closely associated

与……有密切关联

e.g. She had the confidence that usually goes hand in hand with experience.

她有自信，自信通常都是和经验密不可分的。

(Movie) For your glory walks hand in hand with your doom.

因为你的荣耀将为你带来灭亡。

mock

v.to tease or laugh at in a scornful or contemptuous manner

愚弄，嘲弄

e.g. Later, he mocked the Premier's economic recovery plan.

后来，他嘲讽总理的经济复苏计划。

(Movie) Do not mock the gods.

不准亵渎神明。

come down with

to begin to suffer from (a specified illness)

染上病

e.g. To avoid coming down with the illness, he recommends that the old, the very young, or caregivers receive flu shots.

他建议老人、孩子和医护人员应该接种流感疫苗，以防感染。

(Movie) When you were very young, you came down with scarlet fever.

你很小的时候就得了猩红热。

scour

v.to make a thorough search in order to locate sth.

搜索，搜查，搜寻

e.g. David scoured each newspaper for an article on the murder.

大卫翻遍了每一张报纸，找一篇关于这个谋杀案的文章。

(Movie) I want patrols to scour the countryside.

我想派巡逻队搜查乡间。

patron

n.a person who gives financial or other support to a person, organisation, or cause

赞助人；保护人；主顾

e.g. The organisers are deeply grateful for the support of patrons over the past

months.

组织者非常感谢赞助人在过去几个月里的支持。

(Movie) The sun god is a patron of Troy, our enemy.

太阳神是我们的敌人特洛伊的守护神。

desecration

n.the action of spoiling (sth. that is valued or respected)

亵渎神圣；侮辱神物

e.g. He also wanted it to be saved from destruction or desecration in future wars.

他也希望这能在未来战争中免遭破坏或亵渎。

(Movie) The desecration of his temple angers Apollo.

阿波罗神庙被毁，激怒了阿波罗。

no match for

no competition for无法对抗

e.g. I was no match for a man with such power.

我根本不是这样强大的男人的对手。

(Movie) Even Agamemnon is no match for the gods.

就连阿伽门农也无法对抗神威。

siege

n.a military operation in which enemy forces surround a town or building, cutting off essential supplies, with the aim of compelling the surrender of those inside

围攻；包围；围城

e.g. After more than a month of siege warfare, Pemberton surrendered to Grant on July 4, 1863.

经过一个多月的攻城战，1863年7月4日（美国南军将领）彭伯顿向（北军将领）格兰特投降。

(Movie) And Troy is built to withstand a 10-year siege.

特洛伊修建得能抵抗十年的长攻。

valiant

adj.possessing or showing courage or determination

英勇的，勇敢的

e.g. She made a valiant effort to hold her anger in check.

她拼命地控制着自己的愤怒。

(Movie) I see you’re not hiding behind your high walls. Valiant of you.

我发现你们并没有躲在城墙后面。你们非常勇敢！

one-sided

adj.(of a relationship or conversation) having all the effort coming from one

participant单方面的；不公正的

e.g. A one-sided caring relationship denies the essential element of reciprocity.

单方一厢情愿的关心无法构成互惠关系。

(Movie) I think you’ll find the romance one-sided.

我觉得你会明白这段恋情就是一厢情愿。

brute

n.a cruel or insensitive person

残暴的人；愚蠢的人

e.g. He's a brute, an offense to human decency.

他是一个畜生，简直就没有做人的尊严。

(Movie) I thought you were a dumb brute.

我以为你是一个蠢汉。

enthrall

v.to enslave

使某人成为奴隶

e.g. It is hard and dangerous to enthrall a people that would live free.

要奴役一个自由生存的民族是很难的，也是很危险的。

(Movie) What are you doing enthralled to that pig of a king?

你为何为那个蠢猪般的国王效命？

slaughter

v.to defeat (an opponent) thoroughly

使惨败；屠杀；杀戮

e.g. In the first game of the Summer Cup, Walkers’ Dominoes Team was slaughtered.

在“夏之杯”第一场比赛中，步行者多米诺骨牌队就惨败了。

(Movie) Greeks are being slaughtered. We can’t just sail away.

希腊人一败涂地，我们不能一走了之。

prophesy

v.to say that (a specified thing) will happen in the future

预言

e.g. The papers prophesied that he would resign after the weekend.

报纸预言他过了周末就会辞职。

(Movie) The last time the high priest spoke to us; he prophesied a great victory for Troy.

上一次大祭司亲口预言特洛伊大胜。

dissension

n.disagreement that leads to discord

纠纷；意见不合；争吵；倾轧

e.g. These issues caused bitter dissension in the party.

这些问题引起了内部的激烈纠纷。

(Movie) The Myrmidons didn’t fight yesterday. There must be dissension among the Greeks.

（阿基里斯的）部下昨天并没有参战，希腊大军现在一定是一盘散沙。

smash

v.to violently break (sth.) into pieces

打碎，捣烂

e.g. The thief smashed a window to get into the car.

小偷打碎了车窗，想进入汽车。

(Movie) I will smash their walls to the ground.

我将把他们的城墙夷为平地。

unleash

v.to release from a leash or restraint

解除……的束缚；解开……的皮带

e.g. We unleashed the dog and carried it down to our car.

我们解开狗的皮带，把它带到我们的车那里。

(Movie) We don't need to control him; we need to unleash him.

我们不必控制他，我们只需要让他出击。

pay homage to

to show honour or respect to sb. publicly

向某人表示敬意

e.g. Many villagers come here to pay homage to the Virgin.

很多村民都来这里朝拜圣女。

(Movie) Kings did not pay homage to Achilles.

国王们没有向阿基里斯致敬。

in the blink of an eye

very quickly

在眨眼之间

e.g. The software would do lots of boring calculations in the blink of an eye.

这款软件瞬间就能完成大量枯燥的计算工作。

(Movie) I could have your head on a spit in the blink of an eye.

我眨眼间就能砍掉你的头，拿去烤了。

treason

n.the action of betraying sb. or sth.

叛国罪；不忠

e.g. African-Americans, it is cynically assumed, will remain loyal to the Democrats regardless of the treasons committed against them.

有人还可笑地以为美国黑人尽管遭受到民主党的背叛还会忠于民主党。

(Movie) Achilles makes a secret pact, and I have to honour it? What treason is this?

阿基里斯偷偷跟敌人做了约定，我也得恪守？这简直就是背叛！

2.2 Terms

(1) Trojan Horse

The Trojan Horse is a tale from the Trojan War about the subterfuge that the Greeks used to enter the city of Troy and win the war. Metaphorically, a "Trojan Horse” has come to mean any trick or stratagem that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected bastion or place. A malicious computer program which tricks users into willingly running it is also called a "Trojan Horse”.

(2) Achilles’ Heel

In Greek mythology, when Achilles, a great Greek hero, was born, his mother Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him, i.e. his heel. Because of his death from a small wound in the heel, the term "Achilles’ Heel” has come to mean a person's point of weakness, which can actually or potentially lead to downfall in spite of overall strength. While the mythological origin refers to a physical vulnerability, idiomatic references to other attributes or qualities that can lead to downfall are common.

(3) Apple of Discord

According to Greek mythology, Zeus held a banquet in celebration of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. Eris, the goddess of discord, was not invited for her troublesome nature, and upon turning up uninvited, she threw a golden apple into the ceremony, with an inscription that read: "to the most beautiful”. Three goddesses claimed the apple: Hera, Athena and Aphrodite. They brought the matter before Zeus. Not wanting to get involved, Zeus gave the apple to Paris of Troy and told him that the goddesses would accept his decision without argument. Each of the goddesses offered Paris a gift as a bribe in return for the apple. Hera offered to make him the king of Europe and Asia, Athena offered him wisdom and skill in battle, and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world as his wife, Helen of Sparta (later to be titled Helen of Troy). Paris chose Aphrodite, a decision that ultimately led to the start of the Trojan War.

A golden apple, also an apple of discord, is used to signify the core, kernel, or crux of an argument, or a small matter that could lead to a bigger dispute.

3 Cultural References

3.1 Ancient Greece

3.1.1 Aegean Civilization

Aegean Civilization (3100 BC–1000 BC) is a general term for the Bronze Age Civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. Three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions are covered by this term: Crete, Mycenae and the Greek mainland. So it is also referred to as "Crete-Mycenaean”. However, later findings suggest that Mycenaean Civilization is not the main part of the Aegean Civilization, and now people like to use Aegean to name the civilization.

Aegean Civilization lasted for a long time. It had already existed long before 3100 BC, and it was not until 1000 BC that the civilization went to decline gradually. Ancient Western civilization began with it.

3.1.2 Mycenaean Civilization

(1) Mycenaean Civilization at a Glance

Mycenaean Greece (1600 BC–1100 BC) refers to the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece. It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, with its palatial states, urban organisation, works of art and writing system. The term we use is derived from Mycenae, which is an important archaeological site about 90 km from Athens. Other important Mycenaean sites are at Athens, Thebes, Tiryns and Pylos. Mycenaean and Mycenaean-influenced settlements also appeared in some states on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, and Italy.

The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology. The epic poems of Homer, Iliad and Odyssey, are Mycenaean in origin.

(2) Mycenaean Language

Mycenaean is the oldest known form of the Greek language. It was spoken on the Greek mainland and on Crete in the Mycenaean period. The language was written on clay tablets[1] in a script called Linear B.

Linear B is an ancient script, used to write Mycenaean Greek, the oldest known form of ancient Greek. This was proved by Michael Ventris[2] in the early 1950s. Linear B came before the Greek alphabet by several centuries.

The script is based on Linear A, a script which cannot be read today. The oldest texts written in Linear B date from about 1450 BC. Linear B was found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Cydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae. It disappeared with the fall of the Mycenaean Civilization.

There are about 87 signs in Linear B that represent syllables. In addition, there are many ideographic signs, which represent objects or commodities. They have no phonetic value[3], and are never used as word signs in writing a sentence. The texts on the tablets are mostly lists and inventories. There are no stories, myths or poetry, but they give us some ideas of the people who made them.

Linear B seems to have only been used for administration. In all the thousands of clay tablets, a relatively small number of different "hands” (or writers) have been detected: 45 in Pylos (west coast of the Peloponnese, in southern Greece) and 66 in Knossos (Crete). The script may have only been used by a guild of professional scribes who worked at different palaces. When the palaces were destroyed, the script disappeared.

For a long time, no one could translate the tablets. At last, in 1952 Michael Ventris deciphered the script. He showed that the language was an early form of Greek.

3.1.3 Ancient Greece

(1) Ancient Greece at a Glance

The historical period of Ancient Greece is unique in world history as the first period attested directly in proper historiography, while earlier ancient history or proto-history is known by much more indirect evidence, such as annals or king lists and epigraphy.

Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic Period (800 BC–510 BC) to the end of Antiquity (600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished from the 5th century BC to the 4th century BC.

Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason, Classical Greek culture is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered as the cradle of Western civilization.

(2) Stages Ancient Greece Went Through

① Mycenaean Culture (1600 BC–1100 BC)

It was an early Greek culture during the Bronze Age, on the Greek mainland and on Crete.

② Greek Dark Ages (1100 BC–800 BC) and the Archaic Period (800 BC–510 BC)

In Greek Dark Ages, the Mycenaean civilization suffered serious disruption. In the Archaic Period, artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff poses, with the dreamlike "archaic smile[4]”. The Archaic Period ended with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens in 510 BC.

③ The Classical Period (510 BC–323 BC)

It is characterised by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary (i.e. "classical”)—for instance the Parthenon. Politically, the Classical Period was dominated by Athens and the Delian League[5] during the 5th century. They were displaced by Spartan hegemony during the early 4th century BC. Finally, there was the League of Corinth, which was led by Macedon. And the conquests of Alexander stretched as far as Afghanistan.

④ The Hellenistic Period (323 BC–146 BC)

It is when Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period began with the death of Alexander the Great and ended with the Roman conquest.

⑤ Roman Greece (146 BC–330 AD)

This is the period between the Roman victory at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC and the establishment of Byzantium by Constantine the Great as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD.

⑥ The Period of Christianization (330 AD–529 AD)

It's the final phase of Antiquity during the 4th and the early 6th centuries. It ended with the closure of the later version of Plato's Academy[6] by Justinian I in 529 AD.

(3) Women in Ancient Greece

① Women and Citizens

Citizens in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere did not have the right to vote. Details differed between cities. Athens is an example: The men of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics[7] and slaves. Citizens were men (over 17) whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations. They had the rights of free men and could be elected any official state position. Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city state of Attica (encompassing Athens), only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship. Athens created the world's first known democracy, but women were not citizens in Athens, while in Sparta they were.

② Women in Daily Life

Men, if not working, fighting or discussing politics, could, at festival times, go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.

Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Women from rich families, however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.

③ Women in Ancient Greek Games

The famous Olympic Games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The Games were unusual, because the athletes could come from any Greek city.

Another competition, the Heraean Games[8], was held for women. It was also held at Olympia at a different time from the men's event.

The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities. They were trained in the same events as boys, because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.

Later, in the Classical Period, girls could compete in the same festivals as males.

(4) Architecture Style in Ancient Greece

① Ancient Greek Architecture

Ancient Greek architecture is best-known for its temples, many of which are found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many substantially in good condition. Ancient Greek temples feature proportional design, columns, friezes and pediments[9], usually decorated with sculpture in relief. These elements give ancient Greek architecture its distinctive character.

The second important type of building is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 525 BC–480 BC. Other architectural forms include the processional gateway, the public square surrounded by storied colonnade, the town council building, the public monument, the monumental tomb and the stadium.

Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each building appears to have been designed as a sculptural entity within the landscape, most often raised on high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles. Nikolaus Pevsner[10] refers to "the plastic shape of the (Greek) temple...placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building”.

② Influence on Modern Architecture

We can find the style of the Roman columns/orders[11] in Chinese architecture. In fact, the Roman column has its origin in the Ancient Greek architecture.

The ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders, namely the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, had profound effect on Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted Ancient Greek styles closely.

③ Influence on Roman Architecture

The Romans were tremendous builders engineers and architects in their own right, but in the course of conquering the Western world, they were heavily influenced aesthetically by the Greeks. The prodigious use of the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian Orders is the most obvious example.

One common type of building found in the forum of any Roman city was the basilica, a hall used for transacting business and legal matters. It developed from the Greek storied colonnade, but was usually fully enclosed rather than enclosed on one side. The hall contained colonnades on the inside, which helped to organise and divide the interior space.

(5) Ten Sanctuary Sites of Ancient Greek

If you want to learn about the whole Western civilization by visiting only one country, then Greece is your best choice, because Greece not only gave birth to Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great, but also is the birthplace of democratic politics, Aesop's Fables, Homer's epic, geometry, rhetoric and physics. More importantly, in Greece you can go to visit the ten sanctuary sites of the gods and goddesses.

① Athens

Athens is the capital city of Greece. It is one of the most famous cities in the world. The city is named after Athena, a goddess in Greek mythology.

Athens was a powerful city in Classical times. It was known for the amount of learning that happened there. The city was home to Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum. It also had its own Constitution. Athens also created the world's first known democracy.

② Acropolis of Athens

The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous acropolis. It is a large hill in the center of Athens, on which the Parthenon and other Greek buildings were built. It is often known as the Acropolis.

③ Mycenae

Mycenae is an archaeological site in Greece. It is about 90 km southwest of Athens, in the northeastern Peloponnese[12]. In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was one of the most important centers of early Greek Civilization with a strong army.

④ Olympia

Olympia was a place in ancient Greece. It was in Elis which is now called Ilia, and is in the east of the city Pyrgos. It was the site of the Olympic Games—the most famous games in history—in Classical times. The Olympic Games were held every four years throughout Classical Antiquity, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. The first Olympic Games were in honour of Zeus.

⑤ Delphi

Delphi is a town in Greece, and it is a World Heritage Site now. It has an archaeological site related to the Oracle of Delphi. It is said that Apollo owned the precious gift of prophecy, given to him by his father Zeus in his infancy. He was the patron of the ancient city of Delphi where the first oracle of ancient Greece was located. The district was considered to be the Navel of the World (the "Omphalus”) in Ancient times. The Pythian Games[13] were held in Delphi. Among Delphi's art treasures is the Charioteer of Delphi[14].

⑥ Mount Parnassus

Mount Parnassus is a mountain of limestone in central Greece that towers above Delphi, north of the Gulf of Corinth, and offers scenic views of the surrounding olive groves and countryside. According to Greek mythology, this mountain was sacred to Dionysus and the Dionysian mysteries; it was also sacred to Apollo and the Corycian nymphs, and it was the home of the Muses. The mountain was also favoured by the Dorians[15]. In the word "Parnassus”, the first five letters are "Parna-”. There is a theory that "Parna-” derived from the same root as the word in Luwian[16], meaning "house”.

⑦ Crete

Crete is the largest of the Greek islands. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while keeping its own local cultural features (such as its own poetry and music). It was once the center of the Minoan Civilization, which is currently regarded as the earliest recorded civilization in Europe.

⑧ Mykonos

Mykonos is a touristic Greek island. People living there mainly work in the tourist industry. The island is famous mainly for its nightlife. Also, the island has many beautiful beaches with yellow sand. Along the beaches there are bars and cafes, so the entertainment continues during day. It is said that tourists are crowding into Mykonos for its 4S's: sun, sand, sea and sex. The island has two main settlements: Chora, the capital of the island, is in the west and Ano Mera, the second settlement, is in the center.

⑨ Metéora

The Metéora is the name for a number of monasteries in Greece. Several Eastern Orthodox monasteries are part of the complex, located in Kalambaka, Greece. The site is almost as important as Mount Athos. The monasteries are built on natural sandstone rock pillars, at the northwestern edge of the Plain of Thessaly in central Greece. The Metéora is home to six monasteries and is included on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

⑩ Cape Sounion

Cape Sounion is a promontory located 70 km southeast of Athens, at the southernmost tip of the Attic Peninsula in Greece.

Cape Sounion is noted as the site of ruins of an ancient Greek temple of Poseidon, the god of the sea in classical mythology. The remains are perched on the headland, surrounded on three sides by the sea. The ruins bear the deeply engraved name of English Romantic poet Lord Byron.

The site is a popular day excursion for tourists from Athens, with the sunset over the Aegean Sea, as viewed from the ruins, a sought-after spectacle.

3.2 Greek Myths

Greek mythology is the origin of Western culture. It is a large collection of stories, starting in ancient Greece, about the beginning of the world, and the lives and adventures of gods, goddesses, heroes and heroines.

These stories initially were transmitted in an oral-poetic tradition. Today the Greek myths are known primarily from Greek literature. The oldest known Greek literary sources, Homer's epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on the Trojan War and its aftermath.

The gods and goddesses in Greek mythology have special parts in the world. For instance, Zeus is the god of the sky, Poseidon is the god of the sea and Hephaistos is the god of fire. They can make themselves invisible to humans and move to any place in a very short time. The gods and goddesses also never get sick and can only be hurt by very unusual causes. This is called being immortal. The king of the gods is Zeus, who lives with the other gods on top of Mt. Olympus in Greece. The gods are children of the Titans such as Cronus and Rhea.

Greek mythology has twelve main gods/goddesses known as the Twelve Olympians, including Zeus, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, Ares, Hephaistos, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hermes and Dionysus. It's said that the goddess Hestia gave up her throne for Dionysus. And Hades, in some myths, is not regarded as one of the Twelve Olympians. Instead, Demeter is. Before them there were the twelve Titans led by the youngest Titan, Cronus.

There are lots of monsters in Greek mythology. Many are hybrids of animals or people. Some important Greek monsters are Minotaur[17], Satyrs[18], Centaurs and Chimera[19]. Hybrid animals are called chimeras sometimes because of the monster.

3.2.1 The Twelve Olympians

Greek mythology has twelve main gods known as the Twelve Olympians.

Fig. 1-1 The Twelve Olympians

(1) Zeus (Jupiter, in Roman Mythology)

Zeus is the king of gods, the god of the sky and thunder, and the ruler of Mount Olympus in Greek mythology. He is the sixth child of his parents Cronus, the ruler of the Titans, and Rhea. When Zeus grew up, he overthrew his father Cronus and became king of gods as predicted.

He was praised all throughout ancient Greece and was regarded with utmost respect. He is the most important god of all the Twelve Olympians. Zeus controls the weather and can order any god or mortal, except the Fates. It is said that he would use a powerful lightning bolt when being angered.

He married his sister Hera, but had many affairs and children with many other women, both goddesses and mortals. This angered Hera greatly, and she often tried to have revenge on his half-god children.

His brothers are Poseidon and Hades. He agreed to share the world with them, so Zeus got the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld.

Zeus’ sisters are Hera, Demeter and Hestia.

(2) Hera (Juno)

In Greek mythology, Hera is the goddess of marriage, life and love. Hera is also a goddess of the sky and starry heavens. She is the sister and wife of Zeus. The ancient Greeks said that Hera is the most beautiful goddess, even prettier than Aphrodite. The name Hera means "beautiful lady”. Her own special signs are the peacock, the pomegranate and the cow. Her other important items are the crown and veil. Hera has one daughter and two sons, Hebe, Ares and Hephaistos. Athena is her stepdaughter. Hermes is her stepson. Hera is the queen of all the Greek gods and goddesses. She is often thought of as being wise and serious. Hera is also called the "Queen of Heaven” because she rules over Mount Olympus where all the gods and goddesses live. Long before her marriage to Zeus, she ruled over the Heaven and the Earth. She is responsible for every living thing, including seasons and weather. In most stories, myths and legends, Hera (Juno) is the goddess of marriage.

(3) Hades (Pluto)

In Greek mythology, Hades is the god of the underworld. In his Roman form, he is also the god of riches and despair.

Hades is the brother of Zeus, Poseidon, Hestia, Hera and Demeter. He owns the three(-?)headed dog Cerberus, who acts somewhat as a guardian of the underworld.

In some myths, Hades is not regarded as one of the Twelve Olympians. Instead, Demeter (Ceres, in Roman mythology), the goddess of agriculture and grain, is.

(4) Poseidon (Neptune)

In Greek mythology, Poseidon is the god of the sea. He is the brother of Zeus, Hades, Hestia, Demeter and Hera. His home is Mount Olympus and all the water on earth. Poseidon is depicted as a mature man with a strong body and dark beard holding a trident (a three(-?)pronged fisherman's spear). He is also called the Sea Swimmer, the Earth Shaker and Father of Many Heroes. He is very strong and masculine. Poseidon is also said to have created horses. So people believed that in the Trojan War the Greeks chose a hollow horse (the Trojan Horse) as a trick so that Poseidon would ensure them a safe trip back to Greece.

Poseidon is the second son of Titans Cronus and Rhea. In most accounts, he was swallowed by Cronus at birth but later saved by Zeus, with his other brothers and sisters.

Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the Oracle at Delphi before Olympian Apollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the lustral water for the foundation sacrifice. Poseidon and Apollo helped build the walls of the city of Troy, but when King Laomedon refused the payment he had promised, Poseidon sent a sea monster to destroy the land.

In the movie Troy, Poseidon is mentioned repeatedly. People often see that sailors pray to Poseidon for a safe voyage.

Poseidon is a major god of several cities: in Athens, he is second only to Athena in importance, while in Corinth and many cities of Magna Graecia[20] he is the chief god of the city.

In his nice aspect, Poseidon was seen as creating new islands and offering calm seas. When offended or ignored, he supposedly threw his trident and caused chaotic springs, earthquakes, drownings and shipwrecks. Sailors prayed to Poseidon for a safe voyage, sometimes drowning horses as a sacrifice. It is said that Alexander the Great paused at the Syrian seashore before the climactic battle of Issus and turned to prayers, "invoking Poseidon, the sea god, for whom he ordered a four-horse chariot to be cast into the waves”.

Fig. 1-2 A Statue of Poseidon in the Port of Copenhagen

(5) Ares (Mars)

Ares is the god of war in Greek mythology. He is the god of savage war and bloodlust, and represents the untamed, wild aspects of conflict. His parents are Zeus and Hera. Neither parent likes him. He is considered murderous and bloody. In the Trojan War, he fought on the side of Troy. He has six children with Aphrodite. His homeland is Thrace.

(6) Hephaistos (Vulcan)

Hephaistos is the god of fire, metalworking and sculpture.

(7) Athena (Minerva)

Athena is the Greek goddess of wisdom and strategy. Athena's symbol is the owl, the wisest of the birds. She also has a shield called Aegis[21], which is a present given to her by her father Zeus. She is often shown with her helmet on and with her shield, which has Medusa[22]'s head on it. This is a present to her from Perseus[23].

Athena is the protector of Athens, Greece, a city named after her. The Parthenon, which is

on the Acropolis in Athens, is her most famous temple. She also helped many heroes, including Heracles, Jason and Odysseus, and she is always seen with Nike, the goddess of victory.

(8) Apollo (Apollo)

Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympians in classical Greek and Roman religion and mythology. Apollo has been variously recognised as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and he has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. He is the leader of the Muses. During the 5th century BC, Apollo became also known as the god of the sun, becoming one with the god Helios, and getting the name Phoebus. He is shown as a young man, wearing a laurel wreath and playing the kithara[24] (lyre), which is known as his symbol. His other symbols include the raven. Sometimes he is known as the god of fire but this title is also given to Hephaistos (Vulcan in Roman mythology).

(9) Artemis (Diana)

Artemis is the goddess of hunting, animals and childbirth.

(10) Aphrodite (Venus)

Aphrodite (Greek meaning "risen from sea foam”) is the goddess of love and beauty in Greek mythology. Many artists chose to portray her as a naked woman, or with very little clothing.

The major theory of Aphrodite's birth is that she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. Another theory states that Aphrodite was born from sea foam near Paphos, Cyprus. She appeared from the sea.

(11) Hermes (Mercury)

Hermes is the god of travel, hospitality and trade, and he is Zeus’ personal messenger.

(12) Dionysus (Bacchus)

Dionysus is the god of wine, pleasure and festivity.

3.2.2 Some Greek Myths

(1) Myth of the Sun

The Greeks believe that the sun is pulled across the sky by a chariot driven by Apollo. Apollo is the brother of Artemis (the goddess of the hunt and the moon) and he himself is the god of light, archery, poetry and prophecies. Every day, Apollo would drive the chariot of the sun across the sky and provide light and heat for the Greek people.

However, the myth has another version. Helios is the personification of the sun in Greek mythology. He is described as a handsome Titan crowned with the shining aureole of the sun, who drives the chariot of the sun across the sky each day to earth-circling Oceanus and through the world-ocean returns to the East at night. In the Homeric hymn to Helios, Helios is said to drive a golden chariot drawn by steeds. The best-known story involving Helios is that of his son Phaethon, who attempted to drive his father's chariot but lost control and set the earth on fire.

As time passed, Helios was increasingly identified with the god of light, Apollo. However, in spite of their mixture, they are also often viewed as two distinct gods/Titans (Helios is a Titan, whereas Apollo is an Olympian.).

(2) Myth of Greek Creation

The Ancient Greeks believed that in the beginning, the world was in a state of nothingness, which they called chaos. Suddenly, from light, came Gaia (mother earth) and Uranus[25] (the sky). Gaia and Uranus have six sets of twins. The most important of the twelve children are Cronus and Rhea.

Gaia gave birth to some monsters called Cyclops. Uranus disliked the Cyclops, so he forced Gaia to keep them in her womb. Gaia, angered by the pain that Uranus had put her through by holding babies in her womb, sought revenge on him. She used her son Cronus, who chopped off Uranus’ genitals. Cronus threw Uranus into the ocean. From the blood of his genitals came the goddess of love and beauty—Aphrodite.

Cronus married his sister Rhea and gave birth to six children who are called the gods. Afraid of a prophecy delivered to him a while ago, Cronus swallowed each of his children each time they were born. Rhea did not like this, so she saved Zeus and gave Cronus a rock to eat instead. Zeus was raised by a centaur named Chiron, also the son of Cronus, in a mountain cave. When Zeus was old enough, he tricked Cronus into drinking a mixture of wine and mustard. Cronus vomited up the rest of the gods, who, being immortal, had been growing up completely undigested in Cronus’ stomach. Zeus then banished Cronus to Tartarus.

Zeus was from then on the leader of the gods, and created man for his own entertainment.

3.2.3 Influence on Modern Life

Greek mythology was a part of the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars study the myths in an attempt to shed light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece and its civilization, and to have a better understanding of the nature of myth-making itself.

Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in ancient Greece. Greeks regard mythology as a part of their history. They use myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships. It is a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubt that there is truth behind the account of the Trojan War in Iliad and Odyssey.

The elements of Greek mythology have appeared many times in culture, even pop culture. The Greek myths had originally been adopted into the culture of ancient Rome, and have been frequently incorporated by Western cultural movements since then, particularly since the Renaissance. Mythological elements have been used in Renaissance art and English poems, as well as movies and literature, and songs and commercials. Along with the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, the myths of Greece and Rome have been the major "touchstone" in Western culture for the past 500 years.

These elements include the gods of various stature, humans, demigods, Titans, giants, monsters, nymphs and famed locations. The use of these elements can range from a brief allusion to the use of the actual Greek character as a character in a work. Some types of creatures—such as centaurs and nymphs—are used as a generic type rather than individuated characters out of myth.

Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.

In modern society, many consumer products get their names from Greek mythology. Nike sneakers are the namesake of the goddess of victory, for example, and the website Amazon.com is named after the race of mythical female warriors. In the Western world, many high school, college and professional sports teams (Titans, Spartans and Trojans, for instance) also get their names from mythological sources.

In addition, the twelve astrological Zodiac signs are closely associated with Greek mythology.

3.3 Homer's Epics

3.3.1 Legend of Homer

Homer is best-known as the author of Iliad and Odyssey. He was believed by the ancient Greeks to have been the first and greatest of the epic poets. Author of the first known literature of Europe, he is central to the Western canon.

The date of Homer's existence is not known. That is, when he lived, as well as whether he lived at all, is unknown. We know little about Homer, and the later Greeks also knew little about him. Some have doubted he was a real person; others think he was a woman. As a legend goes, he was a blind poet who lived in Ionia. But there is no definite evidence for any of these ideas. Some scholars place him at around 850 BC or later while other scholars place him at 1102 BC, 168 years after the fall of Troy in 1270 BC. These two end points are 252 years apart, representative of the differences in dates given by other sources.

What makes the history of this period so difficult is that the Mycenaean Civilization was followed by several hundred years of decline, from which little or no writing has survived. This period, the Greek Dark Age, ended around 800 BC, when once again we find Greek writing, though this time in their newly developed alphabetic script. Therefore, there is a distinct possibility that the Homeric epics had a life, perhaps a long life, as oral literature, spoken by story-tellers.

The profound knowledge of the Homeric epos is considered by the Greeks the basis of their culture. Homer is the "education of Greece”, and his poetry "the Book”.

The importance of Homer to the ancient Greeks is described in Plato's Republic, in which he is referred to as the "first teacher” of tragedy, the "leader of learning”, and the one who "has taught Greece”. Homer's works, which are about fifty percent speeches, provided models in persuasive speaking and writing that were emulated throughout the ancient and medieval Greek world.

Aristotle remarks in his Poetics that Homer was unique among the poets of his time, focusing on a single unified theme or action in the epic cycle.

3.3.2 Great Homeric Epics

It is generally believed that the Greek poet Homer wrote the epic poems, i.e. Iliad and Odyssey. These are the earliest works of Greek literature which have survived to the present day, and are among the greatest treasures of the ancient world. They are a product of Mycenaean culture. Iliad tells the story of the Trojan War which took place around 1190 BC. And Odyssey is about Odysseus’ ten-year-long voyage home after the War. The manuscripts of Homer were written much later, probably later than 800 BC.

(1) Iliad

① Brief Introduction

Iliadis the oldest surviving work of Greek literature. It is an oral epic poem (or very long) poem, with 24 chapters written in hexameters[26]. It is probably based on a real event, the attack on Troy by the Greeks. The poem includes early Greek myths and legends. The traditional writer of Iliad is Homer. However, scholars are not sure if the poem was really written by just one person.

The story happens during the Trojan War. It talks about the confrontations of the warrior Achilles and King Agamemnon. The story is only about a few weeks after the end of the war, but it also talks about many of the Greek myths about the war. It tells the stories from the anger of Achilles, the death and funeral of Hector and the siege of Troy.

Some important characters in Iliad are Achilles, Odysseus, Agamemnon, Menelaus, Priam, Hector, Paris and Helen.

② Plot

The poem starts with the god Apollo having sent a plague to the Greeks, because they captured the daughter of one of his priests. Agamemnon is forced to give her back, but also takes away Briseis from her owner Achilles. Achilles is angry and refuses to fight. But when his friend Patroclus is killed by Hector, he starts to fight again and kills Hector in a duel. Later Hector's father Priam comes in secret to Achilles to take back his favourite son's body to give it a proper funeral, which is allowed by Achilles. The poem ends with the funeral of Hector.

(2) Odyssey

① Brief Introduction

Odysseyis a major ancient Greek epic poem. In its origin, it was an oral epic poem from Mycenaean Greece, at about the 11th century BC. The hero of the poem is Odysseus; the poem is mythological, not historical.

② Plot

The poem is the story about Odysseus’ ten-year-long voyage home to Ithaca after the Trojan War.

On his journey home, Odysseus lands on the island of the Cyclops Polyphemus. Odysseus and his men go inside Polyphemus’ cave at the sight of sheep, cheese and milk. Polyphemus catches them and eats some of Odysseus’ men. Odysseus and his men trick and blind Polyphemus and then escape. The Cyclops prays to his father Poseidon that Odysseus would get home to Ithaca and if he was fated to make it home, he would lose his men and his ship and would find trouble at home. This prayer becomes the plot line of Odyssey.

Along the way, Odysseus and his men have to fight monsters and many other dangers.

Odysseus finally returns to his hometown Ithaca where he disguises himself as a beggar. He goes to his home and meets his son Telemachus. Together they kill the suitors, who are trying to marry Penelope, Odysseus’ wife, in order to gain his kingdom. Later, the families of the suitors come to kill Odysseus for revenge. The goddess Athena helps Odysseus by making them stop and give up the fight.

(3) Conclusion

Homeric epics are a product of Mycenaean culture. The unique of Homer is due in great measure to his use of hexameter verse. Not being fluctuant or monotonous is perhaps the best proof of his unequalled poetic skill. The plainness and directness of both thought and expression which characterise him were doubtless qualities of his age.

His poetry is not in any true sense ballad poetry. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer's epics from all forms of ballad poetry and popular epics.

In Homer's works, the interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion; the war turns on no political events; the capture of Troy lies outside the range of Iliad; and even the main characters are not Greek. So far as can be seen, the chief interest in Homer's works is that of human feeling and emotion, and of drama; indeed, his works are often referred to as dramas.

The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to Antiquity. The aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over thousands of years. In the last few centuries, they have been around the process by which the Homeric poems came into existence and were transmitted over time to us, first orally and later in writing.

3.4 Trojan War

3.4.1 City of Troy

Troy is the setting of the Trojan War. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War broke out between the city of Troy and Mycenaean Greece.

(1) Did Troy Ever Really Exist?

With the rise of critical history, Troy and the Trojan War were, for a long time, considered only a legend. However, the true location of ancient Troy has from classical times remained the subject of interest and guess.

There is archaeological evidence that Troy existed. The site of Troy has been discovered and excavated. Therefore, it is a fair guess that the epic began as a long oral poem based on the siege of Troy, but with details added and changed as time went on.

Troy was a city situated in what is known from classical sources as Asia Minor, now northwest Anatolia[27] in modern Turkey. It was located on the northeastern Aegean Sea coast.

Today, Troy is the name of an archaeological site, the location of Homeric Troy. The archaeological site of Troy was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1998.

(2) The Discovery of Schliemann

When we mention the search for Troy, we have to mention Heinrich Schliemann. Heinrich Schliemann was a German businessman and a pioneer in the field of archaeology. He was interested in history and the tales of Iliad and Odyssey since childhood. He later claimed that at the age of 8, he had declared he would one day excavate the city of Troy. Out of the childhood dream, he gave up his business career and devoted to the archaeological career.

His findings in archaeology has attracted worldwide attention, which confirms the real existence of Troy, Mycenae and Tiryns which were, for a long time, regarded as the kingdom of literary fiction by Homer. His findings give a new important chapter to ancient Greek history, and lay a foundation for Homer archaeology.

After Schliemann, the site of Troy was further excavated.

3.4.2 Real Reasons for the War

In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Greeks after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, King of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably through Homer's Iliad.

Most people believe that the abduction of beautiful Helen, wife of Spartan King Menelaus, by Paris of Troy triggers a long war. Some other people hold another opinion that Helen was not the real reason of the Trojan War but rather the Judgement of Paris (also known as the Apple of Discord). But can either of the two accounts be the real reason for the Trojan War?

Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece. Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region. A 14th-century shipwreck off the coast of southern Asia Minor displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that Mycenaean Greece needed.

Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea. Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia on the eastern Black Sea coast.

Perhaps it was the trade between Mycenaean Greece and Troy that made Greeks know Troy was a rich city. In fact, Troy was so rich that it was said that Agamemnon, King of Greece, had wanted to conquer Troy for a long time since taking Troy would give him control of the Aegean Sea.

Because of Helen's decision to be with Paris, two great empires were given a reason to go to war that lasted for a decade.

3.4.3 Major Characters in the Trojan War

Fig. 1-3 Major Characters in the Trojan War

(1) Helen of Troy

In Greek mythology, Helen is considered the most beautiful woman in the world. Helen of Troy, also known as Helen of Sparta, is the daughter of Zeus and Leda. In the form of a swan, Zeus was chased by an eagle, and sought refuge with Leda. The swan gained her affection, and the two mated. Leda then produced an egg, from which Helen emerged.

When it was time for Helen to marry, many kings and princes from around the world came to seek her hand. Menelaus, her future husband, did not attend but sent his brother, Agamemnon, to represent him. Achilles is said to be too young at the time to take part in the contest. Odysseus was one of the suitors, but had brought no gifts because he believed he had little chance to win the contest. Odysseus proposed that, before the decision was made, all the suitors should swear a most solemn oath to defend the chosen husband against whoever should quarrel with him. Then Menelaus was chosen to be Helen's husband. Helen and Menelaus became rulers of Sparta, after Tyndareus, Helen's nominal father and Leda, Helen's mother abdicated. Menelaus and Helen ruled in Sparta for at least ten years.

Later Paris, a Trojan prince, came to Sparta and Helen was taken away by Paris to Troy. When he discovered that his wife was missing, Menelaus called upon all the other suitors to fulfill their oaths, thus beginning the Trojan War.

The legends telling Helen's fate in Troy are contradictory. Homer depicts her as a wistful, even a sorrowful figure, coming to regret her choice and wishing to be reunited with Menelaus.

Helen's beauty inspires artists of all time to represent her, frequently as the personification of ideal beauty. Christopher Marlowe's lines from The Tragedy of Doctor Faustus[28] are frequently cited: "Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships/And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?” Images of her started appearing in the 7th century BC. In Classical Greece, her abduction by—or elopement with—Paris was a popular topic. In medieval illustrations, this event was frequently portrayed as a seduction, whereas in Renaissance painting it was usually depicted as a rape by Paris.

The word origin of Helen's name continues to be a puzzle. Some scholars related Helen to the moon because "Helen” in Greek is similar to "moon” in form. Other scholars considered the word "Helen” in Greek to derive from a similar noun meaning "torch”. It has also been suggested that the name in Greek is connected with the root of Venus.

In fact, there is another important coincidence—a connection between the name of Helen and the name by which the Classical Greeks commonly described themselves, namely Hellenic or Hellenistic.

In modern English, the term "Helen of Troy” refers to "a beautiful girl or woman”; "a beauty who ruins her country”; also "a terrible disaster brought by somebody or something you like best”. (2) Greek Alliance

The ten years of the Trojan War witnessed the ups and downs of the important characters in both sides, some of whom were regarded as heroes, some as leaders, some as counselors.

Important characters in Greek Alliance include Agamemnon, Achilles and Odysseus.

① Agamemnon

Agamemnon was king of Mycenae, a figure in Greek mythology, and possibly an actual person. He led the Mycenaean Greeks who took part in the Trojan War (Siege of Troy).

Agamemnon was the brother of Menelaus. His wife was Clytemnestra, Helen's sister. When Helen, the wife of Menelaus, ran off with Paris of Troy, Agamemnon commanded the united Greek armed forces in the following Trojan War. Agamemnon was the commander-in(-?)chief of the Greeks during the Trojan War. There happened a quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the final year of the war because Agamemnon stole an attractive slave called Briseis, one of the war prizes, from Achilles. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, once withdrew from battle in response to Agamemnon's supposedly evil deed.

Although not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon was a representative of "kingly authority”. As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. He was the sole fighter on the field, and he fought on until he was wounded and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault was his overwhelming pride—an over-good opinion of his position that led him to insult Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks.

After the Trojan War he took Troy's princess Cassandra as a slave. She warned him that his wife Clytemnestra would kill him, but he would not believe her. Upon Agamemnon's return from Troy, he was really murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover.

② Achilles

In Greek mythology, Achilles was the greatest warrior of the Achaean Greeks in their struggle against the Trojans in the Trojan War. His story is at the center of Iliad, which starts with the dispute between Achilles and Agamemnon, commander of the united Greek armed forces.

Achilles, believing that Agamemnon had dishonoured him, did not wish to bow to the King's leadership. He sat out the battle until the Trojans had almost won the war. Then he entered the battle. He killed the great Hector, the son of Priam, and the Trojans’ greatest hero. The tide of battle turned against the Trojans, and many were slaughtered.

Achilles’ most notable feat during the Trojan War was the killing of the Trojan hero Hector outside the gates of Troy. According to the legend, Achilles was killed by Paris, Hector's younger brother, who shot his heel with a poisoned arrow.

Achilles’ name can be analyzed as a combination of "grief” and "a people, tribe, nation”. In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles’ role as the hero of grief forms an ironic coexistence with the traditional view of Achilles as the hero of "glory”.

③ Odysseus

In the Greek mythology, Odysseus was the King of the island Ithaca, and he was married to Penelope. They had a son called Telemachus. Odysseus is a major character in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

Odysseus fought in the Trojan War, and invented the Trojan Horse, which helped the Greeks win the war. After the war, he spent ten years finding his way back home. The story of that journey is told in Odyssey.

Odysseus was one of the most influential Greek champions during the Trojan War. Along with Nestor and Idomeneus, he was one of the most trusted counselors and advisors. He always championed the Greek cause, especially when the King was in question.

Odysseus has traditionally been viewed in Iliad as Achilles's opposite: while Achilles’anger is all-consuming and of a self-destructive nature, Odysseus is frequently viewed as a man of the mean, well-known for his self-restraint and diplomatic skills.

Perhaps Odysseus’ most famous contribution to the Greek war effort was devising the stratagem of the Trojan Horse, which allowed the Greek army to sneak into Troy under the cover of darkness.

(3) Trojan Army

Important characters in Trojan Army include Priam, Hector and Paris. ① Priam

In Greek mythology, Priam was the King of Troy during the Trojan War.

Priam had several wives, but his principal wife was Hecuba. With her he had his favourite son Hector, and their son Paris was the cause of the Trojan War.

When Hector was killed by Achilles, the Greek warrior treated the body with disrespect and refused to give it back. Zeus sent the god Hermes to help King Priam, Hector's father and the ruler of Troy, into the Greek camp. Priam tearfully begged Achilles to take pity on a father losing his son and return Hector's body, saying "I have endured what no one on earth has ever done before—I put my lips to the hands of the man who killed my son”. Deeply moved, Achilles turned kind and returned Hector's body to the Trojans. Both sides agreed to a temporary truce, and Achilles gave Priam leave to hold a proper funeral for Hector, complete with funeral games. He promised that no Greek would engage in combat for at least nine days, but on the twelfth day of peace, the mighty war between the Greeks and the Trojans would resume.

Priam was killed during the destruction of Troy by Achilles’ son Neoptolemus.

② Hector

In Greek mythology, Hector was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter of Troy in the Trojan War. He was the favourite son of King Priam of Troy and his wife Hecuba.

In the Trojan War, he was the leader of the Trojans in battle and their hero but was killed by Achilles.

During the European Middle Ages, Hector figured as one of the Nine Worthies, known not only for his courage but also for his noble and courtly nature. Indeed, Homer placed Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives. According to Iliad, Hector did not approve of the war between the Greeks and the Trojans.

For ten years, the Greeks besieged Troy and their allies in the east. Hector commanded the Trojan army, with a number of subordinates including Polydamas, and his brothers Deiphobus, Helenus and Paris. By all accounts, Hector was the best warrior the Trojans and all their allies could field, and his fighting prowess was admired by the Greeks and his own people alike.

Hector was killed by Achilles in the Trojan War. After his death, Achilles mistreated the body for the next twelve days. Priam, Hector's father, himself went to claim his son's body, and it was given full funeral honours. Even Helen mourned Hector, for he had always been kind to her and protected her from spite. The last lines of Iliad are dedicated to Hector's funeral. Homer concludes by referring to the Trojan prince as the "Breaker of Horses”.

③ Paris

Paris appears in a number of Greek legends. Probably, the best-known was his elopement with Helen, Queen of Sparta, this being one of the immediate causes of the Trojan War.

Paris is an important person in the Trojan War in Greek mythology and Homer's Iliad. Because it was prophesied that he would bring the end and destruction of Troy, he was left to die in the wilderness when he was born. But he was found by another man, who took him as a son and named him Paris. The name Paris is probably Luwian.

In the Trojan War, Paris killed Achilles by shooting his heel with a poisoned arrow.

3.4.4 Praise or Condemnation of Trojan Horse

Some people say the Trojan Horse brings the Greeks great victory while others believe the famous wooden horse brings the city of Troy into ashes and brings death to the Trojans.

The Trojan Horse is a large wooden horse from the Trojan War in Greek mythology. In the Trojan War, the Greeks were fighting against the city of Troy. The war started when Helen, the queen of Sparta, eloped with Paris, prince of Troy. The Greeks waged war on Troy to win Helen of Troy back.

The Greeks could not enter the city or win the war. Because of this, Odysseus, one of the Grecian leaders, thought of a way to trick the Trojans. The Greeks built a large wooden horse out of a ship and left it outside the gates of the city as a present for the Trojans, and then sailed away. The Greek ships hid behind a nearby land mass. The Trojans took the horse and put it inside their city, thinking it was a victory gift from the Greeks. The Trojans had a festival to celebrate their victory. It is said that Odysseus chose a horse as a trick so that Poseidon (god of the sea and creator of horses) would ensure them a safe trip back to Greece. That night after the Trojan victory festival ended, the Greek force hiding inside the horse crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under the cover of night. The Greeks easily overpowered the unsuspecting Trojans and took control of the city. They destroyed the city of Troy, decisively ending the war. Because of the Trojan Horse, the Greeks won the Trojan War.

The famous wooden horse's entry to the gates of Troy brought the Greeks great victory but it also brought the city of Troy into ashes and brought the devastating massacre to the Trojans.

There is archaeological evidence that the story of the Trojan Horse was in existence prior to the writing of those accounts.

Today, the phrase "Trojan Horse” is used for things that are similar to that story: something that looks good, but in truth has another purpose, usually bad. In computing, a "Trojan Horse”, or "Trojan” is any malicious computer program which misleads users of its true intent.

4 Exercises

4.1 Multiple Choices

(1) Metaphorically, “__________” has come to mean any trick or stratagem that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected bastion or place.

A. a Trojan Horse

B. Helen of Troy

C. an Achilles’ Heel

D. a Golden Apple

(2) In Greek mythology, the king of the gods is __________, who lives with the other gods on top of Mt. Olympus in Greece.

A. Apollo

B. Zeus

C. Hera

D. Poseidon

(3) In Greek mythology, __________was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War.

A. Paris

B. Hector

C. Achilles

D. Odysseus

(4) __________is a weakness in spite of overall strength, which can actually or potentially lead to downfall.

A. An Achilles’ Heel

B. The Trojan Horse

C. Helen of Troy

D. A Golden Apple

(5) Homer is the name of the Greek poet who wrote the epic poems __________ and Odyssey.

A. Trojan War

B. Greek Myths

C. Achilles

D. Iliad

(6) __________refers to the last phase of the Bronze Age in ancient Greece (1600 BC–1100 BC). It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece.

A. Mycenaean Civilization

B. Classical Greece

C. Aegean Civilization

D. The Roman Empire

(7) Aegean Civilization is a general term for the Bronze Age Civilizations of Greece around __________.

A. Crete

B. Mycenae

C. the Greek mainland

D. the Aegean Sea

(8) Mycenaean is the oldest known form of the Greek language. It was spoken on the Greek mainland and on Crete in the Mycenaean period. The language is written on clay tablets in a script called __________.

A. Linear A

B. Linear B

C. Linear C

D. Linear D

(9) __________is generally considered to be the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered as the cradle of Western civilization.

A. Classical Greek Culture

B. Ancient Roman Culture

C. Greek Dark Ages

D. The Byzantine Era

(10) In Ancient Greece, the men of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics and __________.

A. free-born men

B. women

C. residents born elsewhere

D. slaves

(11) The famous ancient Greek Olympic Games were held at Olympia every four years. __________ were not allowed to attend, even as spectators.

A. Women

B. Slaves

C. Residents born elsewhere

D. Free-born men

(12) Ancient Greek architecture is best-known for its __________, many of which are found throughout the region, mostly as ruins but many substantially intact.

A. open-air theatres

B. public monuments

C. temples

D. public squares

(13) According to Iliad, when the world was divided by lot in three, Zeus received the sky, Hades the underworld and __________ the sea.

A. Apollo

B. Ares

C. Poseidon

D. Hermes

(14) In Greek mythology, there are twelve main gods known as the Twelve Olympians, one of whom is Aphrodite, goddess of beauty and love. She is __________ in Roman mythology.

A. Hera

B. Diana

C. Athena

D. Venus

(15) __________was the greatest warrior of the Achaean Greeks in their struggle against the Trojans in the Trojan War. His story is at the center of Iliad.

A. Achilles

B. Agamemnon

C. Hector

D. Odysseus

(16) __________is an expression meaning "a terrible disaster brought by somebody or something you like best”.

A. A Trojan Horse

B. Helen of Troy

C. An Achilles’ Heel

D. A Golden Apple

(17) Troy was a city in northwest __________. It was the center of the Trojan War.

A. Europe

B. Peloponnese Peninsula

C. Asia Minor

D. Greece

(18) The Trojan War, one of the greatest wars in the history of ancient Greece, happened between the Trojans and the Achaeans in about __________.

A. the 8th century BC

B. the 10th century BC

C. the 12th century BC

D. the 14th century BC

(19) In Greek mythology, __________was Queen of Sparta. Later, she was taken away by Paris to Troy. This was one of the main causes of the Trojan War.

A. Thetis

B. Helen

C. Athena

D. Hecuba

(20) Achilles’ story is at the center of Iliad, which starts with the dispute between Achilles and Agamemnon, __________.

A. King of Greece

B. King of Troy

C. King of Sparta

D. King of Athens

4.2 Questions for Discussion

(1) Most people believe that the abduction of beautiful Helen, wife of Spartan King Menelaus, by Paris of Troy triggered the Trojan War. Other people hold different opinions. What do you think are the real reasons for the war?

(2) In fact, the ancient European battlefield has its own features. Can you state the characteristics of the ancient battlefield in Europe?

(3) Ancient Greek civilization provides the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered as the cradle of Western civilization. Do you agree with the statement?

(4) Movies are always created from the fact while they are really different from the fact. Can you find some points in the movie Troy contrary to historical facts?

(5) Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts and literature of Western civilization. Can you explain the influence of Greek mythology on Western culture and even the world culture?

[1] clay tablets: 泥板。Linear B script was first discovered on clay tablets among the ruins of the Palace of Minos at Knossos, Crete.

[2] Michael Ventris: Michael Ventris (July 12, 1922–September 6, 1956) was an English architect, classicist and philologist who deciphered Linear B, the ancient Mycenaean Greek script.

[3] phonetic value: 音值。Phonetic value, compared to phonemes, is the voice actually pronounced or heard by someone.

[4] archaic smile: 古风式微笑。Archaic smile refers to the smile that characteristically appears on the faces of Greek statues of the Archaic Period.

[5] Delian League: 提洛同盟。The Delian League, founded in 478 BC, was an association of Greek city-states. The League's modern name derives from its official meeting place, the island of Delos, where the treasury of the League stood.

[6] Plato's Academy: 柏拉图学院，雅典学院。The Academy was founded by Plato in 387 BC in Athens and persisted throughout some easy or difficult periods until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I.

[7] metics:（古雅典时期的）外邦人。

[8] Heraean Games: 赫拉运动会，古希腊女子奥运会。The ancient Heraean Games, dedicated to the goddess Hera (also spelled Heraia), were the first sanctioned (and recorded) women's athletic competition held in the stadium at Olympia, possibly in the Olympic year, prior to the men's events. It is dated as early as the 6th century BC. Some texts state that the Heraean Games were initially organised by Hippodameia, while Pelops, her husband, was the founder of ancient Olympic Games.

[9] friezes and pediments:（柱顶过梁和挑檐间的）雕带和（古希腊建筑门顶上的）三角顶饰。

[10] Nikolaus Pevsner: (January 30, 1902–August 18, 1983) a German, later British scholar of the history of art, and especially that of architecture.

[11] Roman columns/orders: 罗马柱。order:（建筑）柱式风格。

[12] Peloponnese: 伯罗奔尼撒半岛（希腊南部的摩里亚半岛）。

[13] Pythian Games: one of the four Panhellenic Games of Ancient Greece.

[14] Charioteer of Delphi: 德尔斐的双轮马车御手。The Charioteer of Delphi is one of the best-known statues surviving from Ancient Greece, and is considered one of the finest examples of ancient bronze sculptures. The life-size (1.8 m) statue of a chariot driver was found in 1896 at the Sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi. It is now in the Delphi Archaeological Museum.

[15] Dorians: one of the main ethnic divisions of Ancient Greeks.

[16] Luwian: an ancient language, or group of languages, within the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family.

[17] Minotaur: 牛头怪米诺陶诺斯。

[18] Satyrs: 半人半兽萨蒂尔，好色的森林之神。原型是半羊半人的牧神潘。

[19] Chimera: 四不像客迈拉。

[20] Magna Graecia: 大希腊，古希腊在意大利南部的殖民地。Magna Graecia was the name given by the Romans to the coastal areas of Southern Italy that were extensively populated by Greek settlers.

[21] Aegis: 宙斯盾。

[22] Medusa: 美杜莎，蛇发女妖。

[23] Perseus: 珀尔修斯。Perseus was a demigod, the son of Zeus. He was the great Greek hero who beheaded the Gorgon Medusa.

[24] kithara: The cithara (Latin) or kithara (Greek) was an ancient Greek musical instrument in the lyre or lyra family. In the text, it refers to “lyre”.

[25] Uranus: 天神，乌拉诺斯神；天王星。

[26] hexameters: 六步格，六音步诗行。Hexameter is a metrical line of verses consisting of six feet. It is the standard epic meter in classical Greek and Latin literature.

[27] Anatolia: 安纳托利亚，原名小亚细亚。

[28] The Tragedy of Doctor Faustus:《浮士德博士的悲剧》。The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus, commonly referred to simply as Doctor Faustus or The Tragedy of Doctor Faustus, is an Elizabethan tragedy by Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593).

Section Two Christian Cultur

—Kingdom of Heaven

Ten measures of beauty God gave to the world, nine to Jerusalem and one to the rest. Ten measures of suflering God gave to the world, nine to Jerusalem and one to the rest.

—The Talmud

1 Brief Introduction

1.1 Director and Stars

Director:

Ridley Scott

Stars:

Orlando Bloom as Balian

Eva Green as Sibylla

Edward Norton as Baldwin IV

1.2 Synopsis

The Crusade General Godfrey meets French blacksmith Balian on the way back to Jerusalem and recognises that Balian is just his long-lost illegitimate son. Balian, who is immersed in the pain of losing his wife and child, decides to follow his father's armies and then gains his reputation as a Crusade knight.

In the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Balian enjoys high favour from King Baldwin IV. What's more, he is also admired by the princess Sibylla, which also arouses the hatred from Sibylla's husband. Baldwin IV, suffering from severe illness—leprosy, is so concerned about the endless conflicts between Christians and Muslims that he sends Balian to defend the border city where the two groups inhabit together.

Soon, Baldwin IV dies and Sibylla's husband Guy comes to the throne. The belligerent king launches a war which outrages Muslim leader Saladin with millions of mighty force. Saladin's force masterfully defeats the Crusades and their next target is Muslim's holy land—Jerusalem. At such a critical time, Balian stands up, swearing to defend the kingdom of heaven.

2 Language Points

2.1 Words and Phrases

artiflcer

n.a skilled worker

技工，巧匠

e.g. Man is the artificer of his own happiness.

人之幸福，自己创造。

(Movie) You are an armorer, yes? An artificer according to your lord and this priest.

你是个造兵器的，是吗？听你的主人和这位牧师说你是工匠。

shoe

v.to put one or more horseshoes on a horse

给马钉蹄铁

e.g. The horses were sent to the blacksmith to be shod.

马送到铁匠那儿钉马掌去了。

(Movie) We need all these horses shod.

我们需要给所有的马钉上马掌。

proportionate

adj.increasing or decreasing in size, amount or degree according to changes in sth. else

成比例的；相应的

e.g. Increasing costs resulted in proportionate increases in prices.

成本增加使得价格相应提高。

(Movie) The pay is proportionate.

报酬是成比例的。

baron

n.a nobleman of the lowest rank

男爵（最低一级贵族）

e.g. I once carried a letter to a baron who seemed unwilling to receive it.

有一次，我送一封信给男爵，他似乎不太愿意收到此信。

(Movie) I am Godfrey, the baron of Ibelin.

我是高弗雷，伊贝林的男爵。

arms

n.weapons, especially used by the army

兵器；武器

e.g. Police officers in the UK do not usually carry arms.

英国警察通常不携带武器。

(Movie) I have 100 men at arms in Jerusalem.

我在耶路撒冷领兵一百。

erase

v.to remove sth. completely

清除；擦掉

e.g. She tried to erase the memory of that evening.

她试图忘却那天晚上的事。

(Movie) It's true in Jerusalem that I can erase my sin and those of my wife.

在耶路撒冷，真的可以抹掉我和我妻子的罪。

charge

v.to give sb. a responsibility or task

赋予某人职责或任务

e.g. The committee has been charged with the development of sport in the region.

委员会已被赋予在该地区发展体育运动的职责。

(Movie) I’m charged by both my father and the lord bishop to bring him back.

我奉我父亲和主教之命把他押回来。

give someone the road

to allow sb. to pass 允许某人通行

e.g. The policeman signaled to give the woman the road.

警察示意这位女士快速通过。

(Movie) You are my uncle. I must give you the road.

你是我叔叔，我必须让你通行。

flank

n.the left or right side of an army during a battle, or sports team during a game

(军队或运动队的) 侧面，侧翼

e.g. They continued along the flank of the mountain.

他们沿着山的侧面继续前进。

(Movie) To the flanks!

（注意）侧翼！

ransom

n.payment for the release of someone; the act of freeing from captivity or punishment

赎金；救赎

e.g. They are refusing to pay ransom for her release.

他们拒绝支付赎金来解救她。

(Movie) I am accorded the privilege of ransom.

我被给予赎罪的特权。

infldel

n.a person who does not acknowledge your god

异教徒

e.g. He promised to fight against the infidels.

他答应对抗异教徒。

(Movie) To kill an infidel, the Pope has said, is not murder.

杀异教徒，主教说过，不算谋杀。

crucify

v.to kill by nailing onto a cross

把人钉死在十字架上

e.g. With him they crucified two thieves.

他们把两个盗贼和他一同钉在十字架上。

(Movie) Where is it that Christ was crucified?

耶稣是在哪儿被钉死的？

God's grace

the kindness that God shows towards the human race

上帝的恩典

e.g. It was only by God's grace that they survived.

承蒙天恩，他们才幸免于难。

(Movie) I am outside God's grace.

上帝不再眷顾我。

put/take stock in

to trust or believe

相信，信任

e.g. He didn’t take much stock in fortune-tellers ordinarily.

他平素不大相信算命先生的话。

(Movie) I put no stock in religion.

我对宗教可没信心。

denomination

n.a branch of the Christian Church

(基督教)教派，宗教

e.g. Christians of all denominations attended the conference.

基督教所有教派的人都出席了这次会议。

(Movie) I’ve seen the lunacy of fanatics of every denomination be called the will of God.

我见过那些疯狂的教徒假借上帝之名为非作歹。

escort

v.to go with sb. to protect or guard them or to show them the way

护卫

e.g. The President arrived, escorted by 12 soldiers.

总统在十二名卫兵的护送下到达。

(Movie) I cannot protect your caravans unless you agree to be escorted by our soldiers.

我没法保护你的车队，除非你答应由我们的人护送。

lament

v.to feel great sadness or disappointment about

感到痛惜或失望

e.g. She sat alone weeping, lamenting her fate.

她独自坐着哭泣，哀叹自己的命运。

(Movie) My wife does not lament my absences.

我走了，我的夫人亦无动于衷。

flnicky

adj.too worried about what to eat, wear, etc.; disliking many things

对衣食过分讲究的；过分挑剔的

e.g. Even the most finicky eater will find something appetizing here.

即使最挑剔的食客也能在这儿找到开胃美食。

(Movie) I am finicky about company.

我对同伴可是很挑剔的。

leper

n.a person suffering from leprosy

麻风病患者

e.g. It is like the body of a leper.

它就像麻风病人的身体。

(Movie) He wept when he gave my father the news that I am a leper.

他哭着告诉我父亲我得了麻风病的消息。

vengeance

n.the act of punishing or harming sb. in return for what they have done to you, your family or friends

报复，复仇

e.g. He swore vengeance on his child's killer.

他发誓要找杀害他孩子的凶手报仇。

(Movie) This disease is God's vengeance against the vanity of our kingdom.

上帝用这疾病来惩罚我们王国的狂妄自大。

suflce

v.to be enough for sb. or sth.

足够，足以

e.g. One example will suffice to illustrate the point.

举一个例子就足以说明这一点。

(Movie) This will not suffice.

这还不够。

blasphemy

n.behaviour or language that insults or shows a lack of respect for God or religion

亵渎上帝，亵渎神明(的言行)

e.g. He has acted out every kind of blasphemy, including dressing up as the pope in Rome.

他做过各种亵渎行为，包括在罗马装扮成教皇。

(Movie) That's blasphemy.

真是亵渎神灵！

quake

v.to shake because of being frightened or nervous

（因恐惧或紧张）发抖，

哆嗦

e.g. Quaking with fear, Polly slowly opened the door.

波利吓得直发抖，慢慢地打开了门。

(Movie) When I’m not King, I quake for Islam.

当我不在位时，伊斯兰的前景更让我不寒而栗。

allegiance

n.a person's continued support for a political party, religion, ruler, etc.

(对政党、宗教、统治者等)忠诚，效忠，拥戴

e.g. People of various party allegiances joined the campaign.

各个不同政党的拥护者都参加了这次活动。

(Movie) He will be executed along with his knights who do not swear your allegiance.

他和那些拒绝效忠你的骑士都会被处死。

conscience

n.the part of your mind that tells you whether your actions are right or wrong

良知，良心

e.g. This is a matter of individual conscience.

这事关系个人的良知。

(Movie) It is a kingdom of conscience or nothing.

这个国家要么是仁义之国，要么便一无是处，不讲良知。

patriarch

n.a senior priest

牧首，主教

e.g. Religious observances began with the arrival of the Latin Patriarch, the head of the Roman Catholic Church in the Holy Land.

罗马天主教会驻圣地领袖拉丁大主教一到，宗教仪式就开始了。

(Movie) I am servant to the Patriarch.

我是主教的仆人。

terms

n.the conditions that people offer, demand or accept when they make an agreement, an arrangement or a contract

(协议、合同等的)

条件，条款

e.g. They failed to agree on the terms of the settlement.

他们未能就和解的条件达成协议。

(Movie) We must hold out to force him to offer terms.

我们必须坚持到底，逼他做出让步。

stand

n.a strong effort to defend

保卫，捍卫，抵抗

e.g. We must make a stand against further job losses.

我们必须采取措施，防止进一步裁员。

(Movie) This is where we will make our stand.

这里将是我们誓死捍卫的地方。

repent

v.to feel and show that you are sorry for sth. bad or wrong that you’ve done 忏

悔，悔过

e.g. God welcomes the sinner who repents.

上帝欢迎悔过的罪人。

(Movie) Convert to Islam. Repent later.

假意改信伊斯兰教，将来再悔过。

yield

v.to stop resisting sth. or sb.

屈服，让步

e.g. After a long siege, the town was forced to yield.

经过长时间包围，这座孤城被迫投降。

(Movie) Will you yield the city?

你会放弃该城吗？

2.2 Terms

(1) The Knights Templar

The Knights Templar or simply the Templars is the Christian religious Order founded during the Crusades. Originally established to protect pilgrims on their way to the recently(-?)conquered Holy Land, it soon became a major banking institution of unprecedented power, and so well-respected that even Muslims entrusted their money to it. Originally, the banking aspect was secondary, but pilgrims to the Holy Land needed some places safe to store their possessions while they were away and it soon became the Templars’ primary purpose. However, after the Holy Land was taken back from the Europeans, the Order's original purpose was lost. Rumours about the Templars’ secret initiation ceremony created distrust, and King Philip IV of France, deeply in debt to the Order, took advantage of the situation. In 1307, many of the Order's members in France were arrested, tortured into giving false confessions and then burned at the stake. Under pressure from King Philip, Pope Clement V disbanded the Order in 1312. The abrupt disappearance of a major part of the European infrastructure gave rise to speculation and legends, which have kept the "Templar” name alive into the modern day.

(2) The Siege of Jerusalem

It refers to a siege on the city of Jerusalem that lasted from September 20 to October 2, 1187 when Balian of Ibelin surrendered the city to Saladin. Citizens wishing to leave paid a ransom. The defeat of Jerusalem signaled the end of the first Kingdom of Jerusalem. Europe responded in 1189 by launching the Third Crusade led by Richard the Lionheart, Philip Augustus, and Frederick Barbarossa separately.

(3) Saracen

It was a term widely used among Christian writers in Europe during the Middle Ages. The term's meaning evolved during its history. In the early centuries, Greek and Latin writings used this term to refer to people who lived in desert areas in and near the Roman province of Arabia, and who were specifically distinguished as people from others known as Arabs. In Europe during the Early Medieval Era, the term came to be associated with Arab tribes as well. By the 12th century, "Saracen” had become synonymous with "Muslim” in Medieval Latin literature. Such expansion in the meaning of the term had begun centuries earlier among the Byzantine Greeks, as evidenced in documents from the 8th century. In the Western languages before the 16th century, "Saracen” was commonly used to refer to Muslim Arabs, and the words "Muslim” and "Islam” were generally not used (with a few isolated exceptions).

3 Cultural References

3.1 Christianity

3.1.1 Christianity at a Glance

Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians. The notion of "Europe” and the "Western World” has been closely connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom[1]”, and many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.

Christianity is a monotheistic religion[2] meaning it has only one God. It focuses on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament. Its followers, known as Christians, believe in the Trinity, which means that there are three different persons of the Godhead—the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. God created the world. Jesus Christ is the Son of God, a teacher, a role model as well as an incarnation of God. But most importantly, Christ is the savior of humanity who suffered, died and was resurrected to bring about salvation from sin.

Christians maintain that Jesus ascended into heaven during the Resurrection, and most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead, granting everlasting life to his followers. Christians call the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel which means "good news” and hence label the written accounts of his ministry as gospels, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke and John are considered canonical and included in the Christian Bible.

Like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is classified as an Abrahamic religion. It began as a Jewish sect in the Eastern Mediterranean in the mid-1st century, quickly growing in size and influence over a few decades, and by the end of the 4th century, it had become the official state church of the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was christianized, with Christians also being a (sometimes large) religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India. Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas and the rest of the world. Therefore, it has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization at least since the 4th century. It expanded throughout the world during Europe's Age of Exploration from the Renaissance onwards, becoming the world's largest religion. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion adherents, representing about a third of the world's population. So it is the most popular religion in the world.

Throughout its history, the religion has experienced schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct Churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the various denominations of Protestantism. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches split from each other in the schism of 1054 and then Protestantism came into existence during the Reformation of the 16th century, splitting from the Roman Catholic Church.

In summary, throughout its long history, the Christian Church has been a major source of social services like schooling and medical care; inspiration for art, culture and philosophy; and influential player in politics and religion. It has enormous influence on Western civilization. Therefore, to some extent, it is no exaggeration to say that without Christianity, there is no Western civilization.

3.1.2 The Three Branches of Christianity

It's well-known that through history the three main groups of Christianity have been the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Protestant churches. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes the others, but some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches. Actually, Christianity is a general term while Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Protestantism are the three largest branches of Christianity. In our country, Protestantism is accustomed to be called as Christianity in a broader sense. As a matter of fact, there are some connections as well as differences among them.

(1) Connections

• They all believe that there is only one God and God is Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Jesus Christ is the Messiah, the King of Heaven and even the savior of the entire world.

• They all believe that man has inherited "original sin” from Adam. Mankind then is inherently evil and is in need of forgiveness of their sin. God planned to send a savior who would die to provide the offer of forgiveness for the sins of all people.

• They all regard the Holy Bible, a collection of canonical books[3] in two parts (the Old Testament and the New Testament), as authoritative.

• They all believe in the Last Judgement or Judgement Day, when God will decree the fates of all individual humans according to the good and evil of their earthly lives.

(2) Differences

① Difference in History

Originally, Christianity had only one church. Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century, the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation, resulting in a schism dividing it into a so-called Latin or Western Christian branch—the Roman Catholic Church with Rome as a center, and an Eastern, largely Greek branch—the Orthodox Church with Constantinople[4] as a center. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical[5] and doctrinal issues, most notably papal primacy of jurisdiction[6]. Protestantism originated in northern Europe with the Reformation in the early 16th century, a movement against Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy.

② Diflerence in Religious Language

Catholicism takes Latin as its religious language, but allows different adherents in different native tongues as prayer. Orthodox Church initially used Greek as its religious language but right now it permits different native languages as prayer. Protestantism claims that the religious language comprises different native tongues ever since it has come into existence.

③ Diflerence in Qualiflcation for Clergy

All clergy in Catholicism are required to be male. Priests and Bishops must also be celibate. By contrast, Priests and Bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy must be male, but deaconesses[7] are permitted. Besides, priests and deacons may marry before ordination[8], but not after. Bishops, on the other hand, must be celibate. However, the majority of Protestants do not require celibacy as a condition of election to the clergy. Many churches practice female ordination, including those within the Anglican communion, where the issue of female episcopacy[9] is currently being discussed.

④ Diflerence in the Titles of the Clergy

Pope, Cardinal[10], Archbishop[11], Bishop, Priest, Monk and Deacon are the titles of the clergy in Catholicism. Pastor, Elder and Deacon are the major titles in Protestantism. In Orthodoxy, the titles usually are Patriarch and Priest.

⑤ Diflerence in Sacraments[12]

A sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace or blessing for the Christian who receives it. Most Catholics use seven sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation (Chrismation), the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus’ body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders (Ordination); Penance (Confession); Anointing of the Sick; Marriage. The number of sacraments is fixed at seven and it is the same list as that in Orthodoxy, with the exception of Chrismation, which is generally known as "Confirmation”. Generally, only two sacraments in Protestantism are recognised: Baptism and the Eucharist (often called "Holy Communion” or the "Lord's Supper”).

⑥ Diflerence in Holidays

There are almost the same holidays for both Catholic and Orthodox just with different expressions like Sunday (The Lord's Day), Advent[13], Christmas, Lent[14], Holy Week, Easter, Pentecost[15]. But there are only Christmas and Easter in Protestantism.

⑦ Diflerence in the Composition of the Bible

The contents and order of books of the Old Testament vary in different churches. Catholicism, like Orthodoxy, accepts the 39 Old Testament and 27 New Testament books, but also a collection of books which are not found in the original Hebrew Bible. These are known as Deuterocanonicals[16], i.e. a second canon of scripture. However, Protestants reject the deuterocanonicals as not being inspired scripture and term them Apocrypha[17] (Greek: "Hidden Things”).

⑧ Diflerence in Calendar

The Gregorian calendar[18] is used by both Roman Catholic and Protestant. Eastern Orthodoxy adopts the Julian calendar[19]. The Julian calendar began in 45 BC as a reform of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.

In short, Christianity is the mainstream of Western religion. It has gone through a long course of historical development and many branches therefore appeared. Divisions between one group and another are defined by doctrine and church authority. Issues such as the nature of Jesus, the authority of apostolic succession[20], eschatology[21] and papal primacy often separate one denomination from another. But groups of denominations often share broadly similar beliefs, practices and historical ties.

3.1.3 Christianity, Judaism and Islam

When it comes to Christianity, the other two religions must be mentioned together—Judaism and Islam. In fact, the three religions all belong to Abrahamic religions, which means all these religions come from one spiritual source by emphasizing and tracing their common origin to the tribal patriarch Abraham or recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him.

Abraham is recorded in the Torah[22] as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac[23] (from Abraham's first wife) by a promise made in Genesis. Jewish tradition claims descent from Abraham and adherents follow his practices and ideals as the first of the three spiritual "fathers”—Abraham, Isaac (Abraham's son) and Jacob[24] (Isaac's son). Muslims know Abraham as Ibrahim[25], and regard him as an important prophet of their faith. His son Ishmael[26] (from Abraham's second wife) is regarded as the father of the Arab people. Jewish tradition also equates the descendants of Ishmael with Arabs, as the descendants of Isaac by Jacob, who was also later known as Israel, are the Israelites. It thus can be seen that Abraham is the common ancestor to both the Jews and the Arabs. In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model of faith, and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus.

(1) Historical Development of the Three Religions

① Christianity

Christianity is rooted in Judaism but was founded by Jesus in the Palestinian territory in the breakaway from Judaism as an independent religion in 135 AD. Early Christianity had been subjected to cruel persecution and repression of the Roman emperors. In 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine I[27] issued "Edict of Milan[28]”, declaring common freedom with Christianity and all other religions, without discrimination. In 392, Christianity became the state religion of Roman Empire and gradually became the main spiritual pillar of European feudal society. In 1054, Christianity was split into the Roman Catholic and Orthodox. In the l6th century, the Reformation Movement broke out against the rule of the Pope. After these, the new sect, known as the "Protestant”, was split from the Catholic Church. So, Christianity is general of Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant.

The Christian holy book is the Bible, consisting of the Old and New Testaments. Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of God and God sent his Son to earth to save humanity from sins. One of the most important concepts in Christianity is that of Jesus giving his life on the cross (the Crucifixion) and rising from the dead on the third day (the Resurrection).

② Judaism

Judaism has its roots in the Middle East during the Bronze Age in 1500 BC. The history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. It was founded by Moses, although Jews trace their history back to Abraham. The place of origin is the Levant[29].

Jews believe that there is only one God with whom they have a covenant and God appointed the Jews to be his chosen people in order to set an example of holiness and ethical behaviour to the world. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship that God established with the children of Israel. It is among the oldest religious traditions still being practiced today, and many of its texts, traditions and values are central to other Abrahamic religions, namely Christianity and Islam. Many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law.

The most important religious document of Judaism is the Torah. The written Torah is often called the Tanakh[30]—the Jewish Bible, which Christians call the Old Testament.

It began as the religion of the small nation of the Hebrews, and through thousands of years of suffering, persecution, dispersion and occasional victory, has continued to be a profoundly influential religion and culture. There are around 13.1 million Jewish people in the world, most residing in the USA and Israel. Its holy land is Jerusalem.

③ Islam

Another monotheistic, Abrahamic religion—Islam, originating with the teachings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca[31], it quickly spread in the Arabian peninsula and by the 8th century, the Islamic Empire was extended from Iberia[32] in the west to the Indus River in the east. The Islamic Golden Age refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century when much of the historically Islamic world was experiencing a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing.

The word Islam means "submission” or the total surrender of oneself to God. An adherent of Islam is known as a Muslim, meaning "one who submits”. Muslims believe that there is only one and incomparable God. The Arabic word for God is Allah[33]. God revealed the Qur’an[34] to Muhammad, God's final prophet, through the angel Gabriel. Muslims believe that Islam has always existed, but for practical purposes, date their religion from the time of Muhammad. They do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.

Muslims base their laws on their holy book—the Qur’an, which is considered to be the unaltered and the final revelation of God. Religious concepts and practices include the Five Pillars of Islam[35]. These Pillars are the declaration of faith, praying five times a day, giving money to charity, fasting[36] and pilgrimage to Mecca (at least once). They are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, which touch on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare to family life and the environment.

Most Muslims are of two denominations: Sunni[37] (75%–90%) or Shia[38] (10%–20%). This split comes down to a political and spiritual difference of opinion about who should have succeeded Muhammad after his death in 632. With about 1.5 billion followers or 23% of the global population, Islam is the second largest religion by number of adherents and, according to many sources, the fastest-growing major religion in the world.

(2) Comparison of Christianity, Islam and Judaism

Christianity, Islam and Judaism are three of the most influential world religions in history. Since there are a few common roots and many common elements to the three religions, it is very necessary to know such things as what Christianity, Islam and Judaism believe about God, the universe, people and the afterlife, and how those convictions compare with each other. The tables below are intended to answer those questions. As a brief guide of the similarities and differences of Islam, Judaism and Christianity, the following tables compare the statistics, origins, history and religious beliefs of these three great monotheistic faiths. (It must be noted that, as with all tables of this kind, the information is oversimplified and should not be used as a sole resource.)

Table 2-1 Statistics and Basics

Table 2-2 Origins and History

Table 2-3 Religious Beliefs

(continued)

(continued)

Fig. 2-1 Star of David—the Symbol of Judaism

Fig. 2-2 Cross—the Symbol of Christianity

Fig. 2-3 Crescent with Name of Allah—the Symbol of Islam

From the tables above besides some basic information, some major similarities about religious beliefs that these three religions share can be seized for special attention. In regard to the belief about God, Judaism, Christianity and Islam are all monotheistic religions, namely they believe that there is only one God. Jews and Muslims greatly stress the oneness and unity of God. The affirmation of the oneness of God by Christians is sometimes misunderstood, because Christians believe that the one God is the Holy Trinity, i.e. there are three elements to this one God: God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. However, this is not a denial of monotheism but an affirmation of the complexity of the Divine Being.

In terms of knowing about God, the three religions believe that God and human beings can and should communicate with each other. By revelation, God communicates to people, among which the most important is revelation through prophets recorded in the Holy Scriptures of each religion. So in Judaism, Jews win the divine revelation through prophets recorded in the Hebrew Bible, Christians through prophets and Jesus recorded in the Bible and Muslims through God's final prophet Muhammad recorded in the Qur’an.

As to the identity of Jesus, Judaism takes him the false prophet, Islam admits Jesus to be the true prophet of God whose message has been corrupted, but Christianity regards Jesus as Son of God, God incarnation, Messiah[39], savior of the world. With respect to the death of Jesus, both Christianity and Judaism accept his death by crucifixion whereas Islam claims Jesus was not crucified, but was raised to Heaven by Allah. The resurrection of Jesus has been denied by both Judaism and Islam.

As for the views of fellow Abrahamic religions, Judaism views Islam and Christianity as false interpretations and extensions of Judaism. Christianity views Judaism is a true religion, but with incomplete revelation while Islam is a false religion. Islam thinks Jews and Christians have wrong beliefs and only partial revelation.

With reference to examples of rituals, rituals in Judaism include the Circumcision[40] of newly born Jewish males, Bar Mitzvah[41]—a ceremony marking the "coming of age” of Jewish boys and observation of the Sabbath[42]. To Christianity, the sacraments include Baptism and Holy Communion (Eucharist). In Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, five more are added: Confirmation (Chrismation), Marriage, Penance, Holy Orders and Anointing of the Sick. In Islam, there are five important rituals (known as the Pillars of Islam): a profession of faith, prayer five times daily, alms giving, fasting during the holy month of Ramadan[43], pilgrimage to the holy city Mecca.

In summary, Christianity, Islam and Judaism are all similar religions in some ways but are also very different from each other in other ways. The very closeness of the three religions has made them bitterly competitive. Each has had some feelings that it has come the closest to the essential truths of God and the world. Both Christianity and Islam, for example, accuse Judaism of stubbornly refusing to accept later revelations that modify and update its original truths. Both Judaism and Islam accuse Christianity of a kind of idolatry in claiming that God begat a son who as actually a form of God walked the earth in the human form. Both Judaism and Christianity argue that God did not give a special, final revelation to Muhammad. Indeed within each of these religions, at various times, splits have turned one group against another amidst cries of heresy and calls to armed opposition. It seems that truth is to be maintained, asserted, and defended through the force of arms. However, the differences also reveal the similarities. It's interesting that all three religions are ultimately hoping for the same thing—world peace. Maybe, that's the ultimate meaning for the existence of religion.

3.1.4 Christianity and Bible

The word "Bible" itself comes from the Greek biblos referring to "Books" , and indeed the Bible is a collection of texts sacred in Judaism and Christianity written at different times by different authors in different locations. Both Jews and Christians regard it a product of divine inspiration or an authoritative record of the relationship between God and humans. It is not only a sacred scripture, but also the cornerstone of the entire Western civilization, exerting a profound influence upon the society, politics, education and ideology in the West. Besides, it is a very important part of the entire human civilization. Therefore, the Bible is often labeled as a "Western Book" and is considered a part of Western culture. Structurally, the Bible is divided into an Old Testament and a New Testament. The word "testament" means "covenant" and reminds us of God's covenant, first with Israel and then with mankind through Jesus Christ. The Old Testament is the original Hebrew Bible, the sacred scriptures of the Jewish faith, written at different times between about 1200 BC and 165 BC. The New Testament is written by Christians in the 1st century AD as the second major division of the Christian Bible. The Old Testament consists of such four parts as Law of Moses, History Books, Poetry and Wisdom and Prophets, explaining the history of the creation of the world, the exodus of the Israelites and the Ten Commandments[44] given to Moses by God. The New Testament includes the four parts of Gospels, History Books, Letters and Prophecy focusing more on the life and teachings of Jesus and the Christian church.

(1) Old Testament

The Old Testament, the first section of the Christian Bible, is based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible. It is a collection of religious writings by ancient Israelites and is believed by most Christians and Jews to be the holy Word of God. The books of the Old Testament can be broadly divided into several sections:

• the first five books;

• the twelve history books telling the history of the Israelites;

• the five poetry and "Wisdom” books dealing with questions of good and evil in the world;

• the seventeen books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.

The following three stories are very popular from the Book of Genesis for our appreciation.

① God's Creation

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.

Now the earth was formless and empty, covered with darkness and water. Then the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. And God said, "Let there be light,” and there was light. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. God called the light "day”, and the darkness he called "night”. And there was evening, and there was morning—the first day.

And God said, "Let there be an expanse between the waters to separate water from water.” So God made the expanse and separated the water under the expanse from the water above it. And it was so. God called the expanse "sky”. And there was evening, and there was morning—the second day.

And God said, "Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let dry ground appear.” And it was so. God called the dry ground "land”, and the gathered waters he called "seas”. And God saw that it was good. Then God said, "Let the land produce vegetation: seed(-?)bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds.” And it was so. The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed according to their kinds and trees bearing fruit with seed in it according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the third day.

And God said, "Let there be lights in the expanse of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark seasons and days and years, and let them be lights in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth.” And it was so. God made two great lights—the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. God set them in the expanse of the sky to give light on the earth, to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the fourth day.

And God said, "Let the water teem with living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the expanse of the sky." So God created the great creatures of the sea and every living and moving thing with which the water teems, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. God blessed them and said, "Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the water in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth." And there was evening, and there was morning—the fifth day.

And God said, "Let the land produce living creatures according to their kinds: livestock, creatures that move along the ground, and wild animals, each according to its kind.” And it was so. God made the wild animals according to their kinds, the livestock according to their kinds, and all the creatures that move along the ground according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the ground.” So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground.” Then God said, "I give you every seed-bearing plant on the face of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They will be yours for food. And to all the beasts of the earth and all the birds of the air and all the creatures that move on the ground—everything that has the breath of life in it—I give every green plant for food.” And it was so. And God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the sixth day.

Thus the heaven and the earth were completed in all their vast array. And God blessed the seventh day and made it holy, because on it he rested from all the work of creating that he had done.

② Garden of Eden

On the sixth day when God created the heaven and the earth, the LORD God created man in His own image and formed man out of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul. Then God made a woman from the rib He had taken out of the man, and He brought her to the man. God named the first man Adam; later Adam called the woman, Eve. And God said, "A man shall leave his father and his mother and cling to his wife, and they shall be one flesh. And the man and his wife were both naked and were not ashamed.”

The LORD God also planted a garden in Eden. And out of the ground He made every tree to grow that is pleasant to the sight and good for food.

In the middle of the garden stood two trees: the Tree of Life and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.

And the LORD God commanded the man, "You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat from it you will surely die.” God showed his love for Adam and Eve, by giving them all they needed and more to enjoy life to the fullest.

③ The Fall of Humankind

In the beautiful new garden inhabited by Adam and Eve, Satan appeared to Eve in the form of a serpent.

Now the serpent was more crafty than any of the wild animals the LORD God had made. He said to the woman, "Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?”

The woman said to the serpent, "We may eat fruit from the trees in the garden, but God did say, ‘You must not eat fruit from the tree that is in the middle of the garden, and you must not touch it, or you will die.’”

"You will not surely die,” the serpent said to the woman.

"For God knows that when you eat from it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.”

The Bible says Satan is the father of lies, so of course—he tried to deceive the woman and he lied to her about God.

When the woman saw that the fruit of the tree was good for food and pleasing to the eye, and also desirable for gaining wisdom, she took some and ate it. She also gave some to her husband, who was with her, and he ate it.

Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they realized they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together and made coverings for themselves.

Then the man and his wife heard the sound of the LORD God as he was walking in the garden in the cool of the day, and they hid from the LORD God among the trees of the garden.

But the LORD God called to the man, "Where are you?”

He answered, "I heard you in the garden, and I was afraid because I was naked; so I hid.”

And He said, "Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten from the tree that I commanded you not to eat from?”

The man said, "The woman you put here with me—she gave me some fruit from the tree, and I ate it.”

Then the LORD God said to the woman, "What is this you have done?” The woman said, "The serpent deceived me, and I ate.”

So the LORD God said to the serpent, "Because you have done this, cursed are you above all the livestock and all the wild animals! You will crawl on your belly and you will eat dust all the days of your life. And I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and hers; he will crush your head, and you will strike his heel.”

To the woman he said, "I will greatly increase your pains in childbearing; with pain you will give birth to children. Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you.”

To Adam he said, "Because you listened to your wife and ate from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat from it,’ cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return.”

The LORD God made garments of skin for Adam and his wife and clothed them.

And the LORD God said, "The man has now become like one of us, knowing good and evil. He must not be allowed to reach out his hand and take also from the tree of life and eat, and live forever.”

So the LORD God banished Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden to work the ground from which he had been taken.

After he drove the man out, he placed on the east side of the Garden of Eden cherubim and a flaming sword flashing back and forth to guard the way to the tree of life.

From the moment of Adam's sin, all people were destined to die. Yet, in God's story, there is still hope. Because of God's love for everyone, he planned to send a savior who would die, to provide the offer of forgiveness for the sins of all people.

(2) New Testament

The New Testament is a collection of twenty-seven books of four different genres of Christian literature. It consists of four stories of the life, teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus, called "gospels” (or "good news” accounts); a narrative of the Apostles’ministries in the early church, called "the Acts of the Apostles”; twenty-one letters, often called "epistles”, written by various authors and including Christian doctrine, counsel, instruction and conflict resolution; and an Apocalypse[45], the Book of Revelation, which is a book of prophecy, mostly about the end times. From the content, the New Testament focuses more on the life and teachings of Jesus and the Christian church and emphasizes the importance of the sacrifice of Jesus. The function of the New Testament is to lead people to follow the example of Jesus more closely.

Jesus (4 BC–30/33 AD), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth[46] or Jesus Christ, is the central figure of Christianity. Christians believe Jesus is the awaited Messiah of the Old Testament and Jesus has a "unique significance” in the world. Virtually, all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically and most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean, Jewish rabbi[47] who preached his message orally, was baptized by John the Baptist[48] and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate[49]. After Jesus’ death, his followers believed he was resurrected, and the community they formed eventually became the Christian Church. The most common calendar era, abbreviated as "AD” from the Latin "Anno Domini” ("in the year of our Lord”) or sometimes as "CE”, is based on the birth of Jesus.

① Birth of Jesus—Christmas

Christmas or Christmas Day (meaning "Christ's Mass”) is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed most commonly on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world.

Jesus’ birth, known as the Nativity, is described in the New Testament. According to the accounts of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born to a woman called Mary. Mary, a young virgin, was living in Galilee[50] of Nazareth and was engaged to be married to Joseph, a Jewish carpenter. An angel visited her and explained to her that she would conceive a son by the power of the Holy Spirit. She would give birth to this child named Jesus. Joseph was also persuaded by an angel to accept the truth.

At that time, the Roman Emperor decreed that a census would be taken, and every person in the entire Roman world had to go to his own town to register. Joseph was also required to go to Bethlehem to register with Mary. While in Bethlehem, Mary gave birth to Jesus. Probably due to the census, the inn was too crowded, and Mary gave birth in a crude stable. She wrapped the baby in cloths and placed him in a manger. Out in the fields, an angel of the Lord appeared to the shepherds and announced that the Savior had been born in the town of David. Some wise men following a star that led them came to Jesus’ birthplace for worship.

Christmas is a Christian holy day that marks the birth of Jesus, the son of God. Today, Christmas Day is not only a public holiday in many nations but also celebrated culturally by a large number of non-Christian people. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular modern customs of the holiday include gift giving, Christmas music and caroling, an exchange of Christmas cards, church services, a special meal and the display of various decorations like Christmas trees, Christmas lights, wreaths, mistletoe, and so on. In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season. Because gift giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses.

② Cruciflxion of Jesus—Good Friday

The most important events in Christianity are the death and later resurrection of Jesus Christ. Good Friday is a Christian religious holiday commemorating the Passion: the execution of Jesus by crucifixion and his death at Calvary[51]. Good Friday is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum[52] on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, and may coincide with the Jewish observance of Passover. It is also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Black Friday, or Easter Friday, though the last term properly refers to the Friday in Easter week.

Good Friday is a day of mourning in church. The main service on Good Friday takes place between midday and 3 pm. In many churches, it takes the form of a meditation based on the seven last words of Jesus on the cross, with hymns, prayers and short sermons.

Good Friday is a widely instituted legal holiday in many national governments around the world, including most Western countries (especially among Anglican and Catholic nations) as well as twelve US states. Some countries, such as Germany, have laws prohibiting certain acts, such as dancing and horse racing, which are seen as profaning the solemn nature of the day.

③ Resurrection of Jesus—Easter

Easter commemorates the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial after his crucifixion by Romans at Calvary 30 AD. The date of Easter changes each year, and several other Christian festivals fix their dates by reference to Easter. It is held on the first Sunday right after the vernal equinox[53] every year roughly between March 22 and April 25. The week before Easter is called Holy Week, and it contains the days of the Easter Triduum[54], including Maundy Thursday[55], commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper, as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus. Easter Sunday is the culmination of Holy Week.

The Easter story is at the heart of Christianity. On Good Friday, Jesus Christ was executed by crucifixion. His body was taken down from the cross and buried in a cave. The tomb was guarded and an enormous stone was put over the entrance so that no one could steal the body. On the following Sunday, some women visited the grave and found that the stone had been moved and that the tomb was empty. Jesus himself was seen that day and for days afterwards by many people. His followers realised that God had raised Jesus from the dead.

When Easter comes, churches are filled with flowers, and there are special hymns and songs. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide[56]. But not all Easter customs are Christian. Some, such as the Easter Bunny, egg hunting and Easter parades, are pagan in origin. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally.

3.2 Jerusalem

3.2.1 Jerusalem at a Glance

Jerusalem has been regarded as a sacred city, a city of heaven and earth, and also one of the oldest cities in the world that people have lived in continuously. For over 3,000 years of existence, Jerusalem has been the center of civilization and the foundation of faith. It is described in the Talmud, the prime text of Judaism by the words: "Ten measures of beauty God gave to the world, nine to Jerusalem and one to the rest.”

Jerusalem is a hilly city situated in the southern spur of a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. The region has shallow soil that inhibits much agriculture but the underlying limestone bedrock is excellent building material. In ancient times, Jerusalem was heavily forested, but everything was cut down during the Roman siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD.

Jerusalem is known in Hebrew as "Yerushalayim”, a combination of yelusha (legacy) and shalom (peace) and in Arabic as "Al-Quds”, meaning "the Holy” or "the Holy Sanctuary”. In fact, there is no consensus on the origin of the name Jerusalem. Many believe that it derives from the name of the city Jebus (named after the founder of the Jebusites[57]) and Salem (named after a Canaanite god). One can translate Jerusalem as "Foundation of Salem” or "Foundation of Peace”.

Jerusalem has been regarded as a sacred city. Through its long intensive history, this most beautiful city has endured destruction, construction, attacks and sieges, totally contrary to the name of "city of peace”. It is sacred to the three great monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which means it is sacred to more than a third of the world's population. It is here that the three major religions have intermingled for centuries marked by conflict, conquest and renewal. For Jews, Jerusalem is the site of the Temple, now in ruins except for the Western Wall; for Christians, it is the site of Christ's death and resurrection; for Muslims, it is the site of the Prophet's night journey to heaven. Jerusalem is therefore a major site of pilgrimage for all three religions as well as, unfortunately, a place of religious and political tension over this important piece of land. No wonder people also sigh with emotion that "Ten measures of suffering God gave to the world, nine to Jerusalem and one to the rest”.

Actually, Jerusalem is very famous for its Old City. The Old City, covering roughly 1 km, is the pounding heart of Jerusalem both historically and spiritually. It is surrounded by walls that were built in 1538 by the Muslim Ottoman Empire Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent[58]. Nowadays, the Old City of Jerusalem is culturally divided into four Quarters known as the Jewish, Armenian, Christian and Muslim Quarters. The Old City and its walls became a World Heritage Site in 1981 and are on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. Despite the small size of the Old City, the amount of important religious sites in the Old City is incredible. Some of them include: the Western Wall and Temple Mount[59] for Jews, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for Christians and the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims.

In short, today, besides its great religious significance, Jerusalem displays a modern metropolitan city, a city of old and new and a mixture of religions, spirituality and history with modern life and culture. That is the unique Jerusalem.

3.2.2 Brief History

It's well-known that Jerusalem is one of the ancient cities in the world and has been always regarded as the center of the world, so if you are wondering how Jerusalem became such a core of religions and spirituality and a pilgrimage site for millions of people from around the world, the answer appeared thousands of years ago. As a matter of fact, Jerusalem's history is one of wars and struggles. According to the incomplete statistics, during its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times. Its strategic location attracted many nations that wanted to capture the city, and some of them did rule over it for various periods. In this way, Jerusalem is the cradle of modern civilization and Jerusalem's rich history is part of the world's history.

Timeline

Jerusalem has existed for almost 5,000 years and the history of Jerusalem is very intricate and complex.

Archaeological findings suggest that the beginning of settling in Jerusalem can be traced as far back as the 4th millennium BC. Then it was inhabited by a Canaanite tribe called the Jebusites until the 11th century BC. During the Canaanite period, Jerusalem had the name "Urushalim”, meaning "the city of peace”. It was conquered from the Jebusites by King David[60] at about 1000 BC and became the capital of his kingdom of Israel. David's son Solomon[61] built the First Temple (Solomon's Temple) and his descendents continued to enlarge and fortify the city's boundaries. In 587 BC, the Babylonian Empire[62] destroyed Jerusalem and the First Temple and exiled the Jewish inhabitants of Jerusalem to Babylon (Iraq today). In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, the King of Persia[63] who conquered Israel and Jerusalem from the Babylonians permitted all exiled Jews to return to Judea[64] and Jerusalem, where they rebuilt the city. In 516 BC, the Second Temple was constructed in Jerusalem. King Herod the Great[65] further expanded the Temple in the years 73 BC–74 BC.

It was during the end of the Second Temple period that Jesus was preaching in Nazareth, but was crucified by the Romans in Jerusalem in 30 AD. In 66 AD, the Jews rebelled against the Roman Empire and took over Jerusalem. The suppression of this revolt ended in 70 AD, and the Romans, led by Titus[66], conquered the capital, destroyed the Temple completely and exiled the city's inhabitants.

After the Roman Empire accepted Christianity in 324 AD (and later became the Byzantine Empire[67]), Jerusalem again became an important city. The sites connected with Jesus’ life and death were located and declared holy, and many magnificent churches were built, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (the Church of the Resurrection).

In 638 AD, the Muslims conquered Jerusalem and built the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque over the next few centuries. The Jews returned to Jerusalem, and around the 10th century this city again became the spiritual capital for the Jews of the Land of Israel. The Crusaders also wanted to rule Jerusalem. They conquered the city in 1099, massacred the Jewish and Muslim residents and made Jerusalem their own capital. Less than 100 years later, in 1187, Saladin captured Jerusalem from the Crusaders. At that time, the Jews returned to Jerusalem and have been here ever since.

In 1250, the Mamluk Dynasty[68] rose to power in Egypt and its rulers conquered this region and became the new lords of Jerusalem. In 1517, the Ottoman Empire[69] spread to Jerusalem and for 400 years was under Turkish rule.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Jerusalem was a small neglected city inside its walls, and only toward the end of the century (from 1860 onward) did the New City begin to grow. More Jews began moving to Jerusalem, becoming a majority of the population in 1873.

In 1917, the end of World War I marks the beginning of the British Mandate of the Holy Land after defeating the Ottoman Empire. On November 29, 1947, the United Nations passed the resolution to partition Palestine. In 1949, at the end of the first Arab-Israeli War, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan. Israel controlled the western part of the city. Jordan controlled the eastern section, including the Old City, a walled section of Jerusalem dating from Biblical times. Israel took control of the entire city during the Six-Day War in 1967, also including the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. In July 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as Basic Law. The law declared Jerusalem the "complete and united” capital of Israel but the United Nations do not agree to Israel's claim that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel.

Jerusalem today is claimed by both the Palestinians and the Israelis as their capital. One city, two capitals and no other place evokes such a desire for exclusive possession. Religious, political and media interest feed on each other to make Jerusalem more intensely scrutinized today than ever before. Maybe from the very beginning, Jerusalem has been the one and only, a unique city second to none in the whole world. This is the city's tragedy as well as her magic.

3.2.3 Religious Significance

In his biographical history of the city (Jerusalem: The Biography, by Simon Sebag Montefiore, Alfred A. Knope, 2011), Simon Montefiore, author and descendent of a patriarch Jerusalemite, describes Jerusalem as "the house of the one God, the capital of two peoples, the temple of three religions and she is the only city to exist twice—in heaven and on earth...Jerusalem was once regarded as the center of the world and today that is more true than ever”.

Jerusalem is unique. No other city has been the focus of so many hopes, passions, aspirations and delusions. The city is significant in a number of religious traditions, including the Abrahamic religions Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which consider it a holy city. Jerusalem has been sacred to Judaism for roughly 3,000 years, to Christianity for around 2,000 years, and to Islam for approximately 1,400 years. Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy for the three religions have claimed the site as their own with various justification. If you have ever been to Jerusalem, you can feel the religious atmosphere everywhere and will believe that belief can change people's life. The city's large number of synagogues, churches, mosques and other religious institutions reflect the significance of the city for all three faiths. Each religious community supervises its own holy sites.

In the history of world civilization, undoubtedly, it is rare to see a city that has been attracting attention and exerting lasting influence since ancient times like Jerusalem. Interestingly, the often antagonistic rivalry revolves around the ancient hilltop city not customarily known for being a dominant financial center or a modern metropolis. The conflict may be construed as the struggle between adherents of the God of Abraham, the nationalistic contest among Israelis and Palestinians and the clash between the three monotheistic faiths. The unique asset, or perhaps burden, of Jerusalem that has garnered a historical and worldwide attention is its sacredness. Jerusalem, with its outstanding cultural character, has won the unrivalled position of the rest of the world.

3.3 Three Religions in Jerusalem

3.3.1 Jerusalem and Christianity

Christianity reveres Jerusalem, and Jerusalem's place in the life of Jesus gives it great importance, in addition to its place in the Old Testament. The earliest Christians were outcasts and used the fish symbol to recognise one another to avoid being killed for being Christian by Roman rule. Christianity became more popular over time, and made a huge expansion when the Roman Emperor Constantine claimed Christianity as his religion and thus the religion of the Roman Empire. In Christian tradition, many of the events in the life of Jesus and ministry took place in the Holy City. According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city where Jesus was brought as a child, attended festivals and preached to the poor in his adult life, but was even crucified in the end of his life, and resurrected by God.

The Last Supper, referring to the final meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his death, is believed to have taken place in the "Upper Room”, on the second floor of a building over King David's tomb on Mount Zion[70]. The Garden of Gethsemane—according to the New Testament, the place where Jesus suffered for the sins of the world the night before he was crucified—is located at the bottom of the Mount of Olives[71] in Jerusalem. On the Mount of Olives is the Shrine of the Ascension[72], where Jesus is believed to have ascended to heaven. It is now run by Muslims and a dome covers the structure.

The holiest church in Christianity (excluding Protestantism)—the Church of the Holy Sepulchre stands within the walls of the Old City. Also known as the Church of the Resurrection, the Holy Sepulchre contains, according to traditions dating back at least to the 4th century, the two holiest sites in Christendom: the site where Jesus of Nazareth was crucified, known as "Calvary” in Latin and "Golgotha” in Greek, and the empty tomb of Jesus, where he is said to have been buried and resurrected.

Among the main focal points of the Church are the Calvary/Golgotha—the rock on which it is believed that Jesus was crucified, the Stone of Unction/Anointing—where it is believed Jesus was laid and prepared for burial and the Holy Sepulchre—the Tomb of Jesus where Jesus was laid to rest and resurrected. It is located at the center of the Rotunda[73], a circular structure covered by a dome.

The first church on this site was built in 326 AD by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, soon after his conversion to Christianity. It is said that his mother, Helena, had found part of the Cross of Jesus near the Tomb while the church was being built.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre has undergone vast renovations and constructions over the years while most of the additions had been made by the Crusaders in the 12th century. The architectural style of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is an indication of its turbulent past with a mixture of Medieval-Romanesque, Byzantine and modern aspects.

The Via Dolorosa[74] or "Way of Sorrow”, leading to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is the traditional path taken by Christians to symbolically relive the events of Jesus’ passion. Because of Jesus’ historical connection to these and other locations, Jerusalem is venerated by Christians throughout the world.

In medieval times, Christians thought Jerusalem was the center of the world. Byzantine hymns speak of the Cross being "planted in the center of the earth”, and the imagery is tied to the concept of the death and resurrection of Jesus being for the benefit of all mankind. Medieval maps of Europe usually placed the east (orient)—Jerusalem—at the top, and this arrangement led to the use of the term "to orient” to mean "to align a map with actual compass directions”. Therefore, Jerusalem merits the honour of the sacred city for Christians.

3.3.2 Jerusalem and Judaism

Jerusalem has long been an important and idealized symbol for the Jewish people. The Talmud (the Written Law of Judaism) elaborates in great depth the Jewish connection with the city. "Jerusalem” appears in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible or Old Testament) 669 times and "Zion”(which usually means Jerusalem, sometimes the Land of Israel) appears 154 times. It's known that the Tanakh is a text sacred to both Judaism and Christianity.

As a matter of fact, Jewish ties to Jerusalem can go back to the time of Abraham, the father of Judaism. According to Jewish tradition, Jerusalem is where God told the patriarch Abraham to sacrifice his son, Isaac, to Him in order to try him. To show his righteousness and piety, when Abraham prepared to kill his son, he was stopped by God and caught a ram to sacrifice in his son's stead. It is on Mount Moriah[75] in Jerusalem that Abraham passed God's test of faith. Mount Moriah came to symbolize for the Jews the supreme embodiment of their relationship with God. From this, Jews understand that in Jerusalem, unlike any other place on earth, God is almost tangible.

It is known that to Jews, Jerusalem is where the two Jewish temples once stood. The entire essence of Judaism was treasured in the Jewish Temple. It is said that when the Jewish Temple had stood, the world flowed with awe of God and admiration for the Torah, the Bible in Hebrew. According to Jewish tradition, the Temple was located where today stands the Dome of the Rock, on Temple Mount. The "Holy of Holies[76]” was considered as the most prominent room in Temple, housing the Ark of the Covenant[77]—a sacred box holding the tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments. In 586 BC, Jerusalem and the Holy Temple on the Temple Mount were completely destroyed by the Babylonians. Jews were allowed by Persian King Cyprus the Great to return to Jerusalem from their exile in 538 BC and build the Second Temple in 516 BC. But it's unfortunate that the Second Temple was destroyed in 70 AD by the Romans. Jerusalem was destroyed and the Jews were enslaved and sent to exile.

Despite the destruction of the Jewish Temple, the dream of building the Third Temple never ceased to exist in the heart of the Jewish nation. Traditional Jews pray three times a day for the restoration of the Temple and it is part of ceremonies such as Bar Mitzvah and weddings. The breaking of the glass in wedding commemorates the destruction of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem which once stood high on the Temple Mount. This small shattering glass is filled with sad memories mixed with hopeful dreams.

Jerusalem is also the focal point of prayer of the Jews. In particular, Jews outside Jerusalem pray facing its direction. When they pray, wherever they are, they face towards Jerusalem, with love and longing. Jerusalem is representative of the Redemption of the Jewish people from their physical and spiritual exile, because this exile causes the melancholy that the Jewish people experience by being apart from God's presence. The Redemption, which Jews believe will be brought by the Messiah, will result in the Jewish people returning to Jerusalem.

The Western Wall, as one of the four retaining walls surrounding the Temple Mount, served as the Western supporting outer wall built by Herod to level the ground and expand the area housing the Second Jewish Temple. Surviving over 2,000 years of history, it is the largest intact structure since the destruction of the Second Jewish Temple in 70 AD. Its proximity to where the "Holy of Holies” lay in the Temple, bestowed the Wall with sacred status in Jewish tradition. It became a center of mourning over the destruction of the Temple and Israel's exile. The sea of tears that washes the Western Wall for over 2,000 years has entitled it by the name "the Wailing Wall”. Therefore, it has become a religious and national symbol in Israel and many national, religious and even military ceremonies are held at the Western Wall to this day. Due to its significance in Judaism today, it has become customary to place a small note with a wish or prayer within the cracks of the ancient wall.

On the whole, Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Judaism and the ancestral and spiritual homeland of the Jewish people since the 10th century BC. Jews believe that in the future the rebuilt Temple in Jerusalem will become the center of worship and instruction for all mankind and consequently, Jerusalem will become the spiritual center of the world.

3.3.3 Jerusalem and Islam

The city of Jerusalem is known in Arabic as "Al-Quds”, which means "the Noble, Sacred Place”. It is well-known that Jerusalem is considered a holy city in Islam. Several reasons can be explored to answer why this place is so important to Muslims.

First, it is the first qibla[78] for Muslims.

In reality, Jerusalem is considered Islam's third holiest city after Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia. Mecca is located in the west of Saudi Arabia. As the birthplace of Muhammad and the site of Muhammad's first revelation of the Qur’an, Mecca is regarded as the first holiest city in Islam. Medina is a city about 340 km to the north of Mecca, which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second holiest city in Islam. But actually Jerusalem originally served as the first qibla for Muslims: the direction Muslims should face during prayer. Early mosques in Medina were built to face Jerusalem. In 625 AD, the qibla was changed to Mecca. After Muhammad, many of his companions lived in Jerusalem, and after their death they were buried there.

Second, it is the center of monotheism.

Part of Jerusalem's significance and holiness to Muslims derives from its strong association with Abraham, David, Solomon and Jesus. They all taught the Oneness of God. They are all regarded as prophets of Islam and their stories are mentioned in the Qur’an.

Third, it is the site of night journey and ascension.

Born in 570 AD, Muhammad is believed by Muslims to be a messenger for God. He reformed the perspective that God should be worshiped through prayer, reciting God's messages and only worshiping God. Muhammad declared himself to be the last prophet of the Judaic-Christian Religions and he founded a third Abrahamic religion—Islam. It was Jerusalem that Muhammad visited during his night journey and ascension. In one evening, the angel Gabriel miraculously took the Prophet from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to the Furthest Mosque (Al-Aqsa) in Jerusalem. He was then taken up to the heaven to be shown the signs of God. The Prophet met with previous prophets and led them in prayer. He was then taken back to Mecca. This night journey further reinforced the link between Mecca and Jerusalem as holy cities, and serves as an example of every Muslim's deep devotion and spiritual connection with Jerusalem. It is the hope of every Muslim that the Holy Land will be restored to a land of peace.

Two most impressive Islamic buildings on the Temple Mount, which Muslims call Noble Sanctuary—the Dome of the Rock and the ancient Al-Aqsa Mosque are among the holiest sites in Islam, which deserve our full attention.

Built in 691 AD, the Dome of the Rock is the most famous Muslim site in Jerusalem and has become an inseparable part of the Jerusalem skyline. The Dome of the Rock is influenced by Byzantine Christian architecture of a Central Dome Plan. The great golden dome that crowns the Dome of the Rock was originally made of gold, but was replaced with copper and then aluminum. The aluminum is now covered with gold leaf, a donation from the late King Hussein of Jordan[79]. Literally translated as "the Distant Mosque”, Al-Aqsa Mosque is located nearby the Dome of the Rock and is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam. According to Muslim tradition, during "the Night Journey” Muhammad traveled from the Mosque in Mecca to Al-Aqsa Mosque. Originally, Al-Aqsa Mosque was a small prayer house erected in 710 AD. It was expanded and rebuilt five times over the years due to damage caused by earthquakes and wars. As the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099, they converted this mosque into the headquarters of the Knights Templar, and it served as a church and palace for the Crusader kings. In 1187, Saladin restored its status as a mosque, and it has been repaired and renovated by various Islamic bodies and organisations ever since. Despite its silver dome paling in comparison to the Dome of the Rock, Al-Aqsa Mosque is rich with ornaments and serves as an interesting blend of different architectural styles and periods.

3.3.4 The Chief Culprit of Religious Conflict in Jerusalem

It's well-known that the Dome of the Rock is probably Jerusalem's most recognizable landmark. The building is a shrine built on the site of the Second Temple, using a design meant to rival the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. What makes this shrine house so special? A rock, the Foundation Stone, to be precise.

The Foundation Stone is the name of the rock at the heart of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. As the central focus of the shrine, it is a large, ancient rock that may have once stood in the center of Solomon's Temple. In fact, this huge oblong rock, a natural outcropping, that measures fifty-six by forty-two feet has long been regarded as the sacred rock by the three religions.

Above all, for Muslims, it is the rock from which Muhammad's winged horse leapt into the sky, on the "Night Journey” into heaven. The rock is said to bear the horse's imprint. Hence, Muslims built the Dome of the Rock over this stone. Muslim tradition holds that an angel will come to the rock to sound the trumpet call of the Last Judgement at the end of the world.

Meanwhile, the stone is also known as the Pierced Stone[80] because it has a small hole on the southeastern corner that enters a cave beneath the rock, known as the Well of Souls. Jewish tradition views it as the spiritual junction of Heaven and Earth. It is sometimes thought of as the traditional hiding place of the Ark of the Covenant. Jews believe that it was at this spot that Abraham bound his son Isaac as a sacrifice. It is also widely believed to have been the center of the Holy of Holies in the Temple, and thus the most sacred place on earth.

Ultimately, for Christians, according to the Bible, it was close to here, on the site of the altar, that God gathered the earth that was formed into Adam. It was on this rock that Adam—and later Cain, Abel[81], and Noah[82]—offered sacrifices to God.

As a result, it can be seen that in some sense the three religions all take this Foundation Stone as their halidom, and it's become the chief culprit of religious conflict in Jerusalem, resulting in the historical situation of entanglement and intolerance among the three religions.

3.4 The Crusades

3.4.1 Historical Background

The movie Kingdom of Heaven depicts an epic story that involves religious conflicts, military battles and romantic love. It presents a story that happens after the Second Crusade, exactly between the Second Crusade and the Third Crusade. Just like what the beginning of the movie writes: "It's almost 100 years since Christian armies from Europe seized Jerusalem. Europe suffers in the grip of repression and poverty. Peasant and lord alike flee to the Holy Land in search of fortune or salvation.” It is very necessary to illustrate clearly the historical background of that period for the sake of having a further comprehension of this epic work.

The term "the Crusades” generally refers to a series of military campaigns undertaken by Western European Christians to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims or Saracens. The Crusades began in 1096 and ended in the mid- or late 13th century, spanning nearly 200 years. The word "crusade” derived from "crux”, a Latin word meaning "cross”, so every participant in the Crusade, including knights, peasants and merchants, all wore a Cross on the tunics as a symbol of obedience to God. Roman Catholic called the wars religious wars, i.e. Christianity against Islam, Cross against Meniscus. In terms of the reason why the Crusades were launched, there are a wide variety of opinions on this matter. Some argue that they were a necessary response by Christendom to the oppression of pilgrims in Muslim-controlled Jerusalem. Others claim that it was political imperialism masked by religious piety. Still, others argue that it was a social release for a society that was overburdened by landless nobles. So whether the Crusades were primarily religious, political, economic, or a combination and what the historical background related to the Crusades should be still need history to tell us what was going on in those days.

Originally, the case goes like this: Jerusalem and the Holy Land serve as the home of the Jewish and the Christian faith. According to Christianity, Palestine was the place where Jesus was born, preached and died, and his tomb was just in Jerusalem. So the Middle East and the Mediterranean world served as the cradle of Christianity. It was not until Constantine and his mother Helena restored Jerusalem in the 4th century that Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem became safe for those who had the means to travel. Helena, who discovered the true cross, then ordered the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre over the site of Christ's burial and Resurrection, which was completed in 335 AD. However, the 7th and 8th centuries saw the introduction of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula by the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a new unified polity. This led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. After Muslims claimed that in 622 AD, Muhammad rose to the Heaven riding a sacred horse in Jerusalem, Jerusalem was as well the sacred place for Muslims. Tolerance, trade and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe ebbed and flowed with cultures and creeds coexisting and competing. So the most immediate cause for the Crusades is also the most obvious: Muslim incursions into previously Christian lands. Especially, Europe was shocked when Hakim, the Fatimid Caliph[83] of Egypt, after ravaging churches and monasteries throughout Egypt, destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem in 1009. This only heightened the fear of apocalypse in European medieval thought at the turn of the first millennium.

Meanwhile, one of the most tragic events in Christianity was the Schism of 1054 that split the Catholic Church in Rome and the Byzantine Orthodox Church in Constantinople. The language of Rome was Latin, but that of Constantinople Greek. The Schism became symbolic for the distrust and strain between East and West that developed through the centuries. After that, a new wave of Muslim aggression by the Seljuk Turks[84] led to Christian persecution in the Holy Land and the invasion of the Byzantine Empire. A number of Eastern Christian Churches were destroyed and Christians were restricted in the practice of their faith. Christian pilgrims in the Holy Land, particularly to Jerusalem were prevented, which would definitely trigger the Crusades. It's known that pilgrimages were very important to European Christians. A pilgrimage wiped clean one's sins and in some cases served to minimize future sins as well. Without these pilgrimages, Christians would have had a harder time justifying claims to ownership and authority over the region. So people's religious enthusiasm for the Crusades can’t be ignored.

Not all of the causes were quite so religious, though. History gradually approached the 11th century. Productivity had made great progression in Western Europe, with the economy developing fast, many villages and towns growing into cities and population increasing. A growing population and more surplus wealth also meant greater demand for goods from elsewhere. We know that the Italian merchant states, already powerful and influential, wished to expand their trade in the Mediterranean. But, beyond their expectations, just at this time, another strong nation called the Turks who believed in Islams arose near the Mediterranean. This abrupt situation broke the normal order of life in this area and brought much trouble to the communication between the East and the West. To make things worse, the newly(-?)born nation took hostile attitude to those non-Muslims, so European trade expansion was being blocked by Muslim control of many strategic seaports. If Muslim domination of the eastern Mediterranean could be ended or at least significantly weakened, then cities like Venice, Genoa, and Pisa had a chance to enrich themselves further. Thus worldly interests coincided with religious feelings about the Holy Land. In 1091, the Turks got ready to attack Constantinople, the capital city of Byzantine. Constantinople was vulnerable and pilgrimages to Jerusalem virtually ended. This let Byzantine Emperor Alexius I have no choice but to appeal to Pope Urban II[85] for help. Pope Urban II saw the request by the Byzantine Emperor as an opportunity to improve relations between the East and the West by defending suffering Christians and the Churches of the East. Thus came the Crusades.

In the end, the violence, death, destruction, and continuing bad blood that last through to the present day would not have occurred without religion. It doesn’t matter so much who "started it”, Christians or Muslims. What matters is that Christians and Muslims eagerly participated in mass murder and destruction, mostly for the sake of religious beliefs, religious conquest and religious supremacism. The Crusades exemplify the way in which religious devotion can become a violent act in a grand, cosmic drama of good vs. evil—an attitude which persists through today in the form of religious extremists and terrorists.

3.4.2 Historical Process

As far as the whole war process is concerned, there are eight major Crusades that departed Europe for the Holy Land, with several other campaigns interspersed between 1096 and 1291.

(1) The First Crusade (1096–1099)

① Background

In 1095, Alexius sent envoys to Pope Urban II asking for mercenary troops from the west to help confront the Turkish threat. In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont[86] in southern France, the pope called on Western Christians to take up arms in order to aid the Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. The offer of a papal indulgence or forgiveness of all of a person's sins, encouraged many people to join the Crusade. People from all walks of life, and from several nations, joined for a variety of reasons. Some people joined because of religious enthusiasm. Some joined with the hope of gaining land, wealth, or power. But on the whole, religious fervor was the principal source of inspiration throughout the Crusade. While figures vary, it is estimated that roughly 60,000 Europeans were inspired to take up the cross and begin the expedition to Constantinople in the First Crusade, each wearing the red Crusader's cross as a symbol of the Church and shouting the battle cry, "God wills it”.

② Outcome

Four armies of Crusaders were formed from troops of different Western European regions and set to depart for Byzantium in August 1096. The Crusaders and their Byzantine allies captured the great Syrian city of Antioch in June 1098. The Crusaders took control of Jerusalem on July 15, 1099, and after that, the city was thrown into the bloody massacre by the Crusaders in their victorious entrance into the city. The First Crusade was an astonishing success. To govern the conquered territory, those who remained established four large western settlements, or Crusader states, in Jerusalem, Edessa, Antioch and Tripoli.

(2) The Second Crusade (1147–1149)

① Background

In 1144, the Seljuk general Zangi, governor of Mosul, captured Edessa, leading to the loss of the northernmost Crusader state. News of Edessa's fall stunned Europe, and led Christian authorities in the West to call for another Crusade. Led by two great rulers, King Louis VII of France[87] and King Conrad III of Germany[88], the Second Crusade began in 1147. That October, the Turks crushed Conrad's forces at Dorylaeum[89], site of a great victory during the First Crusade. After Louis and Conrad managed to assemble their armies at Jerusalem, they decided to attack the Syrian stronghold of Damascus with an army of some 50,000 (the largest Crusader force yet).

② Outcome

Louis and Conrad set out for Damascus on July 24, 1148, but the lack of coordination forced them to retreat within a week. The Second Crusade was a total failure for the West in the Holy Land, but strengthened the resolve of the Muslims. So this Crusade failed to realize their goals.

(3) The Third Crusade (1189–1192)

① Background

In 1187, Saladin, a hero of Muslim, began a major campaign against the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. His troops virtually destroyed the Christian army at the Battle of Hattin[90], taking the city along with a large amount of territory. This is also what the movie Kingdom of Heaven mainly describes. Guy of Lusignan[91] and the Frankish army foolishly rode out into the desert to the Horns of Hattin, and, deprived of water, were no match for Saladin, who defeated the Franks and captured the true Cross on July 4, 1187. Guy of Lusignan was held captive. Then Saladin attacked Jerusalem on September 20, 1187. But after ten days of heavy resistance by Balian of Ibelin, Saladin agreed to a financial settlement and captured the city on October 2, 1187. The inhabitants of Jerusalem were spared from major bloodshed and injury. Outrage over these defeats inspired the Third Crusade in 1189, led by rulers such as the aging Emperor Frederick Barbarossa[92] (who was drowned at Anatolia before his entire army reached Syria), King Philip II of France[93] and King Richard I of England[94] (known as Richard the Lionheart).

② Outcome

In September 1191, Richard's forces defeated those of Saladin in the Battle of Arsuf[95]. It would be the only true battle of the Third Crusade. In September 1192, Richard and Saladin signed a peace treaty that reestablished the Kingdom of Jerusalem (though without the city of Jerusalem) and ended the Third Crusade. Because of their contradiction, the Crusade also failed.

(4) The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204)

① Background

One of the primary reasons for Pope Urban II calling for the Crusades was to reconcile Roman and Byzantine Christianity. Any hope for Christian unity was completely dashed by the horrendous Fourth Crusade. The powerful Pope Innocent III[96] called for a new Crusade in 1198. The Fourth Crusade, also known as the Byzantine Crusade, was originally designed to conquer Muslim Jerusalem through an invasion of Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of the West invaded and conquered the Christian (Eastern Orthodox) city of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire.

② Outcome

The Fourth Crusade ended with the conquest and looting of the magnificent Byzantine capital later that year. This is seen as one of the final acts in the Great Schism between Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church. It has been often described as one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history.

(5) The Fifth Crusade (1217–1221)

① Background

The Fifth Crusade was an attempt to take back Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering the powerful Ayyubid state[97] in Egypt. In the Fifth Crusade, put in motion by Pope Innocent III before his death in 1216, the Crusaders attacked Egypt from both land and sea. After occupying the port of Damietta[98], the Crusaders marched south towards Cairo in July of 1221, but were forced to surrender to Muslim defenders led by Saladin's nephew.

② Outcome

Damietta was taken back by Muslim and the Fifth Crusade ended in failure.

(6) The Sixth Crusade (1228–1229)

① Background

Roman Emperor Frederick II had vowed to crusade upon his succession to throne in 1215, but it seemed he had many delays and initial failure to keep his vow. He finally arrived in Acre[99] on September 7, 1228, in what became known as the Sixth Crusade. In 1229, Frederick II achieved the peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to Crusader control through negotiation with Muslim leader Al-Kamil. The treaty, completed on February 18, 1229, safeguarded a truce of ten years. Frederick entered Jerusalem on March 17, 1229, and attended a crown-wearing ceremony the following day.

② Outcome

This Crusade made Jerusalem come back again to the hands of Christians, but soon it was taken back again by Muslims because the peace treaty expired a decade later, and Muslims easily regained control of Jerusalem.

(7) The Seventh Crusade (1249–1250)

① Background

Jerusalem was lost again from Christians in 1244. In 1249, King Louis IX[100] of France led the Seventh Crusade against Egypt, which ended in defeat at Mansura[101] the following year. Louis was captured in April 1250. After paying an enormous ransom and surrendering Damietta, Louis was released.

② Outcome

Louis sailed to Palestine, where he spent four years building fortifications and strengthening the defenses of the Latin Kingdom. In the spring of 1254, he and his army returned to France.

(8) The Eighth Crusade (1270)

① Background

King Louis also organised the last major Crusade in 1270. This time the response of the French nobility was unenthusiastic, and the expedition was directed against the city of Tunis rather than Egypt.

② Outcome

It ended abruptly when Louis died in Tunisia during the summer of 1270. Louis died, ending the last major attempt to take the Holy Land.

With the fall of Acre in 1291, the last stronghold on the mainland was lost, effectively ending the Crusades in the Holy Land after nearly two centuries. Though the Church organised minor Crusades with limited goals after 1291, support for such efforts disappeared in the 16th century, with the rise of the Reformation and the corresponding decline of papal authority.

The Crusades are an important early part of the story of European expansion and colonialism. They mark the first time Western Christendom undertook a military initiative far from home, the first time significant numbers left to carry their culture and religion abroad.

3.4.3 Effects of the Crusades

When judged by military standards, the Crusades basically achieved some of the original goals. The goal to recapture Jerusalem, to defend the Christian East, and to unite Europe in a common cause was a noble effort. Pilgrimages to the restored Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem resumed and have lasted to the present day. In fact, they cannot be written off as mere adventures. To hold territory under a Christian banner so far from home, given the contemporary conditions of transport and communication, was really impressive. But the Crusades belong to the typical religious wars. Like other wars of religion, it gradually lost its original meaning, and eventually became a cruel and bloody joke due to the gap between religious idealism and reality. However, the Crusades which caused the people infinite disaster and agony at that time not only contributed greatly to positive changes in Europe, but also created conditions for the later Renaissance.

(1) Effects on Politics

In terms of the political effects, the Crusades helped to break down the power of feudal aristocracy and finally undermined feudalism. Massive changes happened to all social classes during the Crusades and the feudalism was heading for its end gradually. The Crusades contributed to increasing the power of the papacy and presented many advantages to the Church. It enabled the papacy to put itself at the forefront of an immense popular movement and grasp the moral leadership of Europe. But as a double-bladed sword, when the Crusades declined, so did the papacy.

(2) Effects on Economy and Trade

The most important effect of the Crusades was economic. Actually, the success of the First Crusade opened the door to Eastern Mediterranean for trade with Eastern countries. Europeans’ longing for Eastern goods stimulated the development of trade. Italian cities Venice and Genoa started to play the leading roles in the trade of this region, which became the economic base of the Italian Renaissance. Starting from the 12th century, oriental textiles started to arrive to Europe in large quantities. The more the trade increased between Europe and the East, the richer the trade made Europe.

Currency exchange for trading purposes had been part of the trade along the Mediterranean. As the trade between Europe and the East increased, more money got involved. Therefore, people started to give it a try in banking skills. These efforts were considered as the initial attempt in the future formation of banks.

Additionally, taxation was conducted. For the large expeditions of the Crusaders to the Holy Land, European kingdoms were forced to develop their system of administration, including the system of taxation assessment and collection.

(3) Effects on Intellectual Development and Culture

As for the cultural effect, it must be admitted that the cultural horizons of many Europeans were broadened as a result of their encounter with other cultures, more advanced than Western civilization at that time. As European Crusaders returned to Europe from the Middle East, they brought with them ideas and technologies. These included the Hindu-Arabic numbering system, the concept of zero and sailing technologies such as the astrolabe and compass. They also learned how to build better ships. The knowledge made great contributions to the development of Europe. European literature was inspired too, in whole or in part, by the crusading wars, which indirectly led to the emergence of Renaissance. The Crusades did help European literature to bloom in the following centuries.

(4) Effects on Voyages of Discovery

The Crusades prompted the famous Voyages of Discovery consequently. Because of the Crusades, people in Europe wanted to buy Eastern goods. Adventurers tried to find quicker ways to the East. Besides, direct land routes to the Indies were closed to European merchants due to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, thus creating the need to find a sea route to the Indies. Portugal had spent years sailing along the coast of Africa to reach the Indies, but Christopher Columbus, as one of the adventurers, thought he had a better way: sailing west. When the hope of reaching Jerusalem via the Western route proved to be impractical, the Americas were seen as a new opportunity sent by God to compensate the faithful for the loss of the Holy Land. Therefore, the discovery of the Americas was a direct result of the Crusades.

(5) Conclusion

Judging from all evidence offered above, we may safely conclude that the Crusades did have positive influence on the development of Europe. They helped to weaken the feudal aristocracy and destroy the feudalism, which is beneficial for Europe to move in a more advanced and suitable direction from the political viewpoint. The Crusades opened the door to the East for Europeans, promoted the development of economy in Europe and encouraged the formation of taxation assessment as well. The Crusades also liberalized the minds of Europeans, helping them to be exposed to more knowledge that they had never known. As the direct result of the Crusades, the discovery of the Americas was the epoch-making event in history, which profoundly changed the development of the entire world.

Compared with their positive effects, the negative effects should not be ignored either. Over centuries, this religious dispute in this area still remains to be well resolved. The tragedy of wars is still on, taking away a lot of lives, resources and wealth; moreover, the originally complex contradictions are made to become more intensified by the fact that some Western powerful nations also put their hands in these religious affairs, and the problem now becomes more and more troublesome.

3.5 Chivalry Spirit

It's known that the movie Kingdom of Heaven is set during the Crusades of the 12th century. The main force in the war was the medieval knights starting from cavalrymen who fought for the Crusades. These cavalrymen played a decisive role in the battles of the early time. As the essence of the European culture, chivalry prospered and declined approximately throughout the whole medieval time. In fact, chivalry was the aristocratic culture of the upper class in the feudal society. Most importantly, chivalry has a profound influence upon the politics and culture of Western Europe. As a result, it's very essential to know the organisation and the lifestyle of the knights vividly presented by Kingdom of Heaven, including the definition of European chivalry and its general historical development.

3.5.1 Definition of European Chivalry

Chivalry is a code of conduct associated with the medieval institution of knighthood which developed between 1170 and 1220. The code of chivalry that developed in medieval Europe had its roots in earlier centuries. It arose in the Holy Roman Empire from the idealisation of the cavalrymen—involving military bravery, individual training, and service to others—especially in Francia[102], among horse soldiers in Charlemagne[103]'s cavalry.

Over time, its meaning in Europe has been refined to emphasize social and moral virtues which combined a warrior ethos, knightly piety, and courtly manners, all conspiring to establish a notion of honour and nobility. The period from the 11th century to the 13th century was a booming time for the knight culture. Especially during the Crusades, knights had played an important role. Chivalry, known as knighthood as well, could be regarded as a collection of regulations, moral codes and norms particularly obeyed by the knight class in Europe in the medieval period. In general, chivalry serves as a military system which has left such an indelible mark in the history of Europe.

3.5.2 Historical Development of Chivalry

Chivalry was established with joint efforts of various social facts. Being allowed the military fief, the knight class started to possess land. With vast land in control, the knight class was able to function as a military regime sooner or later. Throughout the historical development of chivalry, three stages are mainly classified.

(1) The Primary Stage

It was from the Military Reform of Charles Martel to the later decade of the 11th century. In this period, various battles and wars took up days and months per year. To the soldiers who served in the military fief, there was nothing more important than protecting people of the land from exotic dangers. As a result, these primitive soldiers who fought against enemies were respected as the most faithful and bravest people. At that time, a title of knight was not that difficult to achieve. After an official ceremony of declaration, people who could afford weapons and horses were entitled the name of a knight. However, equipment of the battle was not acceptable to common people. High expenses on weapons and equipment prevented well(-?)performed poor soldiers from being entitled knights. In this sense, the fief system was carried out so that the knights could afford expenses on the horses and armors. A new aristocracy was thus brought into existence. Besides fighting on the battlefield, knights were feudal lords as well. The knight could gain some feuds from his superior in exchange of being loyal to the superior. With feuds in control, knights were in charge of the total income of the land so that they could spend money on better equipment. Relatively, knights should be responsible for dealing with lawsuits and crimes for people of his fief and maintaining stability.

(2) The Second Stage

It ranged from the 12th century to the former period of the 13th century. During this period, the existence of the knights prospered with the proceeding of the Crusades. In the name of religious reasons, battles between knights and pagans were launched by the Pope. Fanatic and aggressive, crowds of knights devoted themselves to this long-term war. Through the Crusades, ties between Christianity and knights were strengthened to an unprecedented level. In 1152, the official admitted that the legitimate knights were those whose ancestors were real knights. In 1187, the descendants of peasants were clearly prohibited from being knights, thus they were eliminated from the knight groups. This regulation highlighted the hint that class consciousness was shaped in chivalry. Such kind of scene about the knight's lifestyle is generalized in the opening part of the movie Kingdom of Heaven. When Balian's father, Baron Godfrey of Ibelin leads a group of knights to come to his blacksmith's shop, he actually is a chatelain, who has his own fief at the kingdom of Jerusalem. Balian also admits his experience of fighting for one lord against another on horse, which reveals that Balian was once a knight too. Therefore, He later inherits his father's title and becomes a knight's leader. Such hereditary inheritance, to a certain extent, also increases the honour of knighthood.

(3) The Third Stage

It started from the end of the 13th century until the Religious Reform. During this period, chivalry experienced a process from prosperity to decline and ultimately vanished in the history. With the deterioration of the fief system, due to its restriction and limitations, the chivalry mechanism could not be applied to emergencies. Before long, most European countries such as Britain, France and Germany adopted the scutage[104] system instead. Compared to the chivalry system, the scutage system could free knights from obeying strict military discipline. Now that knights were separated from obeying military discipline, knights could either choose to be noblemen living on their lands or start personal business. After the 14th century, status of knight fell so much that it almost functioned as a symbol of reputation. After the Religious Reform, chivalry was still a moral concept that dominated people's way of thinking.

Though chivalry died out with the development of the history, its essence spirit and influence shaped European personalities in the modern time. Nowadays, the knight has become an honourable title to be given to those outstanding people who make significant contribution to Britain.

3.5.3 Influence of Christianity on Chivalry

The movie Kingdom of Heaven is about the theme of the religious culture conflict. The relationship between knights and Christianity displayed from the movie may be more real, though it may be seen complex from the spectator's point of view.

Knights were brutal and cold-blooded soldiers in medieval times. The appalling cruelty and brutality for the knights in the war can be imaginable. As there was not so much legal constraint, knights were seldom punished even if they committed crimes like teasing the weak, robbing peasants, raping women or murdering innocent people.

With influence of Christianity enhancing in Europe, the church started to take countermeasures over the fearless knights. In the 10th century, as the status of the Roman Catholic Church enhanced, the church had control on social affairs to a large extent. A religious campaign was launched by the church which aimed to call for the peace of God. Violence was firmly opposed in or near churches thereafter. Otherwise, people who went against the rules would be exiled from the Christian Church. Later in the 12th century, the existence of the knights prospered with the proceeding of the Crusades. As religious doctrines and military discipline improved, aggressiveness, adventurous spirit and religious fanaticism were emphasized and presented before the Crusades. By preach of the Pope, a war between knights and pagans burst. For the sake of the protection on Christianity, the Pope legitimated the knights to exert every effort to fight against pagans. The Pope also promised that such punitive expedition and massacre for the liberation of holy city was a path to seeking divine forgiveness instead of being punished by God. So the knights in the movie before combat will yell: "God wills it”. This fanatic craze for Christianity enabled the knights on bloody killing. Knight's military operations in name should be the ones fighting for God, and such strong religiosity is the most distinctive feature of the knight's military life. Together with the Crusades, some knight groups were elevated to the central part of Christian knights.

As was discussed, chivalry had much to do with religious influence. Knights believed that the result of a battle was decided by God. God regarded a battle as a verdict between two sides. As a result, steadfast faith in God could be witnessed on medieval knights. In order to win a battle, knights transferred the fear inside to prayers to God so that bravery would be stimulated to the largest extent. Instead of being militaristic, the Crusades involved knights into a jihad for the whole church by sculpturing the knights’ moral code. Personal pursuit of honour and sacrifice was replaced by aspiration for God's honour. Gradually, chivalry has become a type of spiritual cultural value, and it is one of the great cultural traditions in the history of the European national civilizations. It is a set of moral code specially existing in aristocracy knights with bravery, generosity, piety, faith, honour and gentlemanship involved. Apart from these, modesty, courtesy and respect toward women are also required in a knight's daily life. It's no exaggeration to say that an image of chivalry can be the incarnation of paragon of virtue.

As part of aristocracy culture, chivalry is a set of values and norms that are based on personal superiority. As a national cultural tradition, it embodies a concentrated reflection of national consciousness and national sentiments. Knights in combat life would face the severe living environment, ready at all times to sleep rough in the fields. But these excellent heavy cavalry troops were not fearsome at all in battle. With high morale, the Crusaders would like to sing songs happily every time they went out to fight. They saw battle as another arena, as if they fought not for death but for entertainment because they desired to fight instead of fearing to fight. The brutality of the knights’ fight seemed to be intertwined with the brave spirit. In conclusion, Christianity mainly had influence on knights and the knight mechanism. Not only rituals to become a knight were normalized, but also a knight's proper act was controlled. Knights were engaged in the Peace of God and the Truce of God[105] to serve the church. They became "Christ's Warrior”.

In the movie, Balian does not intend to join his father, the crusader lord Godfrey, baron of Ibelin, just because his wife commits suicide for being grief-stricken by their child's death and suicide is considered not to go into heaven according to Christian doctrine, which has anguished Balian. After killing the shameless and greedy local priest in a fit of rage, he is forced to flee the village and follow after his father in the hope of gaining forgiveness and redemption for himself and his wife in Jerusalem. On Balian's journey to Jerusalem, a priest says constantly to every passerby like hypnotizing, "To kill an infidel, the Pope has said, is not murder. It's the path to heaven.” This kind of brainwashing behaviour can be strong encouragement for every Christian to find the right excuse to kill, and the Crusaders did so, just as Balian says to Saladin who offers terms to obtain Jerusalem in the movie, "The Christians butchered every Muslim within the walls when they took this city.” And also Guy and his ally, Raynald, before attacking a Saracen caravan led to shout loudly and hypocritically, "An army of Jesus Christ which bears Holy Cross cannot be beaten!...There must be war! God wills it!” "God wills it” becomes the holy reason to launch a barbarous plunder which is totally full of bloodthirsty and fanatical religious emotion. In the name of religious reasons, battles between the knights and pagans were launched by the Pope.

Fanatic and aggressive crowds of knights devoted themselves to this long-term war. Religious ideas guided the Crusaders sweeping the East, plundering the wealth and doing the things against the Bible in the name of the Bible. So in the movie, Tiberias, the Marshal of Jerusalem, has such a heartbroken repentance after realizing the hypocrisy of the war like "I’ve given Jerusalem my whole life. Everything! First I thought we were fighting for God, then I realized we were fighting for wealth and land. I was ashamed.” After that remark, he has to leave the battlefield with low spirit, which just reveals that this jihad has its hypocritical side.

Compared with the description of the Crusades’ religious fanaticism, the director of the movie seems not to give more detailed description about the fanaticism of the Muslim army towards religion, which can only be shown from the conflict between an unknown general and Saladin. In this sense, the director seems to give more accounts of the Crusades’ craze and tyranny, which is also in line with history. In war, Saladin generally didn’t attack the ordinary Christian but the Crusaders in Europe tended to massacre all the Muslim residents of a conquered city.

3.5.4 True Chivalry Spirit and True Valuable Belief

The most striking feature of the knights’ class is faith and devotion, but if the knights’belief goes too far to the degree of religious fanaticism and even killing the infidels on the excuse of "God wills it”, this is not the real spirit of chivalry. The whole movie displays us a kind of true chivalry spirit. Humility, honour, sacrifice, valor, compassion, honesty, spirituality and justice are the eight virtues for knights. Their chivalry and virtues have a profound influence on people from generation to generation.

The movie just tells the audience what is true chivalry spirit by the mouth of Balian's father, the crusader lord Godfrey, baron of Ibelin, "Be without fear in the face of your enemies. Be brave and upright that God may love thee. Speak the truth always, even if it leads to your death. Safeguard the helpless and do no wrong.” Obviously, chivalry here just means fearlessness, courage, integrity, honesty, protecting the weak, and these values remain alive regardless of space and time. In addition, for Christians, the practice of chivalry must worship God. It is important to note that the movie also praises such chivalry connotations as kindness, tolerance in addition to the knight's oath. The movie Kingdom of Heaven knows very well the most effective way to infect the audience, namely attaching the intangible spirit of chivalry in those average human beings. It details the spiritual growth of knight Balian and takes him as a clue, shaping the other associated roles of chivalry. Baron Godfrey is the great enlightenment for Balian to understand the real chivalry spirit. Balian takes "What man is a man who does not make the world better” as the motto, but suffers the pain of his wife's death. The appearance of Godfrey is just a turning point in his life. Thereafter, the father's words and deeds make the son grasp the knight's courage and benevolence by standing on the starting line as a chivalry, which strengthens his determination to reach Jerusalem and finally makes him have the opportunity to implement his motto.

Balian's spiritual mentor Hospitaller (David Thewlis) also makes him aware of the true value of a noble knight by saying, "Religion is not made up by fanatics. It's about your rite of actions.” He makes the analogy that religion is really about who you are as a person and by what you do, not by what you preach as a so-called Christian. This is a key issue brought up throughout the movie: what is religion? Is it just words or actions that we live by? Does God really offer us hope and salvation? The answer is yes. When his dad dies, through the speeches with Hospitaller who talks with him about religion, Balian starts to have a spiritual awakening of sorts. Exposed to the poor people of Jerusalem, Balian uses his new power as a lord and knight to build up shelters and provide water for the people just as he says he is trying to be a good man and trying to aid the helpless. Meanwhile, King Baldwin IV also points out the essence of knights’ duty when he sees Balian for the first time by saying, "None of us know our end really or what hand will guide us there. A king may move a man. A father may claim a son. That man can also move himself. And only then does that man truly begin his own game. Remember, how so ever you are played or by whom, your soul is in your keeping alone, even though those who presume to play you be kings or men of power. When you stand before God, you cannot say ‘But I was told by others to do thus’, or that ‘virtue was not convenient at the time’. This will not suffice. Remember that.” That's to say, if you would be a man, you would try to make it better. A kingdom of no conscience is nothing. The real chivalrous spirit should be firstly in the representation of being a man of conscience.

3.5.5 Main Characters in the Movie

Balian in the kingdom of Jerusalem gradually reveals the ideal of chivalry, and there are another two leaders in Kingdom of Heaven who would also be perfect and typical representatives of the chivalry spirit: unfortunate Baldwin IV (often referred as "Baldwin the Leper”) and household Muslim hero Saladin. All the main characters are historical figures who really resembled medieval knights of great dignity. They all have little interest in divinity and every interest in the welfare of the people, so this movie is all about faith and humanity. The Western cultural heritage of chivalry filtered into Europe through Islamic traditions, which Kingdom of Heaven clearly acknowledges. There is a powerful scene in the movie where Saladin discovers a small Christian cross that has toppled over. He takes the time to pick up the fallen cross and set it aright. In a movie filled with special effects and spectacular scenes of siege warfare, that simple scene stands out as a brilliant cinematic moment. All the three heroes belong to the chivalrous humans who earn the respect of their adversaries.

(1) Balian: a Crusade Noble

As the leading hero in the movie, Balian is a legendary person with extraordinary experiences. Historically, there was a Balian of Ibelin (1140–1193) who was actually one of the most important lords of the Crusader states during the 12th century. He was a vassal to his elder brother, Baldwin, lord of Ramla, and through him, vassal to the King of Jerusalem.

In 1187, Balian fought at the disastrous Battle of Hattin, where Saladin succeeded in slaughtering the majority of the Crusader army and capturing King Guy de Lusignan. Balian was cut off from Jerusalem by Saladin's army. But when arriving in Jerusalem, he found the city defenseless and Saladin's attack was imminent, so he chose to stay preparing for the siege.

As we all see from the movie, although the Christian forces were massively outnumbered, they managed to hold off Saladin for several weeks. After this fierce resistance and the threat of destroying all temples and holy sites in the city, Balian negotiated a surrender of the city, in which seven thousand people would be allowed to go free in exchange for the sum of 3,000 bezants[106] paid to Saladin.

The Third Crusade resulted in only a partial victory for the Christians. After Richard concluded a hasty peace treaty with Saladin in 1192, although Balian's lands had been lost to the Muslims, Saladin compensated him by granting him the castle of Caymont and several other sites near Acre. He died in 1193.

This highly fictionalised version of Balian in the movie is a young man with a questioning sensibility about religion and social attitudes. Actually, this protagonist is the incarnation of a perfect noble knight. He undergoes a spiritual journey that tests both his values as a man and his ideals about religion. He also has his morality come into question through almost the entire movie. Does he join the dissenters of the church (Guy de Lusignan) or does he kill and lie to get what is offered—a seat of the throne? We see through the hero of Balian the true chivalry spirit of fearlessness, loyalty, fighting for the people, righteousness and peace.

(2) Baldwin IV: a Leper King

King Baldwin IV, another hero, only next to Balian in the movie, is equally worth knowing well. In the movie, he is able, just, peace-loving, generous despite that he suffers from leprosy. As the king of Jerusalem, he rules the people well whether they are Christians or Muslims, and he tries to avoid any conflict with Muslims and establishes peace with Saladin. Raynald's attacks to Muslim's caravan directly lead to Saladin's retaliation—siege of Kerak. At that point, the town is nearly lost. It's Baldwin IV that relieves the siege by negotiating with Saladin. Besides, after this battle he arrests Raynald for his belligerence. Internally, this arrest shows the king's firm policy of keeping harmony with Muslims; externally, the arrest helps Saladin's attitude towards the Crusader kingdom. But what's the real King Baldwin IV like in the historical record?

King Baldwin IV was born in 1161 to King Amalric I of Jerusalem and Queen Agnes of Courtenay. When playing as a child, it was noticed that he seemed to feel no pain in his limbs, and later was discovered that he had leprosy. Baldwin's father died in 1174, and he ascended the throne at the tender age of 13. Although he was too young to rule, he was not too young for duty. There would be many victorious battles for the young king, and the true history of him is fascinating. On the screen, he mentions twice about a battle that he wins when he is very young. There is indeed such a fight called the Battle of Montgisard[107] in which 16-year(-?)old Baldwin defeated Saladin who narrowly escaped. He must stand among the best examples of Christian chivalry in the struggle for the Holy Land. He was a man who understood suffering, the Church and the principles behind the chivalric code of Christianity. The leper king died on March 16, 1185 at the age of 24. He had reigned longer than anyone thought and won victories that many would have dismissed as impossible.

(3) Saladin: a Muslim Hero

The most famous of the Muslim military heroes was Saladin. For his account, the movie and the history almost have the general agreement to show that he is a real hero. Saladin achieved a great reputation in Europe as a chivalrous knight, due to his fierce struggle against the Crusaders and his generosity. Like Alexander or Caesar, the name of Saladin, the greatest figure of Islamic history, has a timeless quality.

Saladin was born in Takrit[108] in 1137, Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq) to a Kurdish[109] family. He was the first sultan of Egypt and Syria as well as the founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty. By age 31, Saladin became the commander of the Syrian troops and vizier[110] of Egypt. In the following years, Saladin used his considerable talents to bring the Muslim territories of Syria, Egypt, northern Mesopotamia and Palestine under his control. Then, in 1187, under Saladin's command, the Ayyubid army defeated the Crusaders at the decisive Battle of Hattin, and thereafter wrested control of Palestine from the Crusaders, who had conquered the area 88 years earlier. In contrast to the European conquest of Jerusalem, Saladin's capture of the city was far more civilized and less bloody. Although the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem continued to exist until the late 13th century, its defeat at Hattin marked a turning point in its conflict with the Muslim powers of the region. Actually, Saladin was not the brilliant military commander of popular imagination but that his true greatness lay in his spiritual vision. As an honest leader, Saladin baffled his enemies by refusing to play their political games and succeeded in uniting an army from all parts of the Muslim world without bloodshed. He died in 1193. It was really beyond everyone's expectation that the most powerful and most generous ruler in the Muslim world had not left enough money to pay for his grave. Saladin has become a prominent figure in Muslim, Arab, Turkish and Kurdish culture. Saladin's family continued to rule over Egypt and the neighboring lands as the Ayyubid Dynasty, which succumbed to the Mamluks in 1250.

4 Exercises

4.1 Multiple Choices

(1) Jerusalem plays an important role in three major religions except __________, as well as in a number of smaller religious groups.

A. Christianity

B. Judaism

C. Islam

D. Buddhism

(2) __________is a prophet, the "messenger of God” for .

A. Abraham, Muslims

B. Abraham, Christians

C. Jesus, Jews

D. Jesus, Christians

(3) __________is the most ancient religion in the world.

A. Christianity

B. Judaism

C. Islam

D. Buddhism

(4) __________is the largest religion in the modern world.

A. Christianity

B. Judaism

C. Islam

D. Buddhism

(5) __________was destroyed in 70 AD by the Romans and their leader Titus.

A. The First Temple

B. The Second Temple

C. The Western Wall

D. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre

(6) The three religions all take Foundation Stone located in __________ as their halidom, and it has become the chief culprit of religious conflict in Jerusalem.

A. Al-Aqsa Mosque

B. the Dome of the Rock

C. the Western Wall

D. the Church of the Holy Sepulchre

(7) Jerusalem is believed to be named after the __________ god Shalem.

A. Egyptian

B. Israeli

C. Persian

D. Canaanite

(8) __________served as the first direction of prayer for Muslims.

A. Medina

B. Jerusalem

C. Mecca

D. Damascus

(9) According to the story "the God's Creation” in the Bible, in the __________ day did God create man in His own image?

A. 1st

B. 4th

C. 6th

D. 7th

(10) The Western holidays of Good Friday and Easter are celebrated mainly for commemorating the __________ of Jesus.

A. birth and crucifixion

B. crucifixion and resurrection

C. birth and resurrection

D. betrayal and crucifixion

(11) By the end of the 4th century, __________has become the official state church of the Roman Empire and has played a prominent role in shaping Western civilization.

A. Protestantism

B. Judaism

C. Christianity

D. Catholicism

(12) The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is said to have been built over the location __________.

A. where Jesus was arrested and crucified

B. where Jesus was buried and resurrected

C. where Jesus was brought to as a child and where Jesus was resurrected

D. where Jesus was brought to as a child and where Jesus was crucified

(13) __________is influenced by Byzantine Christian architecture.

A. The Jewish Temple

B. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre

C. The Dome of the Rock

D. Al-Aqsa Mosque

(14) The code of chivalry having developed in medieval Europe had its roots in earlier centuries. It arose in the Holy Roman Empire from the idealisation of __________ involving military bravery, individual training and service to others.

A. the cavalryman

B. the lords

C. the soldiers

D. the peasants

(15) In 1187, Saladin began a major campaign against the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. His troops virtually destroyed the Christian army at __________, taking the city along with a large amount of territory.

A. the Battle of Arsuf

B. the Battle of Hattin

C. the Battle of Dorylaeum

D. the Battle of Mansura

(16) The movie Kingdom of Heaven depicts an epic story involving religious conflicts, military battles and romantic love that happens __________.

A. after the First Crusade, exactly between the First Crusade and the Second Crusade

B. after the Second Crusade, exactly between the Second Crusade and the Third Crusade

C. after the Third Crusade, exactly between the Third Crusade and the Fourth Crusade

D. after the Fourth Crusade, exactly between the Fourth Crusade and the Fifth Crusade

(17) Which of the following is NOT the effect of the Crusades?

A. They weakened the feudalism, and increased the power of papacy and also caused its decline.

B. They opened the door to the East for Europeans and promoted the development of economy in Europe.

C. They also liberalized the minds of the Arabs, helping them to be exposed to more knowledge that they had never known since the Western civilization at that time was more advanced.

D. The discovery of the Americas was the epoch-making event in history as the direct result of the Crusades.

(18) During the Crusades, __________had played an important role.

A. great lords

B. peasants

C. barons

D. knights

(19) Through the Crusades, ties between __________ and __________ were strengthened to an unprecedented level.

A. Christianity, knights

B. Christianity, popes

C. lords, knights

D. lords, peasants

(20) When he was still 16 years old, __________defeated fierce Saladin who narrowly escaped at the Battle of Montgisard.

A. King Richard I

B. King Baldwin IV

C. King Amalric I

D. King Baldwin V

4.2 Questions for Discussion

(1) What's the significance Jerusalem has in religion? Why has this holy city been a continuous source of friction and controversy?

(2) What do you know about the origin of such Western holidays as Christmas, Good Friday and Easter?

(3) What are the historical background and the general effects of the Crusades? How has Christianity influenced the Crusade knights in the name of religion?

(4) True chivalry virtues have a profound influence on Western people from generation to generation. Make a list of the chivalry virtues as far as you know and then talk about the impact it has on Western society.

(5) How do you understand the three major characters in the movie, i.e. Balian, Baldwin IV and Saladin? How do they perfectly demonstrate the chivalry spirit?

[1] Christendom: 基督教徒的总称；信奉基督教的国家。

[2] monotheistic religion: religions that believe in only one God. A few examples of monotheistic religions are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These three religions believe that God is one, and maybe it is because they are related in some ways for they evolve in the same geographical region.

[3] canonical books:基督教正典圣经。

[4] Constantinople:君士坦丁堡。The city was rebuilt on the site of ancient Byzantium by Constantine I in the 4th century who made it the capital of the Byzantine Empire and now the seat of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

[5] liturgical: 礼拜仪式的。

[6] jurisdiction: 司法权，审判权，管辖权。

[7] deaconesses: 女执事；牧师的女助手。

[8] ordination: 担任圣执。

[9] episcopacy: 主教制度，主教制。

[10] Cardinal: 红衣主教，枢机主教。

[11] Archbishop: 大主教。

[12] Sacraments: 圣事，又称圣礼，基督教各派的礼仪。

[13] Advent: 基督降临节。Advent is a season observed in many Christian churches as a time of expectant waiting and preparation for the celebration of the Nativity of Jesus at Christmas as well as the return of Jesus at the second coming. The term is a version of the Latin word meaning “coming”.

[14] Lent: 大斋节，亦称封斋节，基督教的斋戒节期。Lent is a solemn religious observance in the Christian liturgical calendar that begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later, before Easter Sunday.

[15] Pentecost:圣灵降临节。The Christian holiday of Pentecost, which is celebrated on the seventh Sunday (49 days) after Easter, commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles and other followers of Jesus Christ while they were in Jerusalem celebrating the Feast of Weeks, as described in the Acts of the Apostles.

[16] Deuterocanonicals: 次经或次正经。It is a term adopted in the 16th century by the Roman Catholic Church to denote those books and passages of the Christian Old Testament, as defined in 1546 by the Council of Trent, that were not found in the Hebrew Bible.

[17] Apocrypha:新约外传，未列入《新约》的某些类似《圣经》的基督教著作。They are not printed in Protestant versions of the Bible.

[18] The Gregorian calendar:格里高利历，现在国际通用的历法。The Gregorian calendar is internationally the most widely used civil calendar. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII who introduced it in October 1582.

[19] the Julian calendar:儒略历，格里历的前身。

[20] apostolic succession:使徒的继承，指主教的职权是从耶稣的使徒延续下来的。

[21] eschatology:末世论。

[22] Torah:犹太律法。The Torah or Jewish Written Law consists of the five books of the Hebrew Bible known more commonly to non-Jews as the “Old Testament” that were given by God to Moses and include within them all of the biblical laws of Judaism.

[23] Isaac:以撒。He is the second patriarch in the Old Testament and son of Abraham and Sarah who was offered by Abraham as a sacrifice to God and also the father of Jacob and Esau.

[24] Jacob:雅各。He is the son of Isaac in the Old Testament and father of the twelve patriarchs of Israel.

[25] Ibrahim:易卜拉欣。Ibrahim, known as Abraham in the Hebrew Bible, is recognised as a prophet and messenger of God in Islam.

[26] Ishmael: 以赛玛利或以实玛利，亚伯拉罕与夏甲的儿子。Ishmael is a figure in the Tanakh and the Qur’an and was Abraham's first son according to Jews, Christians and Muslims. Ishmael was born to Abraham and Sarah's handmaiden Hagar. According to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137. The Islamic traditions consider Ishmael to be the ancestor of the Arabs.

[27] Constantine I: 君士坦丁一世，又称君士坦丁大帝。Constantine I (272 AD–337 AD), also known as Constantine the Great or Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor of Illyrian and Greek origin from 306 AD to 337 AD. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity. He played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which declared religious tolerance for Christianity in the Roman Empire. He has historically been referred to as the “First Christian Emperor”, and he did heavily promote the Christian Church. The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself. It became the capital of the Empire for more than a thousand years, with the later Eastern Roman Empire now being referred to as the Byzantine Empire by historians.

[28] Edict of Milan:米兰赦令。The Edict of Milan was the February 313 AD agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire. Western Roman Emperor Constantine I, and Licinius met in Milan and among other things, agreed to change policies towards Christians following the Edict of Toleration by Galerius issued two years earlier in Serdica. The Edict of Milan gave Christianity a legal status, but did not make Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.

[29] Levant:黎凡特。The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean.

[30] Tanakh:塔纳赫。The Tanakh, also called Hebrew Bible, is the canonical collection of Jewish texts, which is also a textual source for the Christian Old Testament. The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books.

[31] Mecca: 麦加。As the birthplace of Muhammad, it is the capital of Saudi Arabia and the holiest city of Islam.

[32] Iberia: 伊比利亚半岛。It refers to a peninsula in southwestern Europe.

[33] Allah:安拉。Allah is the Arabic word for God in Abrahamic religions. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam.

[34] Qur’an: 伊斯兰教的经典《古兰经》。The Qur’an is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God (Allah). It is widely regarded as the finest work in classical Arabic literature.

[35] Five Pillars of Islam: 五功，伊斯兰教基本功课的总称。

[36] fasting: 斋功，即斋戒。Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk during this month and are to be especially mindful of other sins. Fasting is necessary for every Muslim that has reached puberty (unless he/she suffers from a medical condition which prevents him/her from doing so).

[37] Sunni:逊尼派，伊斯兰教主要教派之一，全称“逊奈与大众派”。Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the exemplary behaviour of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

[38] Shia: 什叶派，伊斯兰教的第二大教派。Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor (Imam). The differences between Sunni and Shia Muslims arose from a disagreement over the choice of Muhammad's successor and subsequently acquired broader political significance, as well as theological and juridical dimensions.

[39] Messiah: 弥赛亚。古犹太语，希伯来文“救世主”的意思，如基督教里的弥赛亚就是耶稣。

[40] Circumcision: 男性割礼。Male circumcision is the removal of the foreskin from the human penis. Various theories have been proposed as to its origin including as a religious sacrifice and as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood. It is part of religious law in Judaism and is an established practice in Islam, Coptic Christianity and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

[41] Bar Mitzvah: 受戒礼。Bar Mitzvah is a Jewish coming of age ritual for boys. According to Jewish law, when Jewish boys become 13 years old, they become accountable for their actions and bear their own responsibility for Jewish ritual law, tradition and ethics, and are able to participate in all areas of Jewish community life.

[42] Sabbath: 安息日，犹太教的古老节日。Sabbath is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, commanded by God to be kept as a holy day of rest, as God rested from creation.

[43] Ramadan: 斋月，拉玛丹月。Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, observed by Muslims worldwide as a month of fasting to commemorate the first revelation of the Qur’an to Muhammad according to Islamic belief. While fasting from dawn until sunset, Muslims refrain from consuming food, drinking liquids, smoking and engaging in sexual relations.

[44] Ten Commandments: 十诫。The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue, found in the Ark of the Covenant are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which include: I am the LORD thy God; No other gods before me; Not take the LORD's name in vain; Remember the Sabbath day; Honour thy father and thy mother; Thou shalt not kill; Thou shalt not commit adultery; Thou shalt not steal; Thou shalt not bear false witness; Thou shalt not covet.

[45] Apocalypse: 启示录。It is the last book of the New Testament containing visionary descriptions of heaven and of conflicts between good and evil and of the end of the world.

[46] Nazareth:拿撒勒。Nazareth is the capital and the largest city in the Northern District of Israel. It is also known as “the Arab capital of Israel”. In the New Testament, the town is described as the childhood home of Jesus, and as such is a center of Christian pilgrimage, with many shrines commemorating biblical events.

[47] rabbi:拉比。In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. Now it is a Hebrew title of respect for a Jewish scholar or teacher.

[48] John the Baptist: 施洗者约翰。John the Baptist was a Jewish itinerant preacher in the early 1st century AD. He is called a prophet and is honoured as a saint in many Christian traditions. Christians commonly refer to John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus, since John announces Jesus’ coming.

[49] Pontius Pilate: 本丢·彼拉多，罗马帝国犹太行省的执政官。Pontius Pilate was the fifth prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26 AD to 36 AD. He is best-known today for the trial and crucifixion of Jesus.

[50] Galilee: 加利利。Galilee is a region in northern Israel, and it's said to be the hometown of Jesus.

[51] Calvary: 骷髅地；耶稣被钉上十字架的地方。

[52] Paschal Triduum:逾越节的三日庆典。

[53] vernal equinox: 春分。

[54] Easter Triduum:复活节为期三天的祈祷。

[55] Maundy Thursday:圣周四或濯足节，基督教纪念耶稣建立圣体圣血之圣餐礼的节日。

[56] Eastertide: 复活节季，复活期。

[57] Jebusites:大卫与所罗门时代的耶布斯人。

[58] Ottoman Empire Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent:奥斯曼帝国苏丹·苏莱曼大帝。Suleiman I, commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West, was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566.

[59] Temple Mount: 圣殿山，耶路撒冷老城的宗教圣地。The Temple Mount is a hill located in the Old City of Jerusalem that for thousands of years has been venerated as a holy site, in Judaism, Christianity and Islam alike.

[60] King David:大卫王。David is described in the Hebrew Bible as the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah. David is richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition, and is discussed in the New Testament.

[61] Solomon: 所罗门王。Solomon was, according to the Hebrew Bible, Qur’an, a fabulously wealthy and wise king of Israel who succeeded his father, King David, from 970 BC to 931 BC. He is described as the third king of the United Monarchy. The Hebrew Bible credits him as the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem, beginning in the 4th year of his reign. Solomon is the subject of many other later references and legends, most notably in the 1st century apocryphal work known as the Testament of Solomon.

[62] the Babylonian Empire: 巴比伦帝国，也可称为巴比伦王国。The Babylonian Empire was the most powerful state in the ancient world after the fall of the Assyrian Empire (612 BC). Even after the Babylonian Empire had been overthrown by the Persian king Cyrus the Great (539 BC), the city itself remained an important cultural center.

[63] Cyrus the Great, the King of Persia: 古代波斯皇帝，世称“居鲁士大帝”。Cyrus II of Persia, commonly known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire, the first Persian Empire. Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia and the Caucasus.

[64] Judea:朱迪亚，古巴勒斯坦南部地区。

[65] King Herod the Great:大希律王，亦被称为希律大帝一世，罗马帝国在耶路撒冷的代理王。Herod, also known as Herod the Great and Herod I, was a Roman client king of Judea, referred to as the Herodian kingdom. The history of his legacy has polarized opinion, as he is known for his colossal building projects throughout Judea, including his expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (Herod's Temple), the construction of the port at Caesarea Maritima, the fortress at Masada, and Herodium. Herod also appears in the Christian Gospel of Matthew as the ruler of Judea who orders the Massacre of the Innocents at the time of the birth of Jesus.

[66] Titus:提图斯。Titus was the Roman emperor from 79 AD to 81 AD. A member of the Flavian Dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death, thus becoming the first Roman emperor to come to the throne after his own biological father.

[67] Byzantine Empire:拜占庭帝国，即东罗马帝国。The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, which had been founded as Byzantium). It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural and military force in Europe.

[68] the Mamluk Dynasty:马穆鲁克王朝。The Mamluk Dynasty (sometimes referred as Slave Dynasty or Ghulam Dynasty) was directed into Northern India by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, a Turkic Mamluk slave general from Central Asia. The Mamluk Dynasty ruled from 1206 to 1290; it was the first of five unrelated dynasties to rule as the Delhi Sultanate till 1526.

[69] the Ottoman Empire:奥斯曼土耳其帝国。The Ottoman Empire, also historically known in Western Europe as the Turkish Empire or simply Turkey, was an imperial state that was founded in 1299 after growing out of the breakdown of several Turkish tribes. The empire then grew to include many areas in what is now present(-?)day Europe, and it eventually became one of the largest, most powerful and longest-lasting empires in the history of the world.

[70] Mount Zion: 耶路撒冷旧城南锡安山。

[71] Mount of Olives:耶路撒冷以东的橄榄山。

[72] the Shrine of the Ascension: 耶稣升天圣殿。

[73] Rotunda: 圆形大厅。

[74] The Via Dolorosa:痛苦之路，耶稣赴各各他刑场路线。

[75] Mount Moriah:摩利亚山，即圣殿山。

[76] Holy of Holies:圣殿内的至圣所。

[77] the Ark of the Covenant:约柜，以色列民族的圣物。The Ark of the Covenant, also known as the Ark of the Testimony, is a gold-covered wooden chest with lid cover described in the Book of Exodus as containing the two stone tablets of the Ten Commandments.

[78] qibla: 穆斯林朝圣方向。

[79] King Hussein of Jordan:约旦国王侯赛因。

[80] the Pierced Stone:穿通石。

[81] Cain, Abel:分别是该隐和亚伯。In the Old Testament, Cain and Abel were the first children of Adam and Eve born after the Fall of Man. Cain killed Abel out of jealousy and was exiled by God.

[82] Noah:诺亚。He is the Hebrew patriarch who saved himself and his family and the animals by building an ark in which they survived 40 days and 40 nights of rain in the Book of Genesis.

[83] Hakim, the Fatimid Caliph: 穆罕穆德之女法蒂玛后裔的哈里发，穆斯林统治者哈基姆。

[84] the Seljuk Turks:塞尔柱王朝的土耳其人。The Seljuk Turkish history spanned the period from 1060 to around 1307. The Seljuk Turks were nomadic horsemen who converted to Islam and recognised the Abbasid Caliph. They conquered much of Central Asia and the Middle East and established a powerful empire in Persia in the 11th century. They captured Baghdad in 1055.

[85] Pope Urban II:乌尔班二世，罗马教皇。He was Pope from March 12, 1088 to his death in 1099. Before his papacy, he was the Bishop of Ostia under the name Eudes. He is best-known for initiating the First Crusade and setting up the modern-day Roman Curia in the manner of a royal ecclesiastical court to help run the Church.

[86] the Council of Clermont: 克勒芒宗教大会。The Council of Clermont was a mixed synod of ecclesiastics and laymen of the Catholic Church, called by Pope Urban II and held from November 18 to 28, 1095 at Clermont, Auvergne, at the time part of the Duchy of Aquitaine.

[87] King Louis VII of France:法国国王路易七世。Louis VII was King of France from 1137 until his death. He was the son and successor of King Louis VI of France, hence his nickname, and married Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Western Europe.

[88] King Conrad III of Germany:德国国王康拉德三世。Conrad III (1093–1152) was the first king of Germany of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. He was the son of Duke Frederick I of Swabia and Agnes, a daughter of the Salian Emperor Henry IV.

[89] Dorylaeum:多利留姆，安纳托利亚的古城。

[90] Battle of Hattin: 哈丁战役。The Battle of Hattin took place on July 4, 1187, between the Crusader states of the Levant and the forces of the Ayyubid Sultan—Saladin. It is also known as the Battle of the Horns of Hattin, from a nearby extinct volcano. The Muslim armies under Saladin captured or killed the vast majority of the Crusader forces, removing their capability to wage war. As a direct result of the battle, Muslims once again became the eminent military power in the Holy Land, reconquering Jerusalem and most of the other Crusader-held cities.

[91] Guy of Lusignan: Guy of Lusignan (1150–1194) was a French knight, son of Hugh VIII of the Lusignan Dynasty. He was King of the Crusader state of Jerusalem from 1186 to 1192 by right of marriage to Sibylla of Jerusalem, and of Cyprus from 1192 to 1194. Guy's reign was marked by increased hostilities with the Ayyubids ruled by Saladin, culminating in the Battle of Hattin in July 1187—during which Guy was captured—and the fall of Jerusalem itself three months later.

[92] Emperor Frederick Barbarossa: Frederick I (1122–1190), also known as Frederick Barbarossa which means “red beard” in Italian, was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death. He was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on March 4, 1152 and crowned in Aachen on March 9, 1152. He became King of Italy in 1155 and was crowned Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV on June 18, 1155. Frederick died in 1190 in Asia Minor while leading an army in the Third Crusade.

[93] King Philip II of France: Philip II, known as Philip Augustus (1165–1223), was King of France from 1180 to 1223, a member of the House of Capet. Philip transformed France from a small feudal state into the most prosperous and powerful country in Europe.

[94] King Richard I of England: Richard I (1157–1199) was King of England from 1189 until his death. He was known as Richard the Lionheart because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior. By the age of 16, Richard had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father. Richard was a central Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and scoring considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he did not retake Jerusalem from Saladin.

[95] Battle of Arsuf: 阿苏夫战役。The Battle of Arsuf was a battle of the Third Crusade in which Richard I of England defeated the forces of Ayyubid leader Saladin.

[96] Pope Innocent III: Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential popes, reigning from 1198 to his death in 1216. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian states of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings.

[97] Ayyubid state: 阿尤布王朝。The Ayyubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Diyarbakir, Mecca, Hejaz and northern Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. Under Saladin, founder of the dynasty, Egypt became the leading Muslim state in the region.

[98] Damietta: 达米埃塔，埃及东北部城市。

[99] Acre:阿卡，以色列西北部海港。

[100] King Louis IX: Louis IX (1214–1270), commonly known as Saint Louis, was King of France and is a canonized Catholic and Anglican saint. Louis was crowned in Reims at the age of 12, following the death of his father Louis VIII the Lion, although his mother, Blanche of Castile, ruled the kingdom until he reached maturity.

[101] Mansura: 曼苏拉，埃及城市。

[102] Francia: Francia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks, or Frankish Empire, was the largest post-Roman Barbarian Kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Franks during Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages.

[103] Charlemagne: Charlemagne or Charles the Great (742–814), numbered Charles I, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Holy Roman Emperor from 800. He united much of Western and central Europe during the early Middle Ages. He was the first recognised emperor to rule from Western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state that Charlemagne founded is called the Carolingian Empire. He was later canonized by the pope.

[104] scutage: Scutage is a medieval English tax levied on holders of a knight's fee under the feudal land tenure of knight-service. Under feudalism, the king, through his vassals, provided land to knights for their support. The knights owed the king military service in return. The knights were allowed to “buy out” the military service by paying scutage. As time passed, the king began to impose a scutage on holders of knight's fees, even in time of peace.

[105] the Peace of God and the Truce of God:上帝的和平与休战。The Peace and Truce of God was a medieval European movement of the Catholic Church that applied spiritual sanctions to limit the violence of private war in feudal society. The Peace of God was a movement begun by bishops in southern France around 990 AD to limit the violence done to property and to the unarmed. The Truce of God extended the Peace by setting aside certain days of the week when violence was not allowed. Where the Peace of God limited violence against the church and the poor, the Truce of God was about preventing fighting between Christians, especially knights.

[106] bezant: 拜占庭帝国时的金币。

[107] Battle of Montgisard: It was fought between the Ayyubids and the Kingdom of Jerusalem on November 25, 1177. The 16-year-old King Baldwin IV, seriously afflicted by leprosy, led an out-numbered Christian force against the army of Saladin. The Muslim army was quickly routed and pursued for twelve miles. Saladin fled back to Cairo, reaching the city on December 8. Muslim historians considered Saladin's defeat to be so severe that it was only redeemed by his victory at the Horns of Hattin in 1187.

[108] Takrit: 提克里特。

[109] Kurdish:库尔德人。The Kurds or the Kurdish people are an ethnic group in the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a contiguous area spanning adjacent parts of southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdistan), northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan), northern Iraq (Southern Kurdistan) and northern Syria (Western Kurdistan). The Kurds are culturally, historically and linguistically classified as belonging to the Iranian peoples.

[110] vizier:伊斯兰教国家高官。

Section Three British Culture

—Elizabeth: The Golden Age

I have already joined myself in marriage to my husband, namely the Kingdom of England.

—Elizabeth

1 Brief Introduction

1.1 Director and Stars

Director:

Shekhar Kapur

Stars:

Cate Blanchett as Elizabeth I

Clive Owen as Sir Walter Raleigh

Geoflrey Rush as Sir Francis Walsingham

Tom Hollander as Amias Paulet

Abbie Cornish as Elizabeth Throckmorton

Samantha Morton as Mary, Queen of Scotland

1.2 Synopsis

Elizabeth: The Golden Agetells Queen Elizabeth I facing bloodlust for her throne and familial betrayal. Growing keenly aware of the changing religious and political tides of the late 16th century Europe, Elizabeth finds her rule openly challenged by the Spanish King Philip II who has determined to restore England to Catholicism with his powerful army and sea-dominating Armada. Preparing to go to war to defend her empire, Elizabeth struggles to balance ancient Royal duties with an unexpected vulnerability in her love for Sir Walter Raleigh. But he remains forbidden for a queen who has sworn body and soul to her country. Unable and unwilling to pursue her love, Elizabeth encourages her favourite lady-in-waiting, Bess, to befriend Raleigh to keep him near. But, this strategy forces Elizabeth to observe their growing intimacy. Through an intricate spy network, her loyal chamberlain Walsingham uncovers an assassination plot that could topple the throne. Mary, Queen of Scotland is executed. Elizabeth, back at her coastal headquarters, walks out to the cliffs and watches the Spanish Armada sinking in flames. Elizabeth visits Walsingham on his deathbed, telling her old friend to rest. She then visits Raleigh and Bess and blesses their child. Elizabeth seemingly triumphs personally through her ordeal, and resigns to her role as the Virgin Queen and mother to the English people.

1.3 Movies on Elizabeth I

Young Bess,1953

Elizabeth,1998

The Virgin Queen,2005

Elizabeth I,2005

2 Language Points

2.1 Words and Phrases

plunge

v.to thrust or throw into

使陷入

e.g. The earthquake plunged all the people into deep fear.

地震使所有人陷入深深的恐惧之中。

(Movie) Philip of Spain, a devout Catholic, has plunged Europe into holy war.

虔诚的天主教徒西班牙国王菲利普让欧洲陷入圣战之中。

be enslaved to

to be made a slave to

受制于

e.g. Why should we always be enslaved to him?

为什么我们总要受制于他？

(Movie) England is enslaved to the devil.

英国正受着恶魔的奴役。

assassin

n.a murderer (especially one who kills a prominent political figure) who kills by a treacherous surprise attack and often is hired to do the deed

刺客

e.g. He is suspected of being a top assassin in a group of hit men.

他被认为是职业杀手组织的一名顶级杀手。

(Movie) Every Catholic in England is a potential assassin!

英国的所有天主教徒都可能是刺客！

atrocity

n.the quality of being shockingly cruel and inhuman

暴行

e.g. It was the worst atrocity in Europe since the Second World War.

这是二战以来欧洲最严重的暴行。

(Movie) Be warned by the atrocities in France.

要吸取法国的残忍教训。

immense

adj.unusually great in size or amount or degree or scope

极大的，巨大的

e.g. Big Ben is not only of immense size, but is extremely accurate as well.

大本钟不仅外形巨大，而且走时也非常准确。

(Movie) Immense numbers, Majesty.

数量相当多，陛下。

cling to

to take hold 固守

e.g. Most of parents cling to the hope that their children are still alive.

大部分家长依然坚信他们的孩子还活着。

(Movie) Half the nation cling to the old superstitions.

半数人民墨守旧教。

torment

v.to treat cruelly

折磨

e.g. The child was tormented by toothache.

这个小孩受牙痛折磨。

(Movie) Why does everyone torment me with Mary Stuart?

为什么每个人都拿玛丽·斯图亚特来烦我？

customary

adj.conventional, usual

惯常的

e.g. The king carried himself with his customary elegance.

国王保持着一贯的温文尔雅。

(Movie) I’ve heard it's customary to obtain a husband before producing an heir.

按照常理来说，要先有个丈夫，才能有后代。

confine to

to limit in a certain area

限于……之内

e.g. Marriages should not confine to the same class.

婚姻不应该只限制在同一个阶级之内。

(Movie) I confine myself to the possible.

我只看到可能的人选。

tumble down

to fall in deplorable condition

倒塌，跌倒

e.g. The outer walls looked likely to tumble down in a stiff wind.

外墙看起来一刮强风就会倒塌。

(Movie) You know very well if I fall, you’ll all come tumbling down after me.

你很清楚如果我倒了，你们全都会跟着倒。

leash

n.a figurative restraint

束缚

e.g. She keeps her children on a tight leash to make sure they don’t get into trouble.

她严加管教自己的孩子，以保证他们不会惹麻烦。

(Movie) An Austrian alliance would keep France quiet. And put Philip on a leash.

与奥地利联姻，法国就不敢轻举妄动，还能控制菲利普。

provocation

n.the act to arouse conflict

挑衅

e.g. The assault had taken place under provocation.

这场攻击是因挑衅而起。

(Movie) Spanish gold was stolen from Spanish ships, attacked without provocation.

肆意攻击西班牙船只，掠夺西班牙黄金。

see that

to make sure that

务必使……

e.g. We test each one to see that it flies well.

我们对每架飞机都会进行测试，以确保其飞行性能良好。

(Movie) See that they are treated well.

一定要好好招待他们。

restore

v.to return to its original or usable and functioning condition

恢复

e.g. It is hard to restore the land to what it was.

很难让这片土地恢复原貌。

(Movie) Only your love, my stattlich Elizabeth, can restore me into life.

只有您的爱，尊贵的伊丽莎白，才能让我重生。

grip

n.a firm controlling influence

控制

e.g. Britain is still in the grip of recession.

英国依然没有摆脱经济衰退。

(Movie) You live in the grip of fear.

你生活在恐惧之中。

confer

v.to present

给予

e.g. Jogging will confer striking benefits.

慢跑会带来明显的益处。

(Movie) Male desire confers no distinction.

男人的欲望都是一样的。

realm

n.a domain ruled by a king or queen

王国，国度

e.g. Fairy tales bring children into the realm of myth.

童话带领孩子们进入到了这个神话王国。

(Movie) If our forces are in readiness, both within and without the realm, then

your Queen commands you to set the gentlemen to work.

等内外人马都准备就绪，女王就会命令你们开始行动。

preach at

to persuade sb. in a boring way

向某人唠唠叨叨地说教

e.g. It is improper to preach at children when they are sleepy.

孩子们困倦的时候，向他们唠唠叨叨地说教是不合适的。

(Movie) Don’t preach at me, old man!

别跟我说教，老家伙！

in accordance with

in agreement with

依照

e.g. China will reinforce its overall administration over cyberspace in accordance with the law.

中国将加大依法管理网络的力度。

(Movie) When the storm breaks, each man acts in accordance with his own nature.

当暴风雨来袭时，人们会依照本能行事。

bowel

n.the part deep inside sth.

内部；深处

e.g. There are loads of freight in the bowels of the ship.

这艘船的船舱里装满了货物。

(Movie) This Armada that sails against us, carries in its bowels the Inquisition.

无敌舰队朝我们驶来，要对我们进行宗教裁判。

harass

v. to exhaust by attacking repeatedly

反复袭击

e.g. The navy's task was to harass the retreating enemy forces.

这支海军的任务是不断袭击撤退中的敌军部队。

(Movie) We must continue to engage and harass the enemy.

我们必须持续应战，反复打击敌人。

resolved

adj.determined

下定决心的

e.g. I am resolved to lose weight.

我下定决心减肥。

(Movie) I am resolved in the midst and heat of the battle to live or die amongst you all!

我决定投入这场战役里，与你们一起共生死！

proceed

v. to move ahead; to travel onward in time or space

前进

e.g. The troop proceeded with energy.

军队精神抖擞地前进。

(Movie) Our orders are to proceed with all haste.

我们的任务是全速前进。

prime

v.to insert sth. into (a gun, mine or charge) preparatory to firing

填装

e.g. The gun can not be primed again.

这把枪不能再装弹药了。

(Movie) If that cannon's primed, set the fuse!

大炮装好弹药，点燃引线！

wrath

n.intense anger

愤怒

e.g. The king's unjust laws raised a great wrath among the people.

国王不公正的法律引起很大的民怨。

(Movie) Oh, God Almighty, calm your wrath.

伟大的上帝啊，请平息你的怒火。

perish

v. to pass from physical life and lose all bodily attributes and functions necessary to sustain life

毁灭

e.g. Civilizations do eventually decline and perish.

各种文明最后都会衰落、消亡。

(Movie) Our armies have perished.

我们的军队已被消灭。

prosperity

n.a flourish condition

繁荣

e.g. Our government aims to bring about development and prosperity.

我们的政府旨在实现发展和繁荣。

(Movie) England entered a time of peace and prosperity.

英国进入了和平与繁荣的时代。

2.2 Terms

(1) Ivan the Terrible

Ivan IV Vasilyevich, commonly known as Ivan the Terrible, was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547 and Tsar of All Russia from 1547 until his death in 1584. He became the first ruler to be crowned as Tsar of All Russia.

(2) The New World

The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas (including nearby islands such as those of the Caribbean and Bermuda). The term originated in the early 16th century after Europeans made landfall in what would later be called the Americas in the age of discovery.

(3) Papist

Papist is a sectarian term referring to the Roman Catholic Church, its teachings, practices, or adherents. It is usually understood as a disparaging term. The word gained currency during the English Reformation, as it was used to denote a person whose loyalties were to the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church, rather than to the Church of England. Attested from 1522, papist derives (through Middle French) from Latin papa, meaning "Pope”.

3 Cultural References

3.1 The British Houses

British history encompasses events that shaped and reshaped the world map, and influential figures whose legacy remains with us today. When it comes to British Houses, there are eight (ten in another version). Chronologically, they are the House of Norman, the House of Plantagenet, the House of Lancaster, the House of York, the House of Tudor, the House of Stuart, the House of Hanover and the House of Windsor. In another version, there are the House of Anjou after the House of Plantagenet and the House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha before the House of Windsor.

3.1.1 The British Houses Before House of Tudor

(1) The House of Norman (1066–1154)

The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.

(2) From the House of Plantagenet to the House of York (1154–1485)

The well-known Hundred Years’ War and the Wars of the Roses all took place in the following three Houses. First, the House of Plantagenet was a royal house having originated from the lands of Anjou in France. The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify several distinct royal houses. The family held the English throne from 1154, with the accession of Henry II, until 1485, when Richard III died. In the 15th century, the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years’ War and beset with social, political and economic problems.

Popular revolts were commonplace, triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms. English nobles raised private armies, engaged in private feuds and openly defied Henry VI. The rivalry between the House of Plantagenet's two cadet branches of Lancaster and York brought about the Wars of the Roses (The name Wars of the Roses refers to the badges associated with the two royal Houses, the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York), a decade-long fight for the English succession, culminating in 1485, when the reign of the Plantagenets and the English Middle Ages both met their end with the death of King Richard III. Henry VII, a Lancastrian, became King of England. Then, he married Elizabeth of York, thus ending the Wars of the Roses, and giving rise to the Tudor Dynasty. The Tudors worked to centralize English royal power, which allowed them to avoid some of the problems that had plagued the last Plantagenet rulers. The resulting stability allowed for the English Renaissance and the advent of early modern Britain.

3.1.2 The House of Tudor

The House of Tudor was a royal house of Welsh and English origin. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales and the Lordship of Ireland (later the Kingdom of Ireland) from 1485 until 1603.

The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a legitimised branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses, which left the House of Lancaster, to which the Tudors were aligned, extinct. Five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century (six monarchs in another version). Henry VIII of England was the only male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around the royal succession (including marriage and the succession rights of women) became major political themes during the Tudor era. The House of Stuart came to power in 1603 when the Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir.

(1) Henry Tudor

Henry Tudor was able to establish himself as a candidate not only for traditional Lancastrian supporters, but also for the discontented supporters of their rival House of York, and he rose to capture the throne in battle, becoming Henry VII. His victory was reinforced by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, symbolically uniting the former warring factions under a new dynasty. The Tudors extended their power beyond modern England, achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542 (Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542), and successfully asserting English authority over the Kingdom of Ireland.

(2) Henry VIII

Henry VIII (June 28, 1491–January 28, 1547) was King of England from April 22, 1509 until his death. He was the first English King of Ireland and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France. Henry III was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII. The Tudors also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France; although none of them made substance of it, Henry VIII fought wars with France trying to reclaim that title. After him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558.

(3) Edward VI

Edward VI (October 12, 1537–July 6, 1553) was King of England and Ireland from January 28, 1547 until his death. He was crowned on February 20 at the age of nine. The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was England's first monarch to be raised as a Protestant. Edward's reign was marked by economic problems and social unrest that erupted into riot and rebellion in 1549. Although his father, Henry VIII, had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome, Henry VIII had never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony. It was during Edward's reign that Protestantism was established for the first time in England with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass and the imposition of compulsory services in English. The architect of these reforms was Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, whose Book of Common Prayer[1] is still used.

In February 1553, at age 15, Edward fell ill. When his sickness was discovered to be terminal, he and his Council drew up a "Devise for the Succession”, attempting to prevent the country's return to Catholicism. Edward named his first cousin once removed, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. This decision was disputed following Edward's death, and Jane was deposed by Mary nine days after becoming Queen. During her reign, Mary reversed Edward's Protestant reforms, which nonetheless became the basis of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559.

(4) Mary I

Edward VI died in 1553, only 15 years old. Then his half-sister, Mary I, a Catholic, became Queen. Mary hated those who had upset her mother's marriage. She married the King of Spain. She reestablished Catholicism and brought the Church back under the power of Rome. She burned nearly 300 Protestants at the stake. Therefore, she was nicknamed "Bloody Mary”.

(5) Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch, was born at Greenwich on September 7, 1533, the daughter of Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England.

3.1.3 From the House of Stuart to the House of Windsor

(1) The House of Stuart/Stewart (1603–1649, 1660–1714)

According to world history books in China, the modern British history begins with James I who was James VI of Scotland. Because Elizabeth I died without heir, he inherited the realms of Elizabeth I of England, becoming James I of England in the Union of the Crowns. In all, four Stuart kings ruled the British Isles, with an interregnum of parliamentary rule lasting from 1649 to 1660 as a result of the English Civil War. Following the Glorious Revolution in 1688, two Stuart queens ruled the Isles: Mary II and Anne. Both were the daughters of James II and VII; because of their family's Catholic ties, under the terms of the 1701 Act of Settlement and the 1704 Act of Security, the crown passed from the House of Stuart to the House of Hanover.

(2) The House of Hanover (1714–1901)

In the history of the House of Hanover, there is another well-known Queen, who is Victoria. The House of Hanover succeeded the House of Stuart as monarchs of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714 and held that office until the death of Queen Victoria in 1901. Queen Victoria was the granddaughter of George III and was an ancestor of most major European royal houses. She arranged marriages for her children and grandchildren across the continent, tying Europe together, which earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe”. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover; her son King Edward VII belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father, Albert, Prince Consort. Under semi-Salic law, Victoria could not inherit the Kingdom of Hanover and the Duchies unless the entire male line became extinct. Those possessions passed to the next eligible male heir, her uncle Ernest Augustus I of Hanover, the Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale—the fifth son of George III.

(3) The House of Windsor (1917–now)

The House of Windsor is the royal house of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. It was founded by King George V by royal proclamation on July 17, 1917, when he changed the name of the British Royal Family from the German name (a branch of the House of Wettin) to the English Windsor, primarily due to the anti-German sentiment in the British Empire during World War I. The House of Windsor has produced four British sovereigns: George V (1910–1936); his son Edward VIII (1936) who abdicated the throne to marry the twice divorced American woman Wallis Warfield Simpson in favour of his brother George VI (1936–1952); the most prominent member of the House of Windsor Queen Elizabeth II (1952–present).

3.2 Henry VIII

Henry VIII was interested in military strategy. In his younger years, Henry was described as a man of gentle friendliness. But in his later years, he became grotesquely fat, became very irritable and was known for his great cruelty. Henry remains one of the most important monarchs to have ruled the English and the Welsh. He made several achievements in some aspects.

Legislation: He set up the Star Chamber[2].

Politics: He organised an efficient tax system and built up the Privy Council.

Economy: He encouraged the weaving industry, the ship-building and adventurous merchants.

He also engaged in exploring new lands. He restored the nation's finances. From then on, England became one of the wealthy European countries.

3.2.1 The Religious Reform

Henry is generally credited with initiating the English Reformation—the process of transforming England from a Catholic country to a Protestant one. Certainly, in 1527, Henry, until then an observant and well-informed Catholic, appealed to the Pope for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine. No annulment was immediately forthcoming, which was the result of Charles V's control of the Papacy on a scale. The traditional narrative gives this refusal as the trigger for Henry's rejection of papal supremacy (which he had previously defended), though as some historian has argued, even if Henry had not needed an annulment, Henry may have come to reject papal control over the governance of England purely for political reasons.

In any case, between 1532 and 1537, Henry instituted a number of statutes that dealt with the relationship between king and pope and hence the structure of the nascent Church of England. The Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England” and the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason, punishable by death, to refuse the Oath of Supremacy acknowledging the King as such. Similarly, following the passage of the Act of Succession 1533, all adults in the Kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions (declaring Henry's marriage to Anne legitimate and his marriage to Catherine illegitimate) by oath; those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life, and any publisher or printer of any literature alleging that the marriage to Anne was invalid subject to the death penalty. Finally, in response to the excommunication of Henry, the Peter's Pence Act was passed, and it reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace” and that Henry's "imperial crown” had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions” of the Pope. The King had much support from the Church under Cranmer.

Henry, to Thomas Cromwell's annoyance, insisted on parliamentary time to discuss questions of faith, which he achieved through the Duke of Norfolk. This led to the passing of the Act of Six Articles, whereby six major questions were all answered by asserting the religious orthodoxy, thus restraining the reform movement in England. It was followed by the beginnings of a reformed liturgy and of the Book of Common Prayer, which would be complete until 1549. The victory won by religious conservatives did not convert into much change in personnel, however, and Cranmer remained in his position. Overall, the rest of Henry's reign saw a subtle movement away from religious orthodoxy. The executions of several prominent figures such as Thomas More and John Fisher in 1535 reflected the religious policy of Henry VIII at that time. Henry established a new political theology of obedience to the crown that was continued for the next decade. It reflected Martin Luther's new interpretation of the fourth commandment ("Honour thy father and thy mother”), brought to England by William Tyndale. The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments was another important shift: reformers within the Church utilized the Commandments’emphasis on faith and the word of God, while conservatives emphasized the need for dedication to God and doing good. The reformers’ efforts lay behind the publication of the Great Bible in 1539 in English. Protestant Reformers still faced persecution, particularly over objections to Henry's annulment. Many fled abroad.

Although little opposition to the supremacy could be found in England's religious houses, they had links to the international church and were an obstacle to further religious reform.

Response to the reforms was mixed. The religious houses had been the only support of the impoverished, and the reforms alienated much of the population outside London, helping to provoke the great northern rising of 1536–1537, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace. Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed, and those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy. They would reemerge in the reign of Henry's daughter Mary (1553–1558).

3.2.2 Henry VIII and His Wives

(1) Catherine of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon was Henry's first wife. After the death of Arthur, her first husband and Henry's brother, a papal dispensation was obtained to enable her to marry Henry, though the marriage did not take place until after he came to the throne in 1509. Prospects were looking good when Catherine became pregnant in 1510, just four months after their marriage, but the girl was stillborn. Catherine became pregnant again in 1511, and gave birth to a boy who died almost two months later. In 1513, Catherine gave birth to a stillborn boy and gave birth to a boy who died within a month in 1514.

Finally, Catherine bore a healthy daughter in 1516, Mary. It took her two years to conceive again. This pregnancy ended in a short-lived girl. It is said that Henry truly loved Catherine of Aragon, and he himself professed it many a time in songs, letters, inscriptions, public declarations, etc.

Henry sought the Pope's approval for an annulment on the grounds that his marriage was invalid because Catherine had first been his brother's wife.

Henry had begun an affair with Anne Boleyn. Despite the Pope's refusal, Henry separated from Catherine in 1531. In the face of the Pope's continuing refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine, Henry ordered the highest church official in England, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, to convene a court to rule on the status of his marriage to Catherine. On May 23, 1533, Cranmer ruled the marriage to Catherine null and void.

On May 28, 1533, Cranmer pronounced the King legally married to Anne (with whom Henry had already secretly exchanged wedding vows, probably in late January 1533). This led to the break from the Roman Catholic Church and the later establishment of the Church of England.

Shakespeare called Catherine "The Queen of Earthly Queens”.

(2) Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn was Henry's second wife and the mother of Elizabeth I. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation. The daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Boleyn, Anne was of nobler birth than Jane Seymour, Henry's later wife. She was dark-haired, with beautiful features and lively manners; she was educated in Europe, largely as a lady-in-waiting to Queen Claude of France.

Anne resisted the King's attempts to seduce her in 1526 and she refused to become his mistress, as her sister Mary Boleyn had been. It soon became one absorbing object of the King's desires to secure a divorce from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, so he could marry Anne. Evidence of intimacy between the King and Anne was found in a love letter written by the King. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII was unlikely to give the King an annulment, the breaking of the power of the Roman Catholic Church in England began.

Henry had Thomas Wolsey dismissed from public office and later had the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1533, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service. She soon became pregnant and there was a second public wedding service which took place in London on January 25, 1533. On May 23, 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Soon after, the Pope launched sentences of excommunication against the King and the Archbishop.

As a result of Anne's marriage to the King, the Church of England was forced to break with Rome and was brought under the King's control. Anne was crowned Queen Consort of England on June 1, 1533. Later that year, on September 7, Anne gave birth to Henry's second daughter, Elizabeth. When Anne failed to quickly produce a male heir, her only son being stillborn, the King got tired of her and a plot was hatched by Thomas Cromwell to execute her.

Although the evidence against her was unconvincing, Anne was beheaded on charges of adultery, incest, and high treason on May 19, 1536. Following her daughter Elizabeth's coronation as Queen, Anne was venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John Foxe. Over the centuries, Anne has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works.

(3) Jane Seymour

Jane Seymour was Henry's third wife. She served Catherine of Aragon and was one of Anne Boleyn's ladies-in-waiting. It was strongly believed that she was the mistress who disposed of Anne, who was executed just 10–11 days before Jane's marriage to the King. The daughter of a knight, she was of lower birth than most of Henry's wives. Finally, a year later, Jane gave birth to a healthy, legitimate male heir, Edward, but Seymour died twelve days later. This apparently caused her husband genuine grief, as she was the only Queen to receive a proper Queen's burial; when the King died in 1547, he was buried next to her.

(4) Anne of Cleves

Anne of Cleves was Henry's fourth wife, for only six months in 1540, from January 6 to July 9. Anne of Cleves was a German princess. It has been stated that Henry referred to her as "A Flanders Mare”, which may or may not be true; nevertheless, the label has stuck with Anne. Her pre-contract of marriage with Francis I, Duke of Lorraine, was cited as grounds for an annulment. Anne agreed to this, claiming that the marriage had not been consummated. She was given the name "The King's Sister” and became a friend to him and his children until his death. She outlived both the King and his last two wives, making her the last of the six wives to die.

(5) Catherine Howard

Catherine Howard was Henry's fifth wife between 1540–1541, sometimes known as "the rose without a thorn”. Henry was informed of her alleged adultery on November 1, 1541. She was beheaded three months later.

(6) Catherine Parr

Catherine Parr, also spelled Katheryn, was the sixth and last wife of Henry VIII. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Parr of Kendal. Through her father, Catherine was a descendant of John of Gaunt, son of King Edward III. Through John of Gaunt's daughter Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland (Henry's great-great grandmother), she was Henry's third cousin. By Henry's paternal descent from another of John of Gaunt's children, John Beaufort, the 1st Earl of Somerset, the two were also fourth cousins.

Catherine showed herself to be the restorer of Henry's court as a family home for his children. Catherine was determined to present the royal household as a close-knit one in order to demonstrate strength through unity to Henry's opposers. Perhaps, Catherine's most significant achievement was Henry's passing of an act that confirmed both Mary's and Elizabeth's line in succession for the throne, despite the fact that they had both been made illegitimate by divorce or remarriage. Such was Henry's trust in Catherine that he chose her to rule as Regent[3] while he was attending to the war in France and in the unlikely event of the loss of his life, she was to rule as Regent until Edward was nine years old.

Catherine also had a special place in history as she was the queen of England who had four husbands in all. Henry was her third. She had been widowed twice before marrying Henry. After Henry's death, she married Thomas Seymour, uncle of Edward VI of England, to whom she had formed an attachment prior to her marriage with Henry.

3.3 Elizabeth I

Elizabeth was born on September 7, 1533. She was Queen of England and Ireland from November 17, 1558 until her death on March 24, 1603. Sometimes, she was called the Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess. The childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor Dynasty. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeth's birth. Anne's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary, in spite of statute law to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became Queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.

In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first actions as Queen was the establishment of an English Protestant Church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity.

3.3.1 Her Way to the Throne

Her way to the throne was not smooth. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard. At birth, Elizabeth was the heir to the throne of England. Her older half-sister, Mary, had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to have a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession. She was baptised on September 10, 1533; Archbishop Thomas Cranmer stood as one of her godparents.

Elizabeth was two years old when her mother was beheaded on May 19, 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession. Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537. From his birth, Edward was undisputed heir apparent to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in his household and carried the chrisom or baptismal cloth, at his christening. She was very well-educated (fluent in six languages), and had inherited intelligence, determination and shrewdness from both parents. At her early age, Elizabeth could speak four languages: French, Flemish[4], Italian and Spanish. She could write English, Latin and Italian. Under a talented and skillful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation. At the end of her life, Elizabeth was also believed to speak Welsh, Cornish[5], Scottish and Irish in addition to the languages mentioned above.

The life of Elizabeth changed when Edward VI died on July 6, 1553, aged 15. His will swept aside the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary, Duchess of Suffolk. Lady Jane was proclaimed Queen by the Privy Council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On August 3, 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.

The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry Prince Philip of Spain, the son of Emperor Charles V and an active Catholic. Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.

In January and February 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out, which was soon suppressed. Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated regarding her role, and on March 18, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Charles V's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and the Chancellor, Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including Lord Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on May 22, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year. Crowds cheered her all along the way.

On April 17, 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become the queen. If, on the other hand, Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming the queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.

King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth. This interview was conducted at Hatfield House where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth had already made plans for her government. On November 6, Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir. On November 17, 1558, Mary died and Elizabeth succeeded to the throne at the age of 25. On January 15, 1559, Elizabeth I was crowned Queen by Owen Oglethorpe, bishop of Carlisle at Westminster Abbey, a little less than two months after the death of Mary I. The total cost of the celebrations, excluding the coronation banquet, was £16,741, which according to one calculation would equal about £3.5 million today. Like her predecessors, Elizabeth knew the importance of a good show, especially for a new monarch who needed to re-affirm her right to her crown.

3.3.2 Religious Policy of Elizabeth I

In religion, Elizabeth I was relatively tolerant, avoiding systematic persecution. After 1570, when the Pope declared her illegitimate and released her subjects from obedience to her, several conspiracies threatened her life. All plots were defeated, however, with the help of her ministers’ secret service. Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England. She kept to Catholic doctrines and practices but was free of the Papal control. Her religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.

For nearly 30 years, Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict.

Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England was able to face the danger from Spain. In 1588, Philip II wanted to bring England back to Catholicism and stopped England's aid to the Netherlands where Protestant rebels were in revolt against their Spanish masters.

3.3.3 Political Policies of Elizabeth I

In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father, brother and sister had been. One of her mottoes was "video et taceo” ("I see, and say nothing”). Although autocratic and capricious, Elizabeth had astute political judgement and chose her ministers well; these included Burghley (Secretary of State), Hatton (Lord Chancellor) and Walsingham (in charge of intelligence and also a Secretary of State).

Overall, Elizabeth's administration consisted of some 600 officials administering the great offices of state and a similar number dealing with the Crown lands (which funded the administrative costs). Social and economic regulations and laws and orders remained in the hands of the sheriffs at the local level, supported by unpaid justices of the peace.

Elizabeth's reign also saw many brave voyages of discovery, including those of Francis Drake, Walter Raleigh and Humphrey Gilbert, particularly to the Americas. These expeditions prepared England for an age of colonisation and trade expansion, which Elizabeth herself recognised by establishing the East India Company in 1600.

3.3.4 The Marriage Game of Elizabeth I

Elizabeth chose never to marry. She used her marriage prospects as a political tool in foreign and domestic policies. The "Virgin Queen” was presented as a selfless woman who sacrificed personal happiness for the good of the nation, to which she was, in essence, "married”.

From the start of Elizabeth's reign, it was expected that she would marry. She never did, although she received many offers for her hand; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships or that she knew herself to be infertile. She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King Philip II of Spain, marriage offered the chance of an heir. However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.

(1) Robert Dudley

Among marriages being considered for the Queen, Robert Dudley was regarded as a possible candidate for nearly a decade. Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself. In 1564, Elizabeth raised Dudley to the peerage as Earl of Leicester. Still, Dudley always "remained at the center of (Elizabeth's) emotional life”, as historian Susan Doran has described the situation. He died shortly after the defeat of the Armada. After Elizabeth's death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter” in her handwriting.

(2) Foreign Candidates

There were several foreign candidates who would like to get married with Elizabeth I. Francis, Duke of Anjou was one of them. Elizabeth called the duke her "frog”, finding him "not so deformed” as she had been led to expect.

Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy. She turned down Philip II's own hand early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King Eric XIV of Sweden. For several years, she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip II's cousin Archduke Charles of Austria. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated, and Elizabeth considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Duke of Anjou, and later, from 1572 to 1581, his brother Francis, Duke of Anjou, formerly Duke of Alençon. This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the southern Netherlands. Elizabeth seemed to have taken the courtship seriously for a time and wore a frog-shaped earring that Anjou had sent her. By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility. Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup. Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin or a goddess or both, not as a normal woman. At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin.” Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and turned it into an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.

Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people”.

3.3.5 Her Later Years

The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted fifteen years until the end of her reign. The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell. During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in public's affection for her.

One of the causes for this "second reign” of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called, was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power.

During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense and widespread resentment. This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.

Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death. Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance.

Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth. Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada and for successful raids against the Spanish, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea. In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record. Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad.

Elizabeth established an English Church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today. Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England. In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal. She once said, "I will not make windows into men's souls." It promoted the freedom of thoughts in public.

Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence. Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent. She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky; she believed that God was protecting her. Priding herself on being "mere English”, Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule.

The image of Elizabeth's reign is one of the triumphs and successes. The Queen herself was often called "Gloriana” "Good Queen Bess” and "The Virgin Queen”.

3.3.6 The Renaissance (1459–1600)

The English Renaissance is a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the late 15th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. As in most of the rest of northern Europe, England saw little of these developments until more than a century later. The beginning of the English Renaissance is often taken, as a convenience, to be 1485, when the Battle of Bosworth ended the Wars of the Roses and embarked on the Tudor Dynasty. Renaissance style and ideas, however, were slow to penetrate England, and the Elizabethan era in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance.

The English Renaissance is different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. The dominant art forms of the English Renaissance are literature and music. Visual arts in the English Renaissance were much less significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The English period began far later than the Italian, which was moving into Mannerism and the Baroque by the 1550s or earlier. In contrast, the English Renaissance can only truly be said to begin, shakily, in the 1520s, and it continues until perhaps 1620.

The period under the rule of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) saw the climax of the English Renaissance, with the works of William Shakespeare, and the start of English expansion and empire. Renaissance is a French word that means rebirth. Italian scholars first used the word in the mid-16th century to express the rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek culture.

Humanists refer to the writers, who worked for freedom equally and enlightenment. They sang the praises of life and social progress and attacked social evil and vice. A great English humanist was Sir Thomas More (1478–1535). His work Utopia became a humanistic classic in world literature. He gave analysis for the social contradictions in England in a period of primitive accumulation. In his opinion, existing society was "a conspiracy of the rich against the poor”.

Sir Thomas More was born in a well-to-do family. His father worked as a lawyer. More was a scholar by nature, sooner, he became a lawyer and at quite an early time, he was elected to parliament. When he was fifty-one years old, he was appointed the Lord Chancellor to Henry VIII. In 1532, More had to resign from the post because of his opposition to Henry's divorce and his church policy.

There are several distinctive features of English Renaissance.

• English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics.

• England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe.

• Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them.

• It was primarily artistic.

• English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.

Shakespeare (April 26, 1564–April 23, 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon”. His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about thirty-eight plays, one hundred and fifty-four sonnets, two long narrative poems and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello and Macbeth, which are considered some of the finest works in the English language.

Queen Elizabeth I enjoyed plays, dances and other entertainment during her rule. She was very fond of Shakespeare's plays. In some of his plays, Shakespeare cleverly hinted passages referring to the Queen and other events that had to do with both of their life time.

Queen Elizabeth I was an active and generous patron of the theatre. Shakespeare does not refer to Queen Elizabeth very often, making only one direct reference to her: "a fair vestal, throned by the west” (A Midsummer Night's Dream). When Elizabeth died in 1603, Shakespeare wrote no elegy for her, unlike most of the poets of the day. So although Shakespeare worked for the Queen as she demanded, there was no real indication that their relationship was any closer than that.

3.4 The Foreign Relations

3.4.1 The Relationship with Ireland

At the end of the 20th century, there were several terrible events between the UK and Ireland. Actually, the relationship between the two countries was complicated. Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, Irish population adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base to attack England. In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering men, women and children. During a revolt in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation”, be well treated; but she showed no sorrow when force and bloodshed were deemed necessary. Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the Nine Years’ War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with Spain, who backed the rebel leader Hugh O’Neill. In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent the 2nd Earl of Essex, to put the revolt down. To her frustration, he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. O’Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.

3.4.2 The Relationship with Scotland

In the era of Elizabeth I, her first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there. She feared that the French planned to invade England and put Mary, Queen of Scots, who was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, on the throne. Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant Church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. Mary refused to ratify the treaty.

3.4.3 The Relationship with France

When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. Lord Willoughby, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half of his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, northwest France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, the 2nd Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad.

3.4.4 The Relationship with Russia

Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the Tsardom of Russia originally established by her deceased brother. She often wrote to Ivan IV ("Ivan the Terrible”), on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. The Tsar even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted shelter in England should his rule be jeopardised. Upon Ivan's death, he was succeeded by his simple-minded son Feodor. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners and dismissed the English ambassador. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador. The negotiations failed. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered by Feodor's father, but was turned down.

3.4.5 The Relationship with Spain

In the Elizabethan era, the rivalry between England and Spain eventually exploded into conflict. The Spanish King Philip II, who was a devout Catholic, played an important role in the war.

(1) Philip II

Philip II of Spain (Spanish: Felipe II; May 21, 1527–September 13, 1598) was known in Spain as "Felipe el Prudente” ("Philip the Prudent”). His empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, including his namesake the Philippines. During his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Spanish Golden Age. The expression, "the empire on which the sun never sets”, was coined during Philip's time to reflect the extent of his dominion. From this point, it proves the influence of Spain.

During Philip's reign, there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575 and 1596. This was partly the cause of the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581. A devout Catholic, Philip is also known for organising a huge naval expedition against Protestant England in 1588, the Spanish Armada, which was unsuccessful, mostly due to storms and serious logistical problems.

Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England. To elevate Philip to Mary's rank, his father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him.

Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on July 25, 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman.

Under the terms of the Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, Philip enjoyed Mary I's titles and honours for as long as their marriage should last. All official documents, including Acts of Parliament, were to be dated with both their names, and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Philip. The marriage treaty also provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father in any war. The Privy Council instructed that Philip and Mary should be joint signatories of royal documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Parliament, which gave him the title of King and stated that he "shall aid her Highness...in the happy administration of her Grace's realms and dominions”. In other words, Philip was to reign with his wife together. As the new King of England could not read English, it was ordered that a note of all matters of state should be made in Latin or Spanish.

Acts which made it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed in Ireland and England. Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together. The coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign. During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Calais, England's last remaining possession in France.

Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of King of Ireland had been created in 1542 by Henry VIII after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland (King's County and Philipstown in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556.).

However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalize the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne including the ancient English claims to the French throne and ceased to be King of England, Ireland and as claimed by them France.

Upon Mary's death, the throne went to Elizabeth I. Philip had no wish to sever his tie with England and had sent a proposal of marriage to Elizabeth. However, she delayed in answering and in that time learned Philip was also considering a Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This union was deemed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and of his subsequent marriage to Boleyn, and hence claimed that Mary, Queen of Scots, the Catholic great granddaughter of Henry VII, was the legitimate heir to the throne.

For many years, Philip maintained peace with England and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of piracy against Spanish trade and threatened to plunder the great Spanish treasure ships coming from the new world. English ships went so far as to attack a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the Treaty of Nonsuch[6] signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the rebels. Although it can be argued that this English action was the result of Philip's Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France, Philip considered it an act of war by England.

(2) Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)

① Reasons for Anglo-Spanish War

In the 1560s, Philip II of Spain was faced with increasing religious disturbances as Protestantism gained adherents in his domains in the Low Countries. As a defender of the Catholic Church, he sought to suppress the rising Protestant heresy in his territories, which eventually exploded into open rebellion in 1566. Meanwhile, relations with the regime of Elizabeth I of England continued to deteriorate, following her restoration of royal supremacy over the Church of England through the Act of Supremacy in 1559, first instituted by her father Henry VIII and rescinded by her sister Mary I. The Act was considered by Catholics as an misconduct of papal authority. Calls by leading English Protestants to support the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip increased tensions further as the Catholic-Protestant disturbances in France did, which saw both sides supporting the opposing French factions.

Complicating matters were commercial disputes. The activities of English sailors, begun by Sir John Hawkins in 1562, gained the tacit support of Elizabeth, even though the Spanish government complained that Hawkins’ trade with their colonies in the West Indies constituted smuggling. In September 1568, a slaving expedition led by Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake was surprised by the Spanish, and several ships were captured or sunk at the Battle of San Juan de Ulúa near Veracruz, Mexico. This engagement soured Anglo-Spanish relations and in the following year, the English detained several treasure ships sent by the Spanish to supply their army in the Netherlands. Drake and Hawkins intensified their privateering as a way to break the Spanish monopoly on Atlantic trade.

English support was provided to Prior of Crato in his struggle with Philip II for the Portuguese throne. Philip began to support the Catholic rebellion in Ireland against Elizabeth's religious reforms.

In 1584, Philip signed the Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France to stop the rise of Protestantism in France. In 1585, Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch Rebels, agreeing to provide them with men, horses and subsidies. Philip took this to be an open declaration of war against his rule in the Netherlands.

The battles of the Spanish Armada were part of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War between Queen Elizabeth I of England and King Philip II of Spain.

② The Spanish Armada

The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to rendezvous with the Duke of Parma's army and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the English Channel, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English navy; it was by no means a slaughter, but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather.

Eventually, three more Armadas were assembled; two were sent to England in 1596 and 1597, but both also failed; the third (1599) was diverted to the Azores and Canary Islands to fend off raids. This Anglo-Spanish War would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (1598) and Elizabeth I (1603) were dead.

The Spanish navy was rebuilt, and intelligence networks were improved. A measure of the character of Philip can be gathered by the fact that he personally saw to it that the wounded men of the Armada were treated and received pensions, and that the families of those who died were compensated for their loss, which was highly unusual for the time. The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. Many Spaniards blamed the admiral of the Armada for its failure, but Philip, despite his complaint that he had sent his ships to fight the English, did not regard it as the cause of the failure.

③ The Influence of the War

The campaign of the Spanish Armada provided Elizabeth with the opportunity to deliver what is considered one of the finest speeches of her long reign. On August 8,1588, as her fleet was sailing into battle at Gravelines, Elizabeth addressed Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester's troops at their camp on the Thames estuary at West Tilbury:

I have come amongst you as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved in the midst and heat of battle to live and die amongst you all, to lay down for my God and for my kingdom, and for my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and a king of England too. And think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm!

Destruction of Spanish Armada showed England's superiority as a naval power, stopped the attempt of Catholicism to recover the northern countries of Europe, and enabled England to become a great trading and colonizing nation.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada associated her with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in English history.

During Elizabeth's long reign, the nation also suffered from high prices and severe economic depression, especially in the countryside, during the 1590s. The war against Spain was not very successful after the Armada had been beaten and, together with other campaigns, it was very costly.

Though she kept a tight rein on government expenditure, Elizabeth left large debts to her successor. Wars during Elizabeth's reign are estimated to have cost over £5 million at the prices of the time which Crown revenues could not match—in 1588, for example, Elizabeth's total annual revenue amounted to some £392,000.

Despite the combination of financial strains and prolonged war after 1588, Parliament was not summoned more often. There were only 16 sittings of the Commons during Elizabeth's reign, five of which were in the period 1588–1601. Although Elizabeth freely used her power to veto legislation, she avoided confrontation and did not attempt to define Parliament's constitutional position and rights.

3.4.6 The Discovery of New Land and the Slavery of Native Americans

(1) The New World

The New England Colonies of British America included the colonies of Connecticut, Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Massachusetts Bay Colony, and Province of New Hampshire. They were part of the Thirteen Colonies. These were early colonies of what would later be the states in New England. Captain John Smith was the author of the 1616 work A Description of New England, and first applied the term "New England” to coastal lands of North America from The Long Island Sound to Newfoundland.

Elizabeth looked beyond Europe for opportunities to expand trade and increase the nation's wealth. Her reign saw many voyages of discovery. In 1580, Francis Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. In 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh set up a colony of about 100 men on the east coast of North America, which he named Virginia after Elizabeth I, "the Virgin Queen”, just like the plot in The Golden Age.

In the Elizabeth I's era, she once authorized two nobles—Humphrey Gilbert and Walter Raleigh—six-year license to organise immigrants to settle down in the North American Continent, but all ended up with failure.

(2) The Slavery of Native Americans

In the view of the Plymouth court, the enslavement of natives that were rebelling against English authority was quite lawful. This was a policy that had been going on for decades in Ireland, particularly at least since the time of Elizabeth I, and during the mid-17th century Cromwell's Wars in Britain and Ireland where large numbers of Irish, Welsh and Scots prisoners were sent as slaves to plantations in the West Indies, especially to Barbados and Jamaica.

The income provided by selling Native American captives as slaves was helpful financially in covering war costs and in removing natives from the colony who were considered potentially dangerous—and in effect made more native lands available to English settlers.

One person among the colony hierarchy who did speak out at that time against enslavement of Native Americans was military leader Benjamin Church. He said, in the summer of 1675 regarding the slavery of Native Americans, "an action so hateful…that (I) opposed it to the loss of the good will and respect of some that before were (my) good friends”. This said, Church, like many Englishmen in the colony, was an owner of African slaves himself.

Ships carrying native peoples as slaves began to leave New England ports for places far away late in 1675, and by the next summer the activity of shipping slaves out had turned into a regular process that removed what was considered dangerous native males by stating that "no male captive above the age of fourteen years should reside in the colony”. It is estimated that during King Philip's War, at least a thousand Native Americans of New England were sold as slaves, with over half of those coming from Plymouth. By the end of the war, villages that were once crowded Native American population centers were empty of inhabitants.

4 Exercises

4.1 Multiple Choices

(1) Norman Conquest began in __________.

A. 1016

B. 1066

C. 1035

D. 1060

(2) The House of Plantagenet which began in 1154 was established by __________.

A. Henry I

B. Henry II

C. Henry III

D. Henry IV

(3) In __________, the Plantagenets were defeated in the Hundred Years’ War.

A. the 13th century

B. the 14th century

C. the 15th century

D. the 16th century

(4) In 1337, the hostility between England and __________ resulted in the Hundred Years’War.

A. Italy

B. Spain

C. Russia

D. France

(5) In the Wars of the Roses, the Lancastrians wore badges of __________ rose.

A. white

B. red

C. pink

D. yellow

(6) __________extended their power beyond modern England, achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales, and successfully asserting English authority over the Kingdom of Ireland.

A. House of Lancaster

B. House of York

C. House of Tudor

D. House of Plantagenet

(7) The Wars of the Roses ended in 1485 with the accession of __________, the first king of the House of Tudor.

A. Henry VII

B. Henry VIII

C. John of Gaunt

D. Edward IV

(8) In 1534, Parliament passed the __________, according to which Henry VIII was declared the head of the English Church.

A. Bill of Rights

B. Bill of Power

C. Act of Settlement

D. Act of Supremacy

(9) __________lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558.

A. Mary I

B. Henry VIII

C. Edward VI

D. Elizabeth I

(10) __________succeeded Henry VIII after his death in 1547.

A. Mary I

B. Edward VI

C. Elizabeth I

D. Victoria

(11) __________gave birth to Elizabeth I.

A. Catherine of Aragon

B. Jane Seymour

C. Catherine Howard

D. Anne Boleyn

(12) Under Elizabeth I, __________was restored, and she was declared "governor” of the church.

A. the Roman Church

B. the Catholic Church

C. the Anglican Church

D. the Spanish Church

(13) Which of the following is the achievement of Henry VIII? __________

A. In the military aspect, he set up the Star Chamber.

B. In the political aspect, he organised an efficient tax system and built up the Privy Council.

C. In the economic aspect, he encouraged the weaving industry, the ship-building and adventurous merchants.

D. All of the above.

(14) Why did Elizabeth I choose to be single for her life? __________

A. Because her religious belief went against her marriage.

B. Because the foreign power came in the way of her marriage.

C. Because her Mr. Right passed early.

D. Because she used her marriage prospects as a political tool in foreign and domestic policies.

(15) Which of the following is Elizabeth I's religious policy? __________

A. Relatively tolerant.

B. Completely restricted.

C. Totally indifferent.

D. Practically suppressed.

(16) How many sittings of the Commons were there during Elizabeth's reign, five of which were in the period 1588–1601? __________

A. 15.

B. 16.

C. 17.

D. 18.

(17) __________was in drama the most shining representative of the Elizabethan Age.

A. Christopher Marlowe

B. Edmund Spenser

C. William Shakespeare

D. Ben Jonson

(18) In __________, Spanish Armada was defeated.

A. 1558

B. 1588

C. 1600

D. 1603

(19) England first became a sea power in the time of __________.

A. Henry VII

B. Henry VIII

C. Elizabeth I

D. Victoria

(20) As an explorer and adventurer, __________ circumnavigated the world from 1577 to 1580.

A. Drake

B. Christopher

C. Cabot

D. Magellan

4.2 Questions for Discussion

(1) There are two versions on British Houses in British history. Please list at least one version according to the text.

(2) Some people mistake Bloody Mary for Mary, Queen of Scotland. Please state the differences between them.

(3) The comments on Elizabeth I vary from person to person. What are your comments on Elizabeth I?

(4) When did the Anglo-Spanish War break out and what are the reasons for it?

(5) As the monarch of the UK, Elizabeth I took different foreign policies toward different countries. Can you state them respectively?

[1] Book of Common Prayer: Book of Common Prayer is one of the major works of English literature. Since its introduction in the mid-1500s it has exerted enormous influence on the religious and literary lives of all who speak the English language. Book of Common Prayer has gone through a number of editions, not only in England where it originated, but in all the places where the various Churches of the Anglican Communion are now active.

[2] the Star Chamber: It was an English court of law which sat at the royal Palace of Westminster, from the late 15th century to the mid-17th century (1641), and was composed of Privy Councillors and common-law judges, to supplement the judicial activities of the common-law and equity courts in civil and criminal matters.

[3] Regent:摄政王。A regent is a person appointed to administer a state because the monarch is a minor, absent or incapacitated.

[4] Flemish:佛兰芒语。It is also called Flemish Dutch, Belgian Dutch or Southern Dutch. It is one of the varieties of the Dutch language dialects spoken in Flanders.

[5] Cornish:康沃尔语。It is a southwestern Brittonic Celtic language native to Cornwall. The language began a revival in the early 20th century and is considered to be an important part of Cornish identity, culture and heritage.

[6] the Treaty of Nonsuch:《无双宫条约》。It was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Rebels fighting against Spanish rule. It was signed on August 9, 1585 at Nonsuch Palace in Surrey.

Section Four American Cultu

—The Patriot & Glory

…the true strength of our nation comes not from the might of our arms or the scale of our wealth, but from the enduring power of our ideals: democracy, liberty, opportunity and unyielding hope.

—Barack Hussein Obama

1 Brief Introduction

1.1 Directors and Stars

1.1.1 The Patriot

Director:

Roland Emmerich

Stars:

Mel Gibson as Benjamin Martin

Heath Ledger as Gabriel Martin

Jason Isaacs as Col. William Tavington

Joely Richardson as Charlotte Selton

1.1.2 Glory

Director:

Edward Zwick

Stars:

Matthew Broderick as Robert Gould Shaw

Denzel Washington as Tripp

Morgan Freeman as John Rawlins

1.2 Synopsis

1.2.1 The Patriot

The movie takes place in South Carolina in 1776. Benjamin Martin is a patriot who wants no part in a war with Britain at first. Meanwhile, his two eldest sons, Gabriel and Thomas, can’t wait to go out and kill some British soldiers. When South Carolina decides to fight against Britain, Gabriel immediately signs up to fight without his father's permission. After British Colonel kills his son Thomas in front of him, Benjamin just wants to seek revenge for his son's death. Benjamin and Gabriel resolve to fight the British, leaving the younger children in the care of Benjamin's sister-in-law, Charlotte. They form a militia and win many battles. After many ups and downs, the British enemies surrender to the Continental Army and the French naval force. After the conflict ends, Benjamin returns with his family and starts their new lives in the new nation.

1.2.2 Glory

During the American Civil War, Captain Robert Shaw is injured in the Battle of Antietam and is sent home to Boston on medical leave. Shaw is offered a promotion to the rank of Colonel to command one of the first all-black regiments in the Union Army, the 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. Despite so many difficulties, Shaw tries his best to train his army to have the ability of fighting. Shaw finally gets the 54th into combat, and influences other black troops a lot. Sometime after, General George Strong informs Shaw and his other staff officers to secure a foothold in Charleston Harbor. The first regiment to charge is sure to suffer extremely heavy casualties. Shaw volunteers to lead the 54th as the first regiment. Shaw gets shot and is killed during the battle as well as other black soldiers. The next morning after the battle, the beach is shown littered with bodies of Union soldiers and the Confederate flag is raised over the fort. The 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry demonstrates the courage of the black men in the combat, which President Abraham Lincoln credits with turning the tide of the war.

2 Language Points

2.1 Words and Phrases

2.1.1 The Patriot

levy

v.to enlist someone for military service

征兵

e.g. He must levy one man from each village.

他必须在每个村庄征兵一人。

(Movie) We must vote to levy!

我们一定要投票赞成征兵。

have the floor

to have the right to say

有发言权

e.g. Mr. Nixon has the floor.

尼克松先生发言。

(Movie) Order! Order! Mr. Simms, you do not have the floor. Our first order of business will be an address by Colonel Harry Burwell of the Continental Army.

安静！安静！西门斯先生，你没有发言权。首先是独立军哈利·布尔上校的发言。

mark my words

to listen carefully and remember my words

留心听着，记住我的话

e.g. Mark my words: you’ll regret this later on.

记下我的话，以后你会后悔的。

(Movie) Granted. But mark my words: this war will be fought not on the frontier or on some distant battlefield.

同意。但请记下我的话：这场战争不是在前线进行，也不是在遥远的战场。

cast a vote

to make a choice by counting the number of people in favour of each alternative

投票

e.g. I cast a vote at the meeting.

我在会上投票。

(Movie) Because I will not fight, I will not cast a vote that will send others to fight in my stead.

因为我不去打仗，也不会投票让别人替我上战场。

cause

n.an aim or principle which a group of people supports or is fighting for

奋斗目标；事业

e.g. Refusing to have one leader has not helped the cause.

拒绝接受领导不利于该事业。

(Movie) But I am fortunate to be serving the cause of liberty.

但我能够幸运地为自由而战。

dispatch

n.an official report (usually sent in haste)

急件

e.g. Please take note of our order, and kindly inform us when you receive the

dispatch.

请注意我们的订单，在收货时，请来函告知。

(Movie) I was given these dispatches.

（上级）给了我这些急件。

harbour

v.If a person or country harbours someone who is wanted by the police, they let them stay in their house or country and offer them protection.

窝藏

e.g. Accusations of harbouring suspects were raised against the former leadership.

前领导人被指控窝藏疑犯。

(Movie) Let it be known if you harbour the enemy you will lose your home.

你们要是敢窝藏敌军，就会无家可归。

grant

v.If someone in authority grants you something, or if something is granted to you, you are allowed to have it.

准予

e.g. Single parents tend to grant more independence to their children than other parents do.

单亲父母往往比其他父母给予孩子们更多的自主性。

(Movie) By order of King George, all slaves of the American colonies who fight for the Crown will be granted their freedom with our victory.

乔治国王有令，任何为英国效力的美国奴隶在我们胜利时都能获得自由。

work one's way

to exert oneself to proceed in a particular direction

按计划进行

e.g. The painters are working their way from the top floor to the basement.

油漆工们按照他们的计划从顶层刷到地下室。

(Movie) Boys, listen to me. I’ll fire first. I want you two to start with the officers and work your way down.

孩子们，听着。我先开枪。我要你们两个先杀军官，再按计划继续（杀士兵）。

die a...death

to die in the way of...

以……方式死

e.g. The private died a hero's death.

这个二等兵英雄般地死去了。

(Movie) Those neighbors of mine who stand against England deserve to die a traitor's death.

那些对抗英国的邻居应因背叛而死。

heed

v.to pay close attention to

注意；听从

e.g. But few at the conference in London last week heeded his warning.

但是在上周伦敦的会议上，几乎没人注意他的警告。

(Movie) How many more have to die before you’ll heed my word?

到底还要死多少人你才肯听我的话？

militia

n.civilians trained as soldiers but not part of the regular army

民兵

e.g. First came the PLA men, then the people's militia.

人民解放军走在前面，其次是民兵。

(Movie) He will help to train the militia.

他将帮助我们训练民兵。

precede

v.to be earlier in time

领先，在……之前

e.g. The earthquake was preceded by a loud roar and lasted 20 seconds.

地震之前有一声巨响，持续了20秒钟。

(Movie) Your reputation precedes you.

久仰你的大名。

humility

n.Someone who has humility is not proud and does not believe they are better than other people.

谦逊

e.g. Humility is a very good character.

谦逊是好品格。

(Movie) Teach you any humility?

有没有教你如何谦虚？

split up

to separate into parts or go away in different directions

分开

e.g. This situation has split up the family.

此事使这个家庭的成员分道扬镳了。

(Movie) We’ll cover more ground if we split up.

我们分头进行会走更多的地方。

presume

v.If you presume that something is the case, you think that it is the case, although you are not certain.

推测，想

e.g. I presume you’re here on business.

我想你是来这儿出差的吧。

(Movie) You may presume too much.

你想得太多了。

brutal

adj.cruel and violent

残暴的

e.g. He was the victim of a very brutal murder.

他是一桩异常残暴的谋杀案的受害者。

(Movie) These brutal tactics must stop!

这些惨无人道的伎俩必须停止！

surrender

n.an act of giving up

投降

e.g. They have agreed on the terms of surrender.

他们就投降条件达成了协议。

(Movie) You must order the surrender.

你一定要下令投降。

rabble

n.a disorderly crowd of people

暴民；乌合之众

e.g. He seems to attract a rabble of supporters.

他似乎吸引了一群乱糟糟的拥护者。

(Movie) An army of rabble.

一群杂牌军。

2.1.2 Glory

dispossessed

adj.physically or spiritually homeless or deprived of security

被驱逐的；无依无靠的

e.g. Droves of dispossessed people emigrated to Canada.

大量被逐出境的人移居到了加拿大。

(Movie) Now the roads are choked with the dispossessed.

现在路上全都是无家可归的人。

degradation

n.changing to a lower state (a less respected state)

降级，低等

e.g. What is land degradation?

什么是土地退化？

(Movie) We will offer pride and dignity to those who have known only degradation.

我们会让那些只知道屈辱的人了解自豪和自尊的意义。

picture

v.to imagine; to conceive of; to see in one's mind

想象

e.g. He pictured her with long black braided hair.

他想象她扎着长长的黑麻花辫的样子。

(Movie) Picture me in charge of anything.

想象我领导一切的样子。

mute

adj.Someone who is mute is unable to speak.

哑巴

e.g. Early one morning, I saw a mute guy washing himself at the river.

一天上午的早些时候，我看见一个哑巴在河边洗漱。

(Movie) Can’t you see that he is mute?

你看不出来他是哑巴吗？

run for

to compete with others to get a position

竞选

e.g. Each group selected candidates to run for president and vice-president.

每个组推举出候选人参加总统和副总统竞选。

(Movie) I run for president.

我竞选总统。

fraternization

n.associating with others in a brotherly or friendly way

结有深交

e.g. You know the rules against fraternization.

你知道不该结有深交的规则。

(Movie) I won’t permit that kind of fraternization.

我不准你们这样套交情。

sedate

adj.characterized by dignity and propriety

镇定的； 沉静的

e.g. She took them to visit her sedate, elderly cousins.

她带他们去探望她那些不苟言笑的表哥表姐们。

(Movie) They are almost grave and sedate under instruction.

他们在操练时非常严肃、镇定。

inhuman

adj.without compunction or human feeling

不人道的

e.g. The detainees are often held in cruel and inhuman conditions.

被拘留者经常被羁押在既残酷又不人道的环境里。

(Movie) They must have learned this from long hours of meaningless, inhuman work to set their minds free so quickly.

他们一定是从以往无聊且非人道的苦工经验中学到了如何立刻放松自己。

knock down

to knock and break

击倒；击碎

e.g. Why doesn’t he just knock the wall down?

他为什么不索性把墙拆掉？

(Movie) I can knock something down with it.

我可以用这个击碎些东西。

manual labor

work using your hands

体力劳动；体力工作

e.g. Until then, manual labor had been performed almost exclusively by men.

直到那个时候，体力劳动都几乎只由男性来完成。

(Movie) There's a rumor going around that we’re to be used only for manual labor.

谣传说我们是被召集来做苦工的。

high-up

adj.important or influential

高高在上的

e.g. None of them are high-up leaders.

他们没有一个是高高在上的领导。

(Movie) Who do you think you are, acting the high-up colonel?

你以为你是谁？一副高高在上的上校的样子。

headquarters

n.the office that serves as the administrative center

总部

e.g. The company's headquarters is based in London.

这家公司的总部设在伦敦。

(Movie) Headquarters has determined a time for our attack.

总部已经决定了发动攻击的时刻。

assault

n.fighting during the culmination of a military attack

攻击

e.g. The rebels are poised for a new assault on the government garrisons.

叛乱分子做好了对政府卫戍部队进行新一轮猛攻的准备。

(Movie) We will proceed with a direct frontal assault tomorrow at dusk.

我们明天黄昏将发动正面攻击。

needless to say

unnecessary to mention

不用说

e.g. Needless to say, this sort of thing can take hours.

不用说，这样的工作可能会耗费几个小时。

(Movie) Needless to say, casualties in the leading regiment may be extreme.

不用说，先遣部队的损失极大。

stretcher bearer

one who helps carry a stretcher 救护人员

e.g. After the earthquake, that country needs many stretcher bearers.

地震后，那个国家需要大量的救护人员。

(Movie) Report to the rear as stretcher bearers.

到后方去当救护人员。

brigade

n.army unit smaller than a division

旅

e.g. He successively held the posts of brigade and army commander.

他历任旅长 、军长等职。

(Movie) The supporting white brigades also suffered heavily before withdrawing.

来支援的白人旅编部队在撤退前也死伤惨重。

the tide of

the trend of

……的趋势，……的局势

e.g. Whoever goes against the tide of history will come to no good end.

凡是逆历史潮流而动的人都没有好下场。

(Movie) President Lincoln credited these men of color with helping turn the tide of the war.

林肯总统表示黑人士兵扭转了战争的局势。

2.2 Terms

2.2.1 The Patriot

(1) Red Coat

Red coat is a term often used to refer to a soldier of the historical British Army because of the color of the uniforms formerly worn by the majority of regiments. The uniform of most British soldiers from the late 17th century to the 19th century (except artillery, rifles and some cavalry) included a madder red coat or coatee.

(2) The Continental Army

The Continental Army was formed by the Second Continental Congress after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Established by a resolution of the Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in their revolt against the rule of Great Britain. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias and troops that remained under control of the individual states or were otherwise independent. General George Washington was the commander-in-chief of the army throughout the war.

(3) Bunker Hill

Bunker Hill (Charlestown, Boston) is a hill in the Boston neighborhood of Charlestown, after which the Battle of Bunker Hill was named. The Battle of Bunker Hill was a battle fought on June 17, 1775, during the Siege of Boston in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War. The battle at the time was considered to be a colonial defeat; however, the losses suffered by the British troops gave encouragement to the colonies, demonstrating that those inexperienced militias were able to stand up to regular army troops in battle.

The battle was a sobering experience for the British, resulting in more cautious planning and maneuver execution in future engagements, especially in the subsequent New York and New Jersey campaign, which arguably helped, rather than hindered the American forces, by allowing them to slip away when they could have been decisively defeated. The engagement convinced that the British need to hire substantial numbers of foreign mercenaries to bolster their strength in America.

2.2.2 Glory

(1) About-face

About-face is a drill command in which a unit or soldier makes a 180-degree turn. Drill commands are generally used when a group is marching, most often in military foot drill or marching band. All branches of the military use drill commands.

Here are some common drill commands:

Company, halt: Everybody should stop now!

Attention: Soldiers should pay attention to the speaker.

Stand at ease: The position of standing at ease is an intermediate position between attention and standing easy. It allows no relaxation but can be maintained without strain for a longer time than the position of attention.

Dismiss: Permitting the soldiers to leave.

(2) Negro

The word "Negro" (plural, "Negroes" ) was used in the English-speaking world to refer to a person of black ancestry or appearance. "Negro" denotes "black" in Spanish and Portuguese, derived from the ancient Latin word "niger" , meaning black. This word was accepted as normal, including people classified as "Negroes" , until the late 1960s. During the civil rights movements, some black American leaders in the United States objected to the word "Negro" because they associated it with the long history of slavery, segregation and discrimination that treated African Americans as second class citizens or worse. In current English language usage, "Negro" is generally considered to be acceptable in a historical context. But for politeness, more and more people prefer to use "African American" instead.

3 Cultural References

3.1 Five Symbols of American Culture

A symbol is a mark, sign or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between different concepts and experiences. Every country has its own symbols. For example, the Great Wall and the Confucius are symbols of China. This part will introduce five famous symbols of American culture.

(1) Statue of Liberty

The Statue of Liberty, also called Liberty Enlightening the World, is a gift given to the United States by France in honour of the 100th anniversary of American independence, standing on Liberty Island in New York. Statue of Liberty's right hand holds a 12-meter torch. Her left hand carries a tabula ansata[1] inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI” (July 4, 1776), the date of the US Declaration of Independence. Under her feet are broken handcuffs, leg irons and chains. Statue of Liberty symbolizes freedom. In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance” describes the statue as "a masterpiece of the human spirit”, which endures the ideals of liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. Lady Liberty stands as a welcoming symbol of America to all who enter the harbour, no matter whether they are new immigrants, visitors or citizens.

(2) Barbie Doll

Barbie doll is the most famous and best-selling doll in the 20th century, and was the first on display at American International Toy Fair in 1959. Barbie is manufactured by the American toy-company Mattel. Mattel has sold over a billion Barbie dolls to more than 150 countries in the world, making it the company's largest and most profitable line. The product has been made into a series of movies and also has been adapted to a collection of small games. And now there are many people taking Barbie Dolls collection as their hobby. Barbie dolls have a significant impact on American social values by conveying characteristics of female independence and an idealized upscale lifestyle that can be shared with affluent friends. (3) American Gothic

American Gothicis a painting of Grant Wood in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. Wood's inspiration came from what is now known as the American Gothic House, and his decision to paint the house along with the kind of people he fancied. The painting shows a farmer standing beside a woman that has been interpreted to be either his wife or his daughter. The woman stands beside the man, and the man is holding a pitchfork. It is one of the most familiar images in the 20th-century American art and has been widely acknowledged in American popular culture. Many people like this painting because the man and woman's expressions strongly reflect the American national spirits—dare to explore and refuse to yield!

Fig. 4-1 American Gothic

(4) Buffalo Nickel

Fig. 4-2 Buffalo Nickel

It was designed by American famous artist James Fraser in 1911 and became a kind of coin between 1913 and 1938. The paintings on American traditional coins are mainly all previous presidents. But the Buffalo nickel didn’t follow the tradition. It printed two distinguished images of American Westward Movement—the buffalo and the Indian.

In a 1947 radio interview, Fraser discussed his design, "Well, when I was asked to do a nickel, I felt I wanted to do something totally American—a coin that could not be mistaken for any other country's coin. It occurred to me that the buffalo, as part of our western background, was 100% American, and that our North American Indian fitted into the picture perfectly.”

(5) Uncle Sam

The artwork was created in 1917 as a recruiting poster for the US Army. The term Uncle Sam is reputedly derived from Samuel Wilson, a meat packer from New York, who supplied rations for the soldiers during the War of 1812. There was a requirement at the time for contractors to stamp their name and where the rations came from on the food they were sending. Wilson's packages were labeled "EA–US" . When someone asked what that stood for, a coworker joked and said "Elbert Anderson (the contractor) and Uncle Sam" , though it actually stood for the United States. The US was in need of more troops to help fight World War I. The saying was officially admitted by American congress as American national symbol in 1961. Later, Uncle Sam was used to be on behalf of America or American government, and it was widely used in the press. In 1989, "Uncle Sam Day" became official. A congressional joint resolution designated September 13, 1989 as "Uncle Sam Day" (birthday of Samuel Wilson).

3.2 American History and Culture

3.2.1 Brief History of America

The history of the US is relatively short compared with China. From the first English colony arriving in American Continent in 1607 to now, it's just about 400 years. But during 400 years, many important events have gone through American history and many remarkable people have arisen. Some of the events and the people have great influence on America and even on the whole world. The first settlers—Asian nomads—arrived in North America as early as 30,000 years ago. The first English colony in America was founded at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. Between 1607 and 1733, the British established 13 colonies along the east coast of North America. The colonists were building a new way of life in the New World. There were a number of features which would play a role in forming the American character, e.g. respecting the rule of law and individual rights, religious tolerance and a strong spirit of individual enterprise.

The Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776. It showed American people's desire for independence from Great Britain. In September 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed; Britain recognised the independence of the US. Between the early 17th and the late 19th centuries, American people extended from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast. By expanding the nation's borders, the America increased more than three million square miles.

In the middle of the 19th century, the northern states and southern states of America were unable to make agreement on the approaches to government, economics, society and the slavery system. In 1861, the Civil War began between the Union and the Confederate States of America. The Union won a victory, followed by a period of Reconstruction.

After the Reconstruction and the rise of industry, the US joined the World War I. Following the World War I, the US grew steadily as an economic and military world power. However, in 1929, the Great Depression swiped the whole country. This economic crisis caused millions of people to suffer from joblessness, homelessness and starvation for nearly a decade.

In 1941, the US joined the World War II, aiming at ending the aggression of the Axis Powers. The US made contributions to the war in both Europe and the Pacific.

The postwar era in the US was defined as the beginning of the Cold War in which the US and the Soviet Union clashed over the reorganisation of the postwar world. The Cold War continued through the 1960s and 1970s, and the United States entered the Vietnam War during that time. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed and that ended the US-Soviet Cold War peacefully.

From the end of the Cold War until now, the US emerged as the world's superpower and experienced dramatic changes. This nation has undergone a remarkable transformation into a dynamic and diversified nation with a population of more than 300 million. American people have the faith in individual freedom, democratic government and equality for all. Those are the legacies of this country.

3.2.2 Other Elements of American Culture

(1) American Dream

The American Dream is a set of ideals (Democracy, Rights, Liberty, Opportunity and Equality) of the United States. The concept of American Dream is rooted in the Declaration of Independence which proclaims that "all men are created equal” with the right of "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”.

The belief that anyone, regardless of where they are born or what class they are born into, can attain their own version of success. The American Dream is achieved through sacrifice, risk-taking and hard work, not by chance. Both native-born Americans and American immigrants can pursue and achieve the American Dream. Americans believe that one must learn to rely on themselves. This means achieving both financial and emotional independence from their parents as early as possible. Americans believe they should take care of themselves, solve their own problems and stand on their own feet. Self-improvement and self-help seem at the core of American Dream. Americans are trained to conceive of themselves as separate individuals. They consider the ideal person to be an individualistic, self-reliant and independent person. Americans admire people who have overcome adverse circumstances and succeeded in life. The blind and deaf author Helen Keller is an example.

The concept of American Dream can be shown in such sentences as "Don’t just stand here.” "Do something!” These expressions are typical American advice used in working places, where action is seen as superior to inaction. Over 90% young Americans think they will achieve what they want in life, and 80% think they can get what they want through hard work.

(2) Higher Education

① Higher Education at a Glance

After finishing high school (12th grade), US students may go on to college or university. Religious groups established the earliest American colleges in order to train ministers, such as Harvard (1636) and Yale (1701). The college or university may offer either a two-year degree (called an associate degree) or a four-year degree (called a bachelor's degree) in a specific field of study. Students who have obtained a bachelor's degree can continue their education by pursuing a master's degree, and then a doctorate degree, also called a Ph.D. A Ph.D may take between three and six years to complete.

② Types of Colleges and Universities

• Community Colleges—Community colleges typically offer the first two years of general undergraduate education. Also most offer adult educational programs, vocational education and technical training.

• Public Colleges and Universities—Public colleges and universities are supported by the States, municipal government or the federal government.

• Independent Colleges and Universities—Independent colleges and universities are private, nonprofit institutions. Many independent colleges and universities originated from churches and religious groups.

• Graduate and Professional Schools—Graduate and professional schools are typically divisions of large universities. They only offer graduate study. For example, Harvard University offers undergraduate courses related to the study of law, but the Harvard Law School offers courses only for professional degree programs.

• Proprietary Institutions—Proprietary institutions are private, for-profit institutions. They generally focus on preparing students for specialized careers in fields such as business, performing, travel, music and computer technology.

(3) Broadway

Broadway Theatre, commonly called Broadway for short, refers to theatrical performances presented in the Theatre District in Manhattan, New York City. Along with the London's West End Theatre, Broadway is usually considered to present the highest level of commercial theatre in the English-speaking world.

The great majorities of Broadway shows are musicals which are enormously influential to the forms of American popular culture and make New York City the cultural capital of the nation. Today, watching a Broadway show is a common tourist activity in New York, and the tickets of Broadway shows sell about a billion dollars every year.

(4) Food and Drink

"You are what you eat.” Learning about American food and drink can give us a real taste of American culture. What is "American food”? At first, you may think American food means hamburgers, hot dogs, fried chicken, apple pies or chocolate cookies. It is true that Americans do eat those things, but that cannot represent the whole American food culture. The US is a land of immigrants, so Americans eat food from other countries. Americans love Italian pizza, Mexican tacos[2] and Chinese egg rolls[3]. Americans live at a fast pace, so fast-food restaurants offer people fast food such as fried chicken, fried rice, etc. Some Americans tend to eat too much junk food, so you can see many obese people in the US.

Coffee is the most popular drink in America. Starbucks Corporation is an international coffee and coffeehouse chain based in Seattle, Washington. Starbucks is the largest coffeehouse company in the world in more than 60 countries. Coffee can be ordered almost at all hours of a day. Sometimes coffee break is taken among the workers in the middle of morning or afternoon.

As for the alcoholic beverage, beer is the most popular one. Americans enjoy different types of beers, such as pilsner[4], pale ale[5], IPA[6] and so on. Steam beer[7] is the first style of beer originated in the United States.

3.3 The American War of Independence

3.3.1 The American War of Independence at a Glance

The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War of Independence or the Revolutionary War in the United States, was the armed conflict between Great Britain and thirteen North American colonies, which had declared themselves the independent United States of America.

The American Revolutionary War had its origins in the resistance of many Americans to taxes, which they claimed were unconstitutional, imposed by the British parliament. On December 16, 1773, the destruction of a shipment of tea happened at Boston, which was known as the Boston Tea Party.

The British government closed the port of Boston and took away self-government. The patriots responded by setting up a shadow government that took control of the province outside of Boston.

In April 1775, the fighting broke out between Massachusetts militia units and British regulars. They fought the battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston. The battles marked the outbreak of conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its thirteen colonies on the mainland of British America. On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence and issued its Declaration on July 4. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognised the sovereignty of the United States.

Britain entered the war with confidence. It had the world's most powerful navy, a well-trained professional army, sound financial system that could pay the costs, a stable government and experienced leadership. The population of Great Britain and Ireland in 1780 was approximately 12.6 million while the population of the thirteen colonies for the same year was estimated to be 2.8 million, including over 500,000 slaves. Theoretically, this gave Britain a 4.5:1 manpower advantage.

The Americans began the war with great disadvantages compared to the British. They didn’t have national government, national army or navy, financial system, banks and functioning government departments. The state governments were brand new, and officials had no administrative experience. In peace time, the colonies heavily relied on ocean travel and shipping, but that was now shut down by the British blockade, and the Americans had to rely on slow overland travel. However, the Americans had multiple advantages in the long(-?)term war. America at that time had a large population that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies, while the British food and supplies were mostly shipped in from across the ocean.

The British faced a territory far larger than Britain or France, located at a far distance from home ports. And the proportion of Americans willing to serve in their own country's defense was believed to be considerably larger than that of British people willing to serve overseas. In addition, from the spring of 1776, France and Spain had informally been involved in the American Revolutionary War. All those factors helped the Americans win the War.

The costs of the War were really high. The British spent about £80 million and ended with a national debt of £250 million. The United States spent $37 million at the national level plus $114 million by the states.

The total loss of life throughout the War was largely unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease claimed far more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic swept across North America. At least 25,000 Americans died during military service. The number of patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. Proportionate to the population of the colonies, the Revolutionary War was at least the second-deadliest conflict in American history, ranking ahead of the World War II and behind only the Civil War.

3.3.2 Militia and Benjamin Martin in History

The word militia has historically been used to describe an organisation that operates like an army but whose members are not professional soldiers. Before the Revolutionary War, the government found that the source of the soldiers was not efficient, so it began to recruit militia from farmers and workers. Unable to have proper training and professional equipment, it is common for militias to engage in guerrilla warfare or defense instead of open attacks and offensive actions.

Now in the United States, from 1992, there have been a number of private organisations that call themselves militia or unorganised militia. In the movie The Patriot, the hero Benjamin Martin is a great leader of the militia. This character is inspired by "The Swamp Fox”, Francis Marion. Francis Marion was a military officer who served in the American Revolutionary War. He fought against the British army with the Continental Army and South Carolina militia. Due to his irregular methods of warfare, he is considered one of the fathers of modern guerrilla warfare.

Francis Marion was born on his family's plantation in Berkeley County, South Carolina. Around the age of 15, he was hired on a ship bound for the West Indies. But the ship sank on his first voyage and the crew escaped on a lifeboat but had to spend one week at sea before reaching land. During the following years, Marion managed the family's plantation. Marion began his military career shortly before his 25th birthday. On January 1, 1757, Marion and his brother, Job, were recruited in the French and Indian War. During the American Revolutionary War, Marion showed himself to be an outstanding leader of the irregular militia and ruthless in his battle. Unlike the Continental troops, Marion's militia served without pay, so they needed to supply their own horses, arms and often their food. However, there are also some criticisms on Marion because of his brutality in the war.

Around the time of the release of The Patriot, comments among the British press challenged the American notion of Francis Marion as a hero. In the Evening Standard, a British author called Francis Marion "a thoroughly unpleasant dude who was, basically, a terrorist”.

But for the sake of telling the best "dramatic” story and perhaps avoiding some controversy, the moviemakers fictionalised the character and the story. They added elements of some other historic figures to the character of Benjamin Martin.

Martin's hit and run tactics and nickname "The Ghost” were inspired by Francis Marion, while the tactics of using the militia on the front to draw the British in the final battle were based on similar tactics used by Daniel Morgan at the Battle of Cowpens. And the plot that Martin rejoined the fight after seeing his home burnt by the British was inspired by Thomas Sumter's experience.

3.3.3 The Way of Fighting

In the movie The Patriot, many people may have noticed the way of fighting between the two armies. Soldiers lined in the square matrix and marched forward, firing each other with guns in turn. We may think this kind of fighting is very strange, or even somewhat stupid. Why do they fight like this? There is another detail in the fighting—the band and music. Some soldiers played drum and bagpipes in the process of marching. This unique way of fighting is the tradition from the Roman period. What's more, the sound of drum would let soldiers walk on the rhythm. During the War of Independence, guns were not accurate. Hit rate was very low. The range of the gun was just within 50 meters. So at first, they used cannon and marched on. Then they fired in turn if distance permitted.

3.3.4 Dogs in America

Today, a number of cultures view the consumption of dog meat to be a part of their tradition and day-to-day cuisine like the Korean minority in China, while others such as Western cultures consider consumption of dog meat to be a taboo or a kind of immoral behaviour. It was estimated that 25 million dogs are eaten each year worldwide by humans.

How about the situation of dogs in the Western countries, especially in America? It is quite different in the US. In the early 20th century, dog meat was consumed during times of meat shortage. Now they only treat dogs as friends or family members. Although the hot dog is one of the hottest foods in the US, there is no dog meat in it actually!

Americans have very strong feelings for dogs. But do you know how much the Americans love dogs? With 75 million dogs in the country, America is home to more dogs than any other country on Earth. Dogs are trained helpers for people with disabilities, and increasingly play a role in promoting general mental and physical health. Studies show that petting a dog lowers blood pressure and relieves stress. People who live with dogs have fewer heart attacks and live longer than people without dogs in their lives.

Most dog owners of the US consider their pets part of the family. About half of American dogs share beds with their owners. About eighty-seven percent curl up with their owners to watch television. One-third of dog owners call their pets on the telephone or leave voice messages for them when being away from home. Fifty-eight percent of owners take family photos with their dogs, while seventy percent sign the dog's name with the family's name on greeting cards. Eighty percent of dogs receive gifts on holidays and their birthdays. In America alone, over one million dogs have estate under their names.

You can also find the word "dog” in many daily expressions of Americans, like "Every dog has its day.” They also use the word "dog” to describe weather. "The dog days of summer” are the hottest days of the year. And there is a common saying: "It rains cats and dogs.”

In the movie The Patriot, Benjamin captured two dogs in a battle. He joked to eat the dogs at first. But actually, he treated the dogs very well. Later, when he had negotiations with a British general and decided to return the dogs to their owner, the dogs seemed not very happy. After the talks ended, Benjamin got up to leave. Hearing the whistle from Benjamin, the dogs immediately stood up and ran to him. This detail in the movie shows the Americans’feeling about dogs. What's more, by the description of dogs’ behaviour and emotion, the movie is also intended to reflect the extraordinarily charming personality of Benjamin.

3.3.5 Heroism

The Patriotis not only a historical movie, but also a legend of American heroism. Heroism is a typical representative of the American spirit.

(1) Reasons for Heroism

① Sense of Crisis

After the Second World War, the world turned out to be bipolar, namely the socialist countries led by the Soviet Union and the capitalist countries led by America. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States gradually became stronger than ever.

But after "the September 11 Attacks”, many Americans’ sense of superiority has changed. They hold the view that there are many crises in the United States, and they have a deep sense of insecurity. You can see that some Hollywood movies express the fear of natural disasters and human future, like The Day After Tomorrow and 2012. And they use some other movies to express their worry about high-tech, like I Am Legend and Transformers. Facing these crises, Americans need a hero to help, no matter in the movie or in reality.

② Independent Character

Independence is an important character of the hero in the movie. We can often see a hero walk alone, live alone, or finish tasks alone. That is because from childhood Americans had been told to do things by themselves. If they can accomplish something by themselves, that means they have grown up and become capable. So those people who are independent and capable are the idols of the young people.

It is not usual for Americans who are about twenty still to live with their parents and to depend on their parents for the living expenses. If they do so, they will lose their freedom as well as the respect of their peers. Even if they are not truly self-reliant, most Americans believe they must at least appear to be so in order to be in the mainstream of American life. Although receiving financial support from charity, family, or the government is allowed, it is never admired. Many people believe that such individuals receiving financial assistance are setting bad examples that may weaken the American character as a whole.

③ Sense of Competition

Americans have a strong sense of competition. It may be related to the highly developed market economy. If life is seen as a race, then a person must run the race in order to succeed and it is every person's duty to try. Many Americans know that they can only survive by powerful competitiveness. The pressures of competition in the life of Americans begin in childhood and continue until they retire from work. Learning to compete successfully is part of growing up in the United States. In a recent opinion poll, more than sixty percent of Americans believe that competition and the desire to win are healthy and desirable. So Americans want continuous learning to make them stronger, and they worship powerful force and keep shaping competitive heroes in the movies all the time.

(2) American Heroism and Chinese Collectivism

In American movies, most heroes are the representatives of heroism. And heroism is one of the representatives of American spirit. It's enough to have only one powerful man in the movie to save the world. Frankly speaking, the hero actually has a perfect image themselves. They know it's difficult to reach that standard in reality, so they take the heroes in the movie as the ideal goal and comfort. It can be seen in the movie that all the American heroes will be involved in kinship, love, friendship, failure, frustration, enlightenment and ultimate defeat. At the end of the movie, Benjamin and his family returned to his own home after the war. After the hero fulfilled his mission, Benjamin became an ordinary person again. He saw the ex-militias rebuilding the house for him. The scene means the reconstruction of the US and the people's hope for the future.

But our Chinese people hold quite different views compared with Americans. In our society, the parents and the family raise the offsprings carefully. The destiny of the individual is closely linked with his family. If the family is prosperous, so is the individual. When doing something, the Chinese tend to consider what others might think or say. They will consider the impact of their behaviour on others more than on themselves. The reason behind this is the philosophy of the traditional Chinese culture. And we also pay more attention to protecting the interests of the collective and to achieving the collective goal.

3.3.6 The Impression Between the British and the Americans

We all know that the US once belonged to Britain and it was one of Britain's colonies. These two countries have a very close bond, and many Americans have British ancestors. So it is an interesting angle of view to observe these two nations.

(1) The British's Impression of Americans

British people have mixed opinions about the Americans, reflecting the close but sometimes troubled relationship between the two nations. For many British people, the US is associated with power in international politics, economy and finance. The British are a little jealous of America's power. But in their eyes, few Americans know much about outside the US. The British think that money matters more than anything else to Americans, and the Americans like to display their wealth in public. These kinds of behaviours are not appreciated by the British. The British also believe that the US is a dangerous country. However, many young people in Britain still want to go there for their holidays. They generally have a much more positive attitude toward American people.

As for the cultural issue, British people believe that Americans don’t have culture and are not interested in cultural issues. Americans spend their free time watching baseball and football, often on television. If they want to know cultural information, they watch the documentaries from BBC. Seriously, however, there are many positive aspects of the American character. British people who visit Americans during travelling find them friendly and kindhearted. They don’t worry about class, they work hard and enjoy the best living standards and the most advanced technology in the world. And what is more important is that they have an open attitude toward life. The popular stereotype of white Americans is created by the white British, but these people know that the US, like Britain, is a multicultural society and they are aware of the great variety of attitudes and lifestyles as well as the problems.

(2) Americans’ Impression of the British

Americans are very open-minded. They watch British television programs and James Bond movies and read detective stories by British authors. As for children, they read English books. On the basis of these experiences, most Americans know more about Britain than about any other country. But many Americans would have difficulty drawing a map of Britain. They think the country consists of London and a village in Scotland where one of their ancestors came from. London itself is covered in fog. The average British man wears a hat and carries an umbrella. He waits in a queue for the bus, eats fish and chips, and drinks a lot of tea. He has a servant and has great respect for the Queen.

Americans admire the behaviour of the British, although they themselves would never want all their social rules. Americans think of the British as being perfectly polite and proper, always knowing which knife and fork to use, always saying "please” "thank you” and "excuse me”. The British are also famous for their reserve and their "stiff upper lip”. For example, they don’t like giving their opinions or showing their feelings in public, which makes them seem formal and distant.

Americans often say that the British are "quaint" , a word which means old-fashioned, but in a nice way. This impression comes partly from the differences in how the two countries speak English. British English has words and structures that have not been used in the US for a long time, and so it sounds old-fashioned or formal. A favourite British adjective is "lovely" , which is used for describing anything, including the weather. Other words like "nice" "sweet" and "cute" are the American style of speaking.

Besides these, the Americans also have some negative impressions on the British. The typical negative impression is stuffy. That means British people seem cold to Americans who are more used to an open, enthusiastic way of communicating. British people cause confusion by not saying what they mean. They say "That's no problem.” when they know that it will be a big problem and get upset when Americans fail to understand. Americans need to guess the real meaning of the word "interesting” in the conversations with the British people because the meaning of that word depends on the context. It can be interpreted as "funny” "great”"boring” or "not interesting”.

Besides the expressions, the overcooked food, the smallness of the house, the baths instead of showers and the weather which is always dull or rainy are other favourite complaints of Americans visiting "the old country”. But in spite of these negative things, the view of Britain from the US is, in general, very positive and for many Americans, going to Britain is almost like going home.

3.4 The American Civil War

3.4.1 The American Civil War at a Glance

After the previous brief introduction of American history, we have already known the basic information about the American Independent War. Now we will get to know another very important war in American history—the American Civil War. The American Civil War, widely known in the United States as simply the Civil War, was fought from 1861 to 1865. It is sometimes called "The War Between the States”. Among the thirty-four states in 1861, seven southern slave states individually declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy was simply called the South. Lincoln and his Republican Party treated this secession as a rebellion. No country had ever recognised the Confederacy as a nation. The states that remained loyal and did not declare secession were known as the Union or the North. Before the War, there were a lot of problems in the American society, and those problems were the causes of the American Civil War. Slavery was the central source of the rising political tension in the 1850s. Slavery was illegal in the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th century and the early 19th century. It faded in the border states and in southern cities, but expanded in the highly profitable cotton districts of the South and Southwest.

Sectionalism is another reason. Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860. The North became more industrialized and urbanized and built prosperous farms, while the Deep South still concentrated on plantation and agriculture based on slave labor. Many historians hold the view that economic differences between the industrial North and the agricultural South helped cause the war.

The third cause is states’ rights. The South argued that each state had the right to leave the Union at any time. But the Northerners rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the nation's Founding Fathers. In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the US territories, something the southern states viewed as a violation of their constitutional rights. So many southern whites felt that disunion had become their only option because they thought that they were losing the representatives of their interests.

So based on the above causes, the Civil War began in 1861. Over four years, two hundred and thirty-seven named battles were fought, and there also were many more unnamed actions, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. Millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over these four years. Some historians emphasize that the Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, union or states’ rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery.

There are some other causes for fighting, such as the defense of one's home and family, or the honour and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Many soldiers on both sides died during the war. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead, a higher number than the American military deaths of the World War I and the World War II combined. Most of the wars were fought in the South. Many railroads, farms, houses and other things were destroyed and most people there became very poor. After four years of combat, the Confederacy collapsed and slavery was abolished. The period after the war, called Reconstruction, lasted from the end of the war until 1877. This period aimed at restoring national unity, strengthening the national government and granting civil rights to the liberated slaves.

3.4.2 Slavery in America

The slavery began in 1619 in the American Continent. After the War of Independence, the US saved slavery. The rapid expansion of the cotton industry in the Deep South greatly increased demand for slave labor, and the southern states continued as slave societies. A great number of slaves were sent to Southern plantations. Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new Western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation. By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a major economic activity in the United States; it lasted until the 1860s. In the 1840s, almost 300,000 slaves were transported, with Alabama and Mississippi receiving 100,000 each. During each decade between 1810 and 1860, at least 100,000 slaves were moved from their states of origin.

The death rate for the slaves on their way to their new destination was higher than the normal death rate. At the beginning, only a few slaves moved with their families and existing masters, because slave traders had little interest in purchasing or transporting slave families. In the early years, planters demanded only the young male slaves needed for heavy labor. Later, in the interest of creating a "self-reproducing labor force”, planters purchased nearly equal numbers of men and women. By 1860, the slave population in the United States had reached 4 million.

The work of slaves was primarily agricultural. It is estimated that in 1850 only 400,000 slaves lived in towns and cities, whereas approximately 2.8 million worked on farms and plantations. A large plantation always had at least two distinct groups of workers—house servants and field hands. The favoured ones frequently traveled with their owners and enjoyed other advantages in food, clothing, education or experience. But most slaves must work in the fields every day. And the working time usually could be 15 to 16 hours a day. William Wells Brown, a real person in history, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick 80 pounds of cotton per day, while women were required to pick 70 pounds; if any slave failed in his or her quota, they were subject to the lashes of the whip for each pound they were short. In the movie Glory, Trip is a slave who ran away from his master. We can see there are many scars on his back from whipping.

Before the Civil War, there were more than 4 million black slaves and free blacks in the southern area. That was 40% of the total population in the Southern area. They were the private properties of their owners. And the owners could decide the slaves’ life and death. The slaves were not treated as human, and they could be inherited or sold to others. In some places, the owners would allow the slaves to set up their own families. However, the property, spouse, or even children of the slaves also belonged to the owners.

Southern plantation slaves had little hope of gaining their freedom. Strong measures were taken to keep slaves from running away. Across the South, white legislators came up with harsh laws to limit the rights of the African Americans. Virginia prohibited blacks from practicing preaching, owning firearms and forbade anyone to teach slaves or free blacks how to read. It specified heavy penalties for both students and teachers if slaves were educated, including whipping or jail. There were few free blacks in the Southern colonies. Free blacks were considered dangerous examples to the black slaves. The black slaves longed for their liberation and freedom before the Civil War.

3.4.3 Free Blacks

In the movie, there is a character called Thomas. He is a free black. Here are the differences between black slaves and free blacks.

Before the Emancipation Proclamation was carried out, some black slaves had already become free blacks. Slavery was legal and practiced in each of the thirteen colonies at various times. Not all Africans who came to America were slaves. In the early colonial years, some Africans came as indentured servants. Such servants became free when they completed their term of indenture. As early as 1619, a class of free black people existed in North America.

The free black population increased in a number of ways: children born of colored free women; mixed-race children born of white masters and free black women; freed slaves; slaves who escaped.

The lives of free blacks varied according to their location within the United States. Cities were the chief destinations for free blacks in the South, as cities gave free blacks a wider range of economic and social opportunities. Most southern cities had independently black(-?)run churches as well as secret schools for education. Northern cities also gave blacks better opportunities. For example, free blacks who lived in Boston generally had more access to formal education. In some areas, free blacks could even start their own shops, purchase farms and accumulate their wealth. Slaves were sometimes allowed to buy their freedom. They might be permitted to save money from fees paid when they were "hired out” to work for other people. However, the chief way to be a free black was the release of their owners. In the slave society, slaves were the owners’ private properties. The number of slaves the owner had was always closely related to the symbol of wealth and social status. So it's not easy to let the owner release the slaves. The owners believed that most slaves just desired for freedom, and it was also the greatest gift they could give to a slave. So they used the promise of freedom to control the slaves and let the slaves become more loyal. At the same time, this promise would inspire other slaves working harder for the slave owners. This was because the slave owners spread the message to the other slaves, "as long as you are loyal to me and work hard, you will become a free man like him one day”. And also under some situations, the owners would release slaves only because of conscience and love. But that was not very common.

3.4.4 The Religious Culture of Black People

(1) The Religious Culture of Black People at a Glance

The black slaves have their own tradition of religious culture. For all the black slaves, the core of their religion is the worship of nature and ancestors. Around 1700, some slave owners began to provide access to the Christian education and worship places for slaves. Their basic motivation was to satisfy their own interests, that is to make slaves humble and submissive. Some owners were concerned that certain information could give slaves bad influence. For example, some religious beliefs inspired the slaves to look for equality and freedom. So they changed the content of the religious books carefully and omitted the "dangerous part” in the Christian thought.

After black slaves began to believe in Christianity, they gradually formed a submissive attitude toward anything. In the book Uncle Tom's Cabin, the image of Uncle Tom had a typical Christian character of sacrifice. Uncle Tom lived under the rules of Christianity. He showed us how to maintain dignity in personality during taming and how to insist on his own claims with politeness. His behaviours and thoughts influenced many black slaves. More and more black slaves believed in Christianity and became more obedient. And that's also the original purpose of the owners. (2) Features in the Black Christianity

Black slaves adopt a lot of contents of Christianity, and try to understand the content from their own angle.

① The Spirit Song

The black slaves believe in the existence of God. God has the superpower of driving out all evils. The spirit song among the blacks can reflect their respect to the God. One of the characters of the spirit song is that the singers will echo each other in the process of singing. It uses dances and ring shouts and emphasizes emotion and repetition more intensely. That practice comes from Africa. Men and women move in a circle, shuffling their feet, clapping, and often spontaneously singing or praying aloud. In the process of singing, the black can not only constantly communicate with each other in the group, but also add his individual ideas to the group. In fact, this form of music provides a chance to express personal feelings and makes the black slaves enjoy the warmth of group consciousness.

② The Concept of Sin

Black slaves accept the concept of "sin” in Christianity, but their understanding of the "sin” is different from the white. They believe that the "sin” is the cause of death, and that kind of "sin” is not moral issues. It means the betrayal of religion. So they think the small faults, such as stealing and lying, are not the performances of sin.

③ Heaven

Heaven is often described as a "higher place”, the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to Hell or the Underworld. It is universally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of goodness, piety, faith or other virtues, right beliefs or simply the will of God.

Under the slavish system, the black slaves are yearning for going to Heaven, and they link Heaven with their real life. Obviously, the Hell which is often mentioned in the spirit songs refers to their bitter life in the real world and the Heaven refers to the North, Africa or wherever they think they can get rid of the exploitation and oppression of the white people.

During the Civil War, American whites tried to use Christianity as a tool to control the black slaves, but the black people adopted white religion to their own needs and combined it with traditional African beliefs, and then developed a unique African-American religious culture and a spiritual world of their own. Black religion is an essential component of the black culture as well as a means of survival in slavery.

3.4.5 American Black English

Black people account for a large part in the population of the US. The Black English sounds like English but not the same in many ways. It has its own features and system.

(1) Phonetic Features

There are some typical phonetic differences between Standard English and Black English. There are some examples.

thing—[tin] this—[dis] bath—[baf] nothing—[nufn] thanks—[tanks] kid—[kit]

Can you find some regular patterns of the pronunciation?

In Black English, many voiced consonants can be pronounced exactly the same as the voiceless consonants. E.g. [b], [d], [g] are usually pronounced as [p], [t], [k].

In Standard English, we pronounce "th” as [θ] or [ð], but in Black English "th” is usually pronounced as [t], [f] or [ð].

(2) The Use of the Negative Form

American Black English has some unique negative sentences, like the typical expression "ain't" . In Black English, "ain’t" has the same grammatical function as "haven't" in Standard English. So in Standard English "We haven’t contacted each other since last Christmas." can be expressed as in Black English "We ain't contacted each other since last Christmas." Sometimes, "ain't" also can replace "didn't" and can be used in simple negation. So the following expressions can be heard in Black English:

She ain’t email me yesterday.

The young boy insisted, "I ain’t steal his wallet." I ain’t run like that in years.

(3) Tense

Black English and Standard English have huge differences in verb systems. Black English sentences need to show the concept of time through one verb or a certain description, and other verbs can be expressed in the based form. Sometimes, tenses can be completely omitted, as long as the context shows the time. For example, in the following paragraph, a black preacher was talking about his religion and Jesus. The preacher had made it clear that he was talking about the past because he was talking about the life of Jesus in the past.

"The man Jesus, he come here. He die to save you from your sins! He walk the earth. He go among the thieves and try to save the unrighteous.”

(4) The Use of "Be”

The use of "be” in Black English is very unique. If black people want to express an action or event which does not happen very often, the verb "be” in the sentence can be omitted. For example, "He in the house watchin’ TV.”

The abbreviations of the verb "is” and "are” can also be omitted. In addition, if the behaviour is presented in the passive voice, we can omit the verb "be”. For example, "The factory built in 1955.”

But if an action happens frequently, black people will directly use the verb "be”. For example, "They be out in the yard every night.”

In conclusion, an understanding of those differences between Standard English and Black English will definitely help us to pay close attention to the way black people speak when we watch American movies and TV serials since that's also a part of American culture.

3.4.6 Politics of the Blacks

After the Civil War, actually there is still a very long period of discrimination toward the blacks. But more and more blacks hold the view that they should have not only civil rights, but the right of politics. Politically, black Americans have made substantial strides during the post-civil rights era.

Lawrence Douglas Wilder (born on January 17, 1931) is an American politician who was elected as the first African American Governor of Virginia. Wilder served as the 66th Governor of Virginia from 1990 to 1994. Wilder's father sold insurance, and his mother worked as a maid. Wilder recalled his early years during the Great Depression as a childhood of "gentle poverty”. Wilder worked his way through Virginia Union University by waiting tables at hotels and shining shoes, graduating in 1951 with a degree in chemistry.

Drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War, he volunteered for combat duty. Wilder was awarded the Bronze Star Medal. Following the war, Wilder worked in the state medical examiner's office and pursued a master's degree in chemistry. Douglas Wilder began his career in public office by winning a 1969 special election for the Virginia State Senate. Wilder was elected Governor on November 8, 1989, defeating Republican Marshall Coleman by the votes ahead of less than half a percent. The narrow victory margin prompted a recount, which reaffirmed Wilder's election.

During his tenure as Governor, Wilder worked on crime and gun control. He also worked to fund Virginia's transportation initiatives. Much residential and office development had taken place in Northern Virginia without the state's receiving sufficient federal money for infrastructure improvements to keep up. He also succeeded in passing state bond issues to support the improvement of transportation. Wilder left office in 1994.

In 1996, L. Douglas Wilder Middle School was named in honour of former Governor Wilder. In 2015, Wilder published an autobiography called Son of Virginia: A Life in America's Political Arena[8].

Besides Douglas Wilder, there are many other African American governors. In 1992, Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois became the first black woman elected to the US Senate. There were 8,936 black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001, there were 484 black mayors. On November 4, 2008, Democratic Senator Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected as the President. Michelle Obama is the First Lady of the United States. She is also the first black woman to hold this position. At least ninety-five percent of African-American voters voted for Obama. He also received overwhelming support from young and educated whites. Nowadays, many African Americans are still on the way to seek their political rights. And that also reflects the diversity of American politics.

3.4.7 Entertainment of the Blacks

Music unifies people because people from all backgrounds can both appreciate the same song even if they have nothing else in common. It is a matter of taste and opinions, not intellectual arguments.

Black music is one of the most widespread black cultures in the United States today and is among the dominants in mainstream popular music. Hip hop, R & B, funk, rock and roll, soul, blues and other contemporary American musical forms originated in black communities and evolved from other black forms of music. For example, Michael Joseph Jackson was an American black singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer and actor. Called the King of Pop, his contributions to music, dance and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades.

In American movies, more and more black people are playing the leader and the positive roles. And many black movie stars are loved by white audiences, such as Denzel Washington, Morgan Freeman, Kerry Washington and so on.

Now you can find black actors or actresses in nearly all American movies, and in many works you can find the plots of cooperation between black people and white people.

From the aspects mentioned above, black people and white people learn new cultures and things from each other and enhance the deep understanding from every aspect in social life. By doing this, the black culture and the white culture are looking forward to mutual-respect, mutual-understanding, mutual-accommodation and mutual-learning in the future.

3.4.8 The Integration of the Blacks and the Whites

The following poem has recently been very popular on the Internet.

Dear white, something you got to know.

When I was born, I was black.

When I grow up, I am black.

When I'm under the sun, I'm black.

When I'm cold, I'm black.

When I'm afraid, I'm black.

When I'm sick, I'm black.

When I die, I'm still black.

You—white people,

When you were born, you were pink.

When you grow up, you become white.

You're red under the sun.

You're blue when you're cold.

You are yellow when you're afraid.

You're green when you're sick.

You're gray when you die.

And you, call me "color”?

From the poem, we can see even today the discrimination towards the black people still exists in American society. Some blacks may encounter racial discrimination in employment, education and all aspects of life. But nowadays more and more people recognise that the blacks are very important in American society, and they have made great contributions to this country. The trend in the future is definitely the integration of the blacks and the whites.

The previous part shows the religious culture of black people. The white people's religion has a huge influence on the black people. Actually, it's also a kind of integration. Some plots in the movie Glory can also reflect the integration of the white and the black. For example, before the final battle, all the black soldiers sit around the campfire together and pray to God; that way of praying shows the combination of the black culture and the white culture.

There is an interesting phrase called "melting pot”. The melting pot is a metaphor for a diverse society with different elements "melting together” into a harmonious whole with different cultural backgrounds. The "melting pot” metaphor implies both a melting of cultures and intermarriage of ethnicities, although cultural assimilation can also occur without intermarriage.

Yet more than a century after the abolition of slavery, intermarriage between African-Americans and other ethnicities is much less common than that between different white ethnicities. In the early years, intermarriage between whites and non-whites, and especially African-Americans, has long been a taboo in the United States. And that was even illegal in many US states until 1967. However, with time passing by, more and more white people have accepted to live with the blacks and they are more open-minded to this issue.

Although nowadays we may frequently encounter with the sad news about discriminations or conflicts between the white and the black, we should admit that the trend of integration between the white and the black is irreversible. And this trend is not only for black people, but for other ethnicities in America.

3.4.9 The 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry

The 54th Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry did exist in American history. Responding to pressure from black and white abolitionists, President Lincoln admitted black soldiers into the Union forces in 1863. The 54th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was the first black regiment to be recruited in the North. It was organised in March 1863 at Camp Meigs, Readville, Massachusetts by Robert Gould Shaw, 26-year-old member of a prominent Boston abolitionist family. Shaw had earlier served in the Seventh New York National Guard and the Second Massachusetts Infantry and was appointed colonel of the 54th in February 1863 by Massachusetts Governor. As one of the first black units organised in the Northern states, the 54th was the object of great interest and curiosity, and its performance would be considered as an important indication of the possibilities to the use of blacks in combat. The regiment was composed primarily of free blacks from throughout the North, particularly Massachusetts. After recruitment and training, the unit was sent to Hilton Head, South Carolina. It was there that their actions proved their competence.

On July 18, the troops were ordered to lead the attack at Fort Wagner. Many soldiers died, including Shaw, the regiment's young colonel. He died under the enemy's fire, shouting "Forward, Fifty-fourth!” But the attack was unsuccessful. After Shaw's death, Edward Needles Hallowell from Medford, Massachusetts became the new commander. The regiment participated in other battles in Charleston during the rest of 1863. In February 1864, the regiment was assigned to help the forces in Jacksonville, Florida. From Jacksonville, they went on to the Battle of Olustee where assistance was in great need. The 54th, along with the 35th United States Colored Troops, helped the Union regiments on the front line.

The 54th Infantry surprised its critics as they proved to be a strong force against Confederate troops. They received praise for their courage and bravery and became a vital part of the Civil War. Even today, the 54th Massachusetts Infantry is the most recognised African American Civil War regiment.

4 Exercises

4.1 Multiple Choices

(1) __________is a painting of Grant Wood in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago.

A. American Dream

B. African Gothic

C. American Gothic

D. American House

(2) The first English colony in America was founded at Jamestown, Virginia in __________.

A. 1606

B. 1607

C. 1608

D. 1609

(3) The Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in __________.

A. 1776

B. 1777

C. 1876

D. 1877

(4) The belief that anyone, regardless of where they are born or what class they are born into, can attain their own version of success in a society is called __________.

A. individualism

B. heroism

C. opportunism

D. American Dream

(5) The following terms are the types of colleges and universities in America except __________.

A. Independent Colleges and Universities

B. Graduate and Professional Schools

C. Proprietary Institutions

D. Technical Training Program

(6) The following terms are famous colleges and universities in America except __________.

A. Harvard University

B. Princeton University

C. Massachusetts Institute of Technology

D. University of Edinburgh

(7) If you want to appreciate the highest level of theatrical performances in English-speaking world, you can go to __________.

A. Music Hall

B. English National Youth Theatre

C. Broadway

D. Hollywood

(8) __________is the most popular hot drink in America.

A. Milk

B. Coffee

C. Tea

D. Milk tea

(9) The American Revolutionary War is the war mainly between America and __________.

A. Great Britain

B. France

C. Canada

D. German

(10) The American Revolutionary War had its origins in the resistance of many Americans to __________.

A. taxes

B. working time

C. payment

D. slavery

(11) The American War of Independence started in __________ and ended in __________.

A. 1776, 1784

B. 1775, 1783

C. 1706, 1714

D. 1776, 1783

(12) During the American Revolutionary War, there are __________ colonies on the mainland of America.

A. 10 B. 11 C. 12 D. 13

(13) In the movie The Patriot, the soldiers lined in the square matrix and fired each other with guns in turn. This kind of fighting is the tradition from the __________ period.

A. Victorian B. Ancient Greek C. Roman D. Middle Age

(14) In the movie The Patriot, Benjamin Martin organised a/an __________ with his sons, friends and other ordinary masses.

A. army

B. navy

C. militia

D. troop

(15) Generally speaking, Western people consider the consumption of __________ as a taboo or a kind of immoral behaviour.

A. dog meat

B. pork

C. horse meat

D. mutton

(16) In American Culture, there are several types of heroism as follows, except __________.

A. superpower

B. world-saver

C. civilian hero

D. doombringer

(17) Those are the reasons of individualistic heroism in America, except __________.

A. sense of crisis

B. independent character

C. sense of competition

D. sense of pride

(18) The American Civil War, widely known in the United States as simply the Civil War, was a civil war fought from __________ to __________.

A. 1861, 1865

B. 1681, 1685

C. 1862, 1865

D. 1682, 1685

(19) The American Civil War is sometimes called “__________”.

A. The War Between the States

B. The War for the Slaves

C. The War Between the Thoughts

D. The War for the Faith

(20) Most of the American Civil War was fought in the __________.

A. North

B. South

C. West

D. East

(21) The period after the Civil War is called __________, which lasted from the end of the war until 1877.

A. Capital Revolution

B. Cold War

C. Industrial Revolution

D. Reconstruction

(22) According to the slave owners, __________were considered a dangerous example to black slaves.

A. white people

B. free blacks

C. slaveholders

D. landlords

(23) Free blacks can do the following things, except __________.

A. starting their own shops

B. purchasing farms

C. accumulating their wealth

D. having slaves

(24) For all the black slaves, the core of their religion is the worship of __________.

A. nature and masters

B. nature and ancestors

C. Lord and ancestors

D. Lord and masters

(25) Around 1700, some slave owners began to provide access to the Christian education and worship places for slaves. Their basic motivation was __________.

A. to satisfy their own interests

B. to educate the slaves

C. to let the slaves be proud of themselves

D. to give slaves more rights

(26) In Black English, tenses can be __________ sometimes, as long as the context shows the time.

A. changed

B. omitted

C. added

D. reformed

(27) If black people want to express an action or event which does not happen very often, the verb "be” in the sentence can be .

A. changed

B. added

C. omitted

D. reformed

(28) In 1989, __________ became the first African American elected governor in US history.

A. Douglass Fredrick

B. Carol Moseley-Braun

C. Douglas Wilder

D. Lincoln

(29) On November 4, 2008, Democratic Senator __________ became the first African American to be elected President.

A. Douglas Wilder

B. Michelle Obama

C. Douglass Fredrick

D. Barack Obama

(30) Those are all African-American stars of entertainment, except __________.

A. Michael Joseph Jackson

B. Denzel Washington

C. Morgan Freeman

D. Brad Pitt

4.2 Questions for Discussion

(1) Try to compare the American militia during the Independence War with the Chinese guerrillas during the Anti-Japanese War. What are the similarities and the differences?

(2) How is the education system in the US different from that in China? Which would you like your son or daughter to experience in the future? Why?

(3) Name several important American values you think we Chinese may learn from Americans. Give your reasons.

(4) Do you like Western food? Survey Western table manners and tell your classmates how to eat courteously and gracefully in a typical Western-style restaurant.

(5) Watch The Patriot and Glory and find out one more point about American culture which we haven’t mentioned. Survey and present what you’ve found to your classmates.

[1] tabula ansata: 铭牌。A tabula ansata or tabella ansata is a tablet with dovetail handles. It was a favourite form for votive tablets in Imperial Rome.

[2] Mexican tacos:墨西哥玉米饼。

[3] Chinese egg rolls:中国炸春卷。

[4] pilsner:比尔森啤酒。

[5] pale ale:麦酒。

[6] IPA:印度麦酒。

[7] Steam beer:鲜啤。

[8] Son of Virginia: A Life in America's Political Arena:《弗吉尼亚之子：美国政治舞台的一生》。

References

Ancient Greece [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 22, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece.

Christianity vs Judaism [DB/OL]. Retrieved December 14, 2011, from http://www.diffen.com/difference/Christianity_vs_Judaism.

Comparison Between Orthodoxy, Protestantism & Roman Catholicism [DB/OL]. Retrieved February 22, 2016, from http://christianityinview.com/comparison.html.

Crusades [DB/OL]. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from http://crusades.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page.

Dobson, Michael, and Watson, Nicola J. (2002). England's Elizabeth: an afterlife in fame and fantacy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Elizabeth I [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 18, 2016, from http://www.elizabethi.org/contents/.

Elizabeth I of England [DB/OL]. Retrieved May 1, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Elizabeth_I_of_England.

Frances, Gies. (1984). The knight in history. New York: Harper Perennial.

Greek mythology [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 26, 2016, from http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/greek-mythology.

Haigh, Christopher. (2000). Elizabeth I (2nd ed.). Harlow (UK): Longman Pearson.

Hammer, P. E. J. (1999). The polarisation of Elizabethan politics: The political career of Robert Devereux, 2nd earl of Essex, 1585–1597. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Henry VIII of England [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 30, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England.

Jerusalem [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem#Etymology.

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—Similarities and Differences [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 26, 2016, from http://chineseschool.netfi rms.com/Judaism-Christianity-Islam.html.

Labov, William. (1998). Coexistent systems in African-American English. In Mufwene, S. (Eds.), The structure of African-American English. London: Routledge. 110-153.

Luo, Xing. (2014). A Cross-cultural comparative study of Japanese Bushido and European chivalry reflected in two films [D]. 西安大学外国语学院.

Montefiore, Simon Sebag. (2011). Jerusalem: The biography. New York: Knopf Publishing Group.

Mycenaean Greece [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 28, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece.

Shotgun's Home of the American Civil War [DB/OL]. Retrieved March 30, 2012, from http:// www.civilwarhome.com/index.html.

Strong, Roy C. (2003). Gloriana: The portraits of Queen Elizabeth I. London: Pimlico.

Trojan War [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 19, 2016, from https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War.

Troy [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 10, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy.

Troy (film) [DB/OL]. Retrieved April 25, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy_(film). Westwood, Howard C. (1992). Black troops, white commanders and freedmen during the Civil War. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

陈 德. 2013. 新编英语国家概况[M]. 西安：西安交通大学出版社.

陈志杰. 2004. 美国内战前黑人宗教文化刍议[J]. 洛阳解放军外国语学院学报（2）：87-90.

董晓波. 2014. 英美国家社会与文化[M]. 北京：清华大学出版社.

郝际陶，那志文. 1997. 古代雅典和斯巴达妇女[J]. 东北师大学报（哲学社会科学版）（4）：68-72.

郝喜梅. 2012. 古代雅典和斯巴达妇女的社会地位之比较[J]. 大众文艺（5）：164.

芦俊. 2012. 电影《爱国者》的鉴赏与思想解读[J]. 芒种影视文学（7）：199-200.

刘锦明. 1996. 黑人英语对标准英语的影响[J]. 现代外语（1）：34-38.

李晓玲，郑强. 2009. 论斯巴达教育[A]. 纪念《教育史研究》创刊二十周年论文集(17)：外国教育政策与制度改革史研究[C]. [出版者不详]

李学智. 1994. 雅典奴隶与斯巴达希洛人差异浅析[J]. 历史教学（9）：32.

倪世光. 1998. 论骑士行为准则的基督教特征[J]. 河北师范大学学报（1）：138-142.

任松峰. 2004. 伊丽莎白一世宗教政策述论(1558—1603)[D]. 内蒙古大学.

王慧丽，刘文宇. 2015. 英美文化体验[M]. 2 版. 北京：中国人民大学出版社.

吴霞辉. 2006. 西方社会与文化[M]. 北京：科学出版社.

夏继果. 1996. 伊丽莎白一世的外交政策与商业扩张[J]. 齐鲁学刊（5）：124-128.

杨蕾达，吴文姝. 2012. 美国电影文化体验[M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社.

张奎武. 2008. 英美概况[M]. 吉林：吉林科学技术出版社.

周丽蕊. 2001. 美国黑人英语的语音和语法特征[J]. 徐州教育学院学报（3）：13-18.

朱清海. 2008. 试论伊丽莎白一世的婚姻外交[J]. 史学理论研究（1）：78-88.

张绍杰，姜毓锋. 2009. 英美文化教程[M]. 北京：科学出版社.

朱伟奇. 2004. 中世纪骑士精神[M]. 西安：陕西人民出版社.

朱伟奇. 2004 . 试论十字军东征对骑士精神品质的塑造与影响[J]. 唐都学刊（4）：106.

Table of Contents

内容简介

前言

Section One Greek Culture

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

Section Two Christian Cultur

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

Section Three British Culture

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

Section Four American Cultu

1 Brief Introduction

2 Language Points

3 Cultural References

4 Exercises

References