目录

序

PREFACE

第一章 冠词

一、不定冠词

1. 不定冠词的常见用法

2. “a”和“an”用法上的区别

3. a(n)和one含义上的差别

4. a(n)的一些惯用结构

5. 带a(n)的若干习惯用语

二、定冠词

1. 定冠词的常见用法

2. 带 the的若干习惯用语

三、冠词的省略

Exercises

第二章 数词

一、英语中万的表达法

二、表示“许多”的数词用法及一些常用量词短语的用法

三、英语中倍数增减的表达法

1. 倍数增减的表示法

2. by和to表示倍数的用法

四、英语中概数的表示法

1. about，some，nearly，or so，more or less

2. more than，above，over，odd

3. less than，under，below

五、“每”和“每隔”的表示法

六、长度、宽度、高度、重量等的表示法

七、年代、年月、年龄等的表示法

1. 年代、年月的表示法

2. 年龄的各种表示法

八、运用数词的一些常见习语

Exercises

第三章 名词

一、名词的性

1. 表示人及动物的性别相对的名词

2. 有些名词在词尾加上“-ess”构成阴性

3. 名词前后加man，woman，he，she等表示性别

4. 拟人化的阳性词和阴性词

二、名词的可数与不可数

三、不可数名词的转化

1. 一些抽象名词数的转化

2. 一些物质名词数的转化

3. 不可数名词（物质名词及抽象名词）的转化实例

4. 专有名词数的转化

四、不可数名词和可数名词的用法

1. 不可数名词前量词的用法

2. 抽象名词+itself

3. all+某些复数名词

4. 不可数名词前冠词的用法

5. 不可数名词数的表示法

6. 单数可数名词前不加冠词的特殊结构

7. a (an)+单数名词+of+a+单数名词

8. many+a+单数名词

9. the+单数名词+of+相同的复数名词

10. the+最高级形容词+of+复数名词

11. of+抽象名词=形容词

12. a man of his/a woman (girl) of her+单数名词

13. what+(little/few)+名词

五、名词的数

1. 名词用作前置形容词的数的问题

2. 集体名词的数的问题

3. 以-ics结尾的名词的数

4. 以-s结尾的名词的数

5. 单复数同形的名词

6. 复合名词的数

7. 名词由单数变复数应注意的问题

8. 名词的单复数在意义上的不同

六、名词的格

1. 格的种类

2. 's属格的形成

3. 's属格使用的对象

4. 应用's属格需注意的问题

5. 名词's属格的其他作用

6. of属格的使用

7. 's属格和of属格在使用上的区别

8. 双重属格

9. 's属格的常见习语

Exercises

第四章 代词

一、代词的分类

二、代词的格、人称和数

三、人称代词

1. 人称代词的格的句法功能

2. 人称代词的格的灵活处理

3. 人称代词在句中的词序

4. 人称代词的常见习用语和谚语

四、单数第三人称代词it的用法

1. 代替人以外的第三人称单数名词

2. 表示天气、时间、距离、环境等情况

3. 用来指代一个未亲眼看到、面目不详的人

4. 用来代替整个句子或该句中谓语部分所表示的意思

5. 用于“It is (was)...that (who/whom)...”强调结构中

6. it用作形式主语或形式宾语

7. 用来指代句子尾部的名词短语

8. 用作无具体意义的主语

9. 用作不定宾语

10. it的若干实用写作句式及口头表达法

五、物主代词

1. 物主代词的分类

2. 物主代词用法上的区别

六、反身代词

1. 反身代词的构成

2. 反身代词的用法

3. 和反身代词连用的一些常见动词

4. 关于self的用法

七、相互代词

1. 相互代词用法上的区别

2. 相互代词的所有格在应用上需注意的问题

3. 相互代词不能用作主语

4. 汉译英时相互代词的灵活处理

八、指示代词

1. this/these和that/those在时空上的差别

2. this和that在行文叙述上的差别

3. this/that和these/those用于表示种类、类型时的结构

4. that和those用于表示比较结构

5. those和they，them用法上的区别

6. Those who...的数的含义

7. and that构成的习惯用法

8. and...at that

9. 指示代词such的用法

10. such的一些常用习惯表达法

11. 指示代词former和latter的用法

12. 指示代词same的用法

13. same的习用语

九、关系代词

1. 关系代词who，whom，whose，that和which的基本用法

2. 关系代词who，whom，which和that的主要用法

3. 关系代词的省略

4. 用于限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的关系代词

5. 关系代词as的用法

6. 关系代词but的用法

十、连接代词

1. 连接代词和关系代词的异同

2. 连接代词和疑问代词的转化

3. 连接代词的合成词

4. 连接代词what的用法

十一、不定代词

1. both，all

2. either，neither，any，each，none，every，some

3. one，other，another

4. most

十二、准代词than

Exercises

第五章 一致性

一、主谓一致

1. 主谓一致的分类

2. 主谓一致原则的具体应用

二、主语和主语补语的一致

三、代词的一致

四、并列（又称平行排比）结构中成分宜保持一致性

Exercises

第六章 动词

一、不规则动词

二、特殊连系动词

1. 特殊连系动词的分类

2. 特殊连系动词的固定搭配

3. 特殊连系动词与实义动词

4. 表层结构和深层结构在特殊连系动词结构中的应用

三、情态动词

1. can (could)和be able to用法上的区别

2. may和might

3. have to和must

4. 情态动词need和行为动词need

5. 情态动词dare和行为动词dare

6. shall的用法

7. should的用法

8. ought to的用法

9. 情态动词will和would

10. had better的用法

11.

Exercises

第七章 时态

一、一般现在时的用法

1. 表示客观真理或科学真理

2. 表示格言或警句

3. 表示客观存在

4. 表示现在习惯性的、经常重复的或定期发生的动作

5. 表示能力、性格、个性等

6. 多用于表示状态的动词

7. 表示报道或表演中的解说词，其动作与话语同时发生

8. 在I hope，I bet等后面的宾语从句中，可用一般现在时代替将来时以加强语气

9. 用来表示没有时间性的事物，诸如书面材料内容、图片说明等

10. 在宾语从句或定语从句中可用现在时来代替将来时

11. 表示按照时间表或事先的安排即将要发生的动作

12. 用在置于句首的Here或There后面表示正在进行的动作

二、现在进行时的用法

1. 表示现在正在发生的事情，通常是正在进行的短暂的动作或状态

2. 表示现阶段正在进行的、长期的或重复性的动作，而说话时动作未必正在进行

3. 与连系动词连用

4. 用现在进行时表示非进行意义

5. 一般现在时和现在进行时在表示将来时的含义上的区别

三、现在完成时的用法

1. 表示现在之前已发生或完成的动作或状态

2. 同表示不确定的过去时间状语连用

3. 同表示频度的时间状语连用

4. 同包括现在时间在内的时间状语连用

5. 表示现在之前已完成的动作，其效果或影响现在依然存在

6. 现在完成时在对话中的使用

7. 表示一个人的经历、言行或作用对现在和将来具有长期现实意义和深远影响

8. 同since一起用

四、一般过去时的用法

1. 表示在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或状态

2. 用来表示过去的习惯动作

3. 在日常会话中用一般过去时来表示现在时间

五、过去完成时的用法

1. 表示过去某一动作或状态发生或结束在另一过去动作之前

2. 表示到过去某一时间之前已经完成或结束的一个过去动作或状态

六、过去进行时的用法

1. 表示过去某一时刻正在发生的动作

2. while或when引导的从句

3. 以某种持续的动作为背景，而以一般过去时引出的新动作为主要描述对象

4. 表示按计划安排在过去某事将要发生的动作

5. 在问到一段时间怎么度过时，过去进行时要比一般过去时有礼貌

6. 一般过去时和过去进行时的区别

七、一般将来时的用法

八、将来进行时的用法

1. 表示将来某时进行的状态或动作，或按预测、计划在较近的将来会发生的事情

2. 用将来进行时和一般将来时提问时在含义上的区别

3. 将来进行时、现在进行时和一般将来时的区别

九、将来完成时

1. 到将来某一时间之前将要完成的动作

2. 在将来某一动作完成前完成的动作

3. 表示将来发生的事情的一种可能性或假设

十、过去将来时

1. 过去将来时由 would (should)+动词原形构成

2. 由were (was) going to+动词原形构成

3. 由were (was) to+动词原形构成

4. 由were (was) about to+动词原形

Exercises

第八章 被动语态

一、被动语态的形式

二、被动语态的应用

1. 强调动作的承受者

2. 动作的执行者不明或不需明确提出

3. 为了诸如礼貌、策略、婉转等缘故不提出动作的执行者

4. 在现代英语及口语中的应用

5. 主动句的宾语是由that引导的从句在变为被动句时，应补添it作形式主语

6. 被动结构常用于公告、通知中

三、主动语态变成被动语态的步骤

四、使用被动语态时应注意的问题

1. 动作执行者前用by或with的原则

2. 主动语态变成被动语态的一些例外情况

3. 表示状态的动词

4. 动词短语的处理

5. 某些动词表示被动意义的方式

6. 使用被动语态的基本原则

7. 动词不定式符号“to”的处理

Exercises

第九章 分词

一、分词的功能

二、现在分词和过去分词用作形容词时在用法上的区别

1. 现在分词和过去分词表示的意思不同

2. 分词用法上矛盾时所依据的准则

3. 分词构成合成形容词时用法上的差别

4. 个别分词位置的前后不同所产生的意思上的差异

5. 现在分词用作后置形容词时应注意的问题

三、分词用作状语

1. 用作原因状语从句

2. 用作时间状语从句

3. 用作伴随性状语从句

4. 用作条件状语从句

5. 用作结果状语从句

6. 用作让步状语从句

四、分词用作状语应注意的问题

五、状语从句变成分词短语的步骤

六、分词短语用作独立成分

七、分词短语用作独立结构

1. 分词短语和独立结构在形式上的区别

2. 独立结构的作用

3. 状语从句变成独立结构的步骤

4. 使用独立结构应注意的问题

八、分词用作宾语补语

1. 作宾语补语时，分词只用在感官动词和表示“使役”或“致使”的动词后面

2. 用于感官动词后的现在分词和不带to不定式两者在含义上的区别

3. 过去分词用在have，like，want，wish，order等动词后面时应注意的问题

九、分词用作主语补语

Exercises

第十章 动名词和不定式的比较

一、用作主语、宾语、表语和同位语时在意义上的区别

二、动名词和不定式作后置形式主语时应注意的问题

三、接动名词的动词，接不定式的动词和动名词、不定式都可接的动词

1. 接动名词的动词和动词词组

2. 接不定式的动词

3. 接动名词和不定式的动词

四、动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语

五、动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语时的差别

六、动名词和不定式的被动态和主动态的用法

1. 动名词

2. 不定式

七、动名词和不定式的时态形式

1. 动名词的时态形式

2. 不定式的时态形式

八、介词+动名词结构和不定式结构的相互转换

1. 介词位于名词后面和不定式的互换

2. 介词位于动词后面和不定式的互换

3. 介词位于形容词后面和不定式的互换

九、动名词和不定式的否定结构

十、动名词和不定式的逻辑主语

1. 不定式的逻辑主语

2. 动名词的逻辑主语

十一、动名词和不定式作状语时用法上的区别

1. 动名词用作状语

2. 不定式用作状语

3. 表示目的时应用不定式

十二、动名词和现在分词在用法上的区别

1. 作定语时的区别

2. 作表语时的区别

3. 现在分词可以单独作状语；动名词却不能

4. 现在分词可以作宾语的补足语；动名词不可以

5. 动名词可以作动词或介词的宾语；现在分词不能

十三、不定式作定语与分词作定语的区别

十四、动名词和不定式各自的特殊结构

1. 动名词的特殊结构

2. 不定式的特殊结构

十五、带不定式符号“to”的短语和带介词“to”的短语

1. 带有不定式符号to的短语，后接动词原形

2. 带介词to的短语，后接动名词或名词

Exercises

第十一章 荡空结构

一、荡空结构的概念

二、荡空结构的种类

1. 荡空分词结构

2. 荡空动名词结构

3. 荡空不定式结构

4. 荡空省略从句结构

Exercises

第十二章 形容词

一、定语形容词和表语形容词

1. 绝大部分的形容词既可用作定语又可用作表语

2. 来自法语和拉丁语的定语形容词

3. 一些习惯表达法

二、形容词并列用作定语时的位置

1. 表大小的与表形状的形容词并列

2. 表大小、形状和颜色的形容词并列

3. 表年龄、新旧与表颜色的形容词并列

4. 表年龄、新旧、颜色的与表国籍、地区、出处的形容词并列

5. 限定词与形容词并列

三、形容词的级

1. 原级形容词

2. 形容词比较级和最高级的构成

3. 形容词比较级的用法

4. 形容词原级和比较级的同时使用

5. 形容词最高级的用法

四、形容词的一些特殊用法

1. most

2. enough

3. the+形容词（包括分词形容词）

4. 形容词修饰形容词

5. 动词+形容词

6. 运用比较级或最高级形容词的常见习语

五、易混淆的形容词

1. 一些主客观意义易混淆的形容词

2. 意义极容易混淆的形容词

Exercises

第十三章 副词

一、副词的功能

二、副词的分类

三、副词的位置

1. 修饰形容词或其他副词时的位置

2. 修饰实义动词时副词的位置

3. 程度副词及频度副词的位置

4. 修饰整个句子的副词的位置

5. 疑问副词的位置

6. 几个副词同时出现在同一个句中时它们位置的先后

四、副词的级

五、副词的构成

1. 大多数副词由形容词或分词在词尾加-ly构成

2. 几点值得注意的问题

六、副词enough，too，none，never，not，not...and和not...too的特殊用法

1. enough

2. too

3. none

4. never

5. never的一些常见习用语

6. not

7. not和and连用时的特殊意义

8. cannot和too连用时的特殊意义

9. 和not有关的常见习语

七、用法上易混淆的副词和形容词

1. such和so用法上的区别

2. very和much用法上的区别

3. too much...和much too...的区别

4. also，too和either的区别

5. 副词not和形容词no在一些常见结构中意思上的差别

6. 同形的形容词和副词

Exercises

第十四章 排比结构

一、排比结构的分类

1. 单词排比

2. 短语排比

3. 从句排比

二、使用排比结构应注意的问题

三、排比结构中代词、介词或冠词省略时应注意的问题

四、三项式排比结构

1. 主语三项式排比

2. 谓语三项式排比

3. 宾语三项式排比

4. 定语三项式排比

5. 表语三项式排比

6. 分词短语三项式排比

7. 不定式三项式排比

8. 介词或介宾短语三项式排比

9. 分句三项式排比

Exercises

第十五章 虚拟语气

一、虚拟语气和陈述语气在条件句中的应用

1. 陈述语气用于真实条件句

2. 虚拟语气用于非真实条件句

二、虚拟语气和陈述语气用来表示条件的一些其他结构形式

1. 与祈使句一起用表示条件的结构形式

2. 与代词it一起用表示条件的结构形式

3. 省略if表示条件的结构形式

4. if以外其他从属连词表示条件的结构形式

5. 与并列连词and或or一起用时表示条件的结构形式

6. 跳层式的条件结构形式

7. 与介词连用表示条件时的结构形式

三、虚拟语气在宾语从句中的应用

1. 用在表示假设的动词wish所引导的从句中

2. 用在表示要求、建议或命令等动词所引导的从句中

四、虚拟语气在主语从句中的应用

五、虚拟语气在表语从句及同位语从句中的应用

六、虚拟语气在某些否定或疑问形式动词所引导的宾语从句中的应用

七、虚拟语气在If only，Would (that)，I'd (He'd) rather，as if (though)，It is time，for fear that和lest等结构中的应用

1. If only...；Would that...

2. I'd (He'd) rather

3. as if和as though用法相同

4. It is time+过去时从句

5. for fear that，lest (that)表示“唯恐，以免”

八、虚拟语气的一些特殊应用

1. 应用于单独条件句

2. 表示祝愿或诅咒

Exercises

第十六章 主从结构和并列结构

一、何谓主从结构

二、主从结构的表达形式

1. 以状语从句形式表示的从属结构

2. 以分词形式（包括独立结构）所表示的从属结构

3. 以who，whom，that，which引导的定语从句表示的从属结构

4. 以连接副词、连接代词和连词that引导的从句表示从属结构

5. 以从属连词引导的表示从属关系的省略结构

6. 以关系副词where，when，why引导的定语从句

7. 以介词短语形式表示的从属结构

8. 以同位语形式表示的从属结构

三、何谓并列结构

四、并列连词和连接性副词的区别

1. 位置上的区别

2. 用法上的区别

五、一些常见并列连接词的用法

1. and

2. both...and...

3. nor和neither

4. neither...nor...

5. or

6. either...or...

7. not only...but also...

8. but

9. for

10. as well as

11. as much as

Exercises

第十七章 倒装

一、部分倒装

1. 何谓部分倒装

2. 部分倒装的用法

二、全部倒装

1. 何谓全部倒装

2. 全部倒装的用法

三、倒装句和主题前置强调句之间的区别

1. 宾语或宾语从句移至句首

2. 介词的宾语移至句首

3. 表语移至句首

4. 宾语补语移至句首

5. 副词或状语短语移至句首

6. 在though或as引导的让步从句中，形容词、名词或副词常移至从句之首以起强调作用

Exercises

第十八章 介词

一、介词的分类

二、介词短语及其句法功能

1. 充当介词宾语的成分

2. 介词短语的句法功能

三、介词词组的分类及其同状语或定语从句的相互转换

四、表示时间的介词在使用上的区别

1. at，on，in，of

2. during，for，in，over，throughout

3. after，in，for

4. since，after

5. behind，after

6. to，till，until，by

7. with

8. inside of

9. as

10. about，around

11. toward(s)

12. between

五、表示地点、位置的介词在使用上的区别

1. at，in，on

2. underneath，over，under，above，below，beneath

3. at，by，beside，besides，alongside (of)，near，next to

4. before，in front of，behind，after，at the back of，back of

5. about，round，around

6. about，with，on，by

7. to，towards，toward，for，in

8. in，into，inside，inside of，within

9. out of，outside，outside of，without

10. along，across，by，through，past，beyond，throughout

11. through，throughout，over

12. up，down

13. from，to，for，off

14. between和among

六、表示原因、理由的介词在使用上的区别

1. of，from，through，for，by，with，in，on，at

2. due to，owing to，thanks to，because of，on account of

七、表示“除外”的介词在使用上的区别

1. but，except，save

2. except，excepting，except for，but for

3. except that，but that

4. as well as

八、表示“让步”的介词在用法上的区别

1. despite (=in spite of)

2. regardless of，notwithstanding

3. for all one's...，with all one's...

4. 在特殊情况下，through也被用来表示“让步”，如：

九、表示“关于”，“至于”的介词在用法上的区别

1. with regard to，in regard to，regarding，as regards

2. concerning，respecting，touching，as regards

3. with reference to，with respect to，in respect of，in the matter of

4. as for，as to

5. on，about

十、表示方法、手段或工具的介词在用法上的区别

1. by

2. with

3. on

4. in

5. through

十一、表示标准、比率、对比、速度、价格的介词在用法上的区别

1. by可用来表示标准、度量单位，作“以……计”，“按……计算”解

2. at可用来表示速度、比率、价格、价值

3. at在表示速度、比率、价格方面的一些常见习语

4. to 在表示数量、价值、比率时的几个意思

十二、表示比较的介词在用法上的区别

1. than

2. to

3. of

4. above

十三、表示属性、特性的介词在用法上的区别

1. of

2. with

十四、引出间接宾语

1. 引出间接宾语的介词主要是to和for，在少数场合则用of

2. 如何正确使用to，for，of来引出间接宾语

3. 介词引出间接宾语时应注意的问题

十五、常见的介词特殊结构

1. 单数可数名词（无冠词）+after (by/in/to)+单数可数名词（无冠词）

2. 介词+最高级形容词

3. by+反身代词

4. of的特殊结构

5. with引出的独立结构

十六、两步表达法的介词结构

1. 及物动词+宾语+介词+the+身体部位

2. 及物动词+宾语+介词+宾语

十七、介词的省略

1. 某些结构中介词的省略

2. 以疑问词whose，what，when，how及whether引导的从句或不定式短语前介词of的省略

3. 以who，what，which，when，where，how及whether引导的从句或不定式短语前介词about或as to的省略

4. 表示时间短语前介词的省略

5. 在表示方位方向、距离、方式方法、估量、重量及价值等短语结构中，介词往往省略

6. 在with引导的独立结构中介词的省略

7. 名词、动词或形容词的并列结构中介词的省略

8. 起限定作用的介词短语的省略

Exercises

图书在版编目（CIP）数据

实用英语语法精粹（第2版）/罗国梁主编. —2版. —上海：华东理工大学出版社，2011.7

ISBN 978-7-5628-3048-1

Ⅰ. 实...　Ⅱ. 罗...　Ⅲ. 英语-语法　Ⅳ. H314

中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字（2011）第107007号

实用英语语法精粹（第2版）

主　　编 / 罗国梁

副主编 / 罗思韧

责任编辑 / 陈勤

责任校对 / 张波

封面设计 / 戚亮轩

出版发行 / 华东理工大学出版社

社　　址：上海市梅陇路130号，200237

电　　话：（021）64250306（营销部）（021）64252717（编辑室）

传　　真：（021）64252707

网　　址：press.ecust.edu.cn

印　　刷 / 上海展强印刷有限公司

开　　本 / 787mm×1092mm　1/16

印　　张 / 33.5

字　　数 / 1125千字

版　　次 / 2011年7月第1版

印　　次 / 2011年7月第1次

书　　号 / ISBN 978-7-5628-3048-1/H·1108

序

光阴荏苒，如白驹过隙，自拙著《当代实用英语精华》在华东理工大学出版社的大力支持下于1991年问世以来，匆匆间已换了十五个年头；其间，蒙全国莘莘学子的厚爱，已重印了12次；作者还曾听说，两年前，“新东方”还在网上向全国学员推荐该书，对一个作者来说，有什么能比他的书受到读者欢迎更令他感到欣慰呢？

随着中国加入世贸组织和申博的成功，英语作为一门带有世界性的语言，在国内的需求势头有增无减。华东理工大学出版社编辑亲临舍间，谈及目前很多高校学生及社会上广大学员都很赏识《当代实用英语精华》这本书，并希望作者能进一步充实内容并增补新的信息，以满足他们更大更高的需求。

谨照雅命，在大量增补过程中，作者和他手下助手目睹国内英语需求的大好形势，不禁思绪驰骋，突破了原有的构思和框架，把当前新的东西尽可能搜集到家，诚如宋朝理学家朱熹名诗《观书有感》所云：“半亩方塘一鉴开，天光云影共徘徊。问渠那得清如许，为有源头活水来。”这首诗比喻学习或著书中唯有不断吸收新知识，才能立稳于社会。我们在编写时冒着酷暑，终日孜孜矻矻，在突破裹足蹈袭的同时，力求精确，不容秋毫有失，终于凸现了本书特点：打破传统的布局和写法，熔词法和句法于一炉，从惯用法、词语搭配、实际应用、词组和句子结构、修辞以及标准化考试的应试等角度着重阐述了冠词、数词、名词、代词、语法一致、动词、分词、动名词、不定式、荡空结构、虚拟语气、主从结构、倒装语序、介词、小品词等这些切合实际的专题。在每一专题中罗列了相关的、贴近生活的习用语，从而清晰地阐明与该专题有关的英语日常用法、有一定难度的特殊结构和写作技巧，并最后引归到有关的国内外标准化试题加以印证，这时读者便会感到这些标准化试题顿时显得易如反掌，迎刃而解。每个专题的各部分都配有一定量的针对性很强的练习和解释性答案，从而产生由一定量的练习所带来的强化效果。特别需要一提的是，本书对介词的用法区别作了详尽的说明，如切如蹉，如琢如磨，在全国同类书籍中可谓独树一帜。这样处理的理由是：介词虽是小词，数量不多，却是极为活跃的成分。它们和动词、名词、形容词、副词以及其他词类组成的词组（双词动词和三词动词）、习语和结构可谓车载斗量，难以计数，其作用之大、使用之灵活多变致使国内外学者认为搞清介词的用法是学好英语的一个关键。读者如能耐心按此顺序扎实学习和记忆，定能迅速提升英语的听、读、写和应试能力。

本书的另一特点是：语法结构的覆盖面广，对问题的讲解由浅入深、由简到繁，能最大程度地适应中高级不同层次读者的需要，同时在深度和广度上能全面照顾到英语教学、实际应用和国内外标准化应试等这些实际课题所提出的要求，可谓是一部具有持久价值的教学参考书和自学必读书籍。在编写过程中余秋平、刘娜和勇薇三位青年老师参与了资料搜集工作。

行将结束这篇序言的夜晚，作者独自坐在客厅中凝视着落地灯温润柔和的灯光，想到自复旦大学毕业踏上社会数十年弹指而过，正如岁月不居，时节如流。在灯影中作者似乎窥见自己在以往岁月中隐隐约约留下的生活轨迹，茫然中能捕捉到的只是“皇皇三十载，书剑两无成”的怅然和无奈。伤怀之余，蓦然想起胡适述怀诗的名句“犹如过河卒子，惟有拼命向前”，作者顿时受到鼓舞，感悟到东隅虽失，桑榆非晚，看来还得在著书立说的路上走下去了。

罗国梁

2011年5月

PREFACE

Time speeds fast like, as the great historian, writer and thinker Sima Qian of the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.— 24 A.D.) put it, a white colt flashing past a chink in a wall.

In a twinkling fifteen years have slipped by since my book Essentials of Modern English for Practical Use was published by the East China University of Science & Technology Press, whose understanding, friendship and support have made the success of this book possible. Because of its being appreciated by large numbers of learners across the country, the book has been printed l2 times. About two years ago, I was told that the New Orient had recommended on the Internet the book to the learners throughout the country. Nothing, indeed, could give a writer more gratification than his book being so well received by readers as well as by such a prestigious language school as the New Orient.

Since China's entry into the WTO and its success in the bid for the Expo 20l0, domestic demand for personnel who have acquired proficiency in English, has been on the steady increase. Two editorial directors of the ECSTUP honored me with a visit and conveyed the heartening information that the book is so popular among the reading public that even after its twelfth printing Essentials of Modern English for Practical Use still remains on the best-seller list. Both directors, therefore, urged me to update and enrich the book in terms of grammar, structure, usage, collocation and rhetoric so as to meet the ever higher demands of the reading public.

In compliance with their wish, I set about the work together with my assistants. Inspired by the pressing demand at home for personnel well versed in the English language, we could not help a myriad of thoughts and ideas filling our minds in the course of the enlargement, all of which boiled down to a considerable breakthrough in the original frame and conception of the book. We did what we could to collect as much present-day or latest information and material as possible to supplement and enrich the book in such a way as to update it in every practical aspect.

Zhu Xi, the leading exponent of the Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Southern Song Dynasty (1130-1200), put it so well in his popular poem:

Thoughts on Reading

A small square pond spreads clear before the eye,

Mirroring light and clouds lingering about in the sky.

The water is so limpid — and why?

Lo, 'tis ever freshened up by the spring close by.

The poem exemplifies the philosophy that a student or scholar needs constant new ideas to keep abreast of the times just as a pond needs perpetual replenishment of flowing water to stay fresh and clean. To put it in a nutshell, only by incessantly absorbing new ideas in study or writing can one establish oneself in academia. In the process of compiling the third edition of Essentials of Modern English for Practical Use, we pegged down at the work even in the intense heat of summer, striving, while going off the beaten track, to be as accurate as accurate could be, and brooking no mistake, however small. Our concerted efforts culminated in the highlighting of the prominent characteristics of the book — breaking away from conventions and opening up a new mode of compilation, which incorporates morphology and syntax into one organic whole comprising usage, collocation, practical application, sentence structure, rhetoric and enhancement of abilities to cope with standardized examinations. From the angles of those language points, the book proceeds to focus on the expounding of such subjects as article, numeral, noun, pronoun, subject-verb concord, tense usage, verb, participle, gerund, infinitive, adjective and adverb, dangling element, subjunctive mood, subordination and coordination, parallelism, inversion, and preposition.

The theoretical exposition of each subject is based on a flexible integration of morphology and syntax, interspersed with a number of close-to-life idiomatic expressions, fairly difficult structures and writing skills, all relevant to the subject under discussion. Finally, the reader is directed to the relevant standardized test questions for verification of his or her knowledge acquisition. By this time, the reader will have found it as easy as winking either to choose the correct answers or make error detections. Each of the parts under every subject in this book is provided with a number of exercises with explanatory answers, thus heightening the effect.

What deserves more than passing mention is that this book explains at considerable length the subtle differences in use among prepositions. It may be said that we worked meticulously at this book like, so to speak,“jade carvers doing their cutting and polishing”. In this domain the book, therefore, strikes a line for itself. The reason for such treatment is not far to seek. Prepositions, though small words in a small number, are extremely active elements able to mix with verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and other parts of speech to form two-word and three-word phrases, creating idiomatic expressions and structures so numerable as to be inestimable and so flexibly functional as to bring about the consensus shared by scholars both at home and abroad that getting a clear understanding of the uses of prepositions is a key to acquiring a good command of the English language.

The four subjects in the Sixth Unit are interconnected, complementing one another in proper sequence, thus multiplying the practical uses of the book. We make bold to express our view that if readers would study all the parts of the Sixth Unit in their sequence and try to memorize as much as they could, they would be able to greatly improve their listening, reading and writing abilities as well as their competence to meet the challenge of standardized examinations with ease.

Still another characteristic of this book is that it makes a full exposition of all useful grammatical structures, covering almost every aspect of modern English for practical use by going in a graded manner from the easy to the advanced and from the simple to the complex so that the book comes up, both in depth and in breadth, to the demands set by English language teaching, practical use and standardized examinations. It may be said without exaggeration that Essentials of Modern English for Practical Use is a book of permanent value not only as a teaching reference book but as a teach-yourself must as well.

The night the preface was drawing to a close, I lounged alone on a settee in the living room, gazing into the gentle and soft light of the standard lamp in a brown study. Before I knew it, I had my thoughts thrown back to the scenes of decades ago — scenes of my college days at Fudan University through graduation till I wound up my educational career as a professor honored with a Certificate of Special Lifelong Government Allowance issued by the State Council of the People's Republic of China. While immersed in those memories by the quiet mellow lamplight, I found myself able to experience yet nothing more than the feeling of a man whose expectations to completely fulfil himself had been frustrated under the then unavoidable circumstances. Thus deeply affected, I subconsciously had flashing into my mind the two well-known lines by Hu Shi, a great scholar in modern China, in his free verse Recounting My Aspirations,“Like a pawn across the river in a Chinese chess game which can never retreat, I have no choice but to advance to the end.”Immediately I got greatly buoyed up and came to realize that though the best part of my years is gone, I can still hope to reap a rich harvest of my endeavor in the autumn of my life. It seems that I will have yet to continue on the path of compiling academic works in the days ahead.

All the ancient quotations in the preface including Zhu Xi's poem and Hu Shi's free verses are translated by the writer. Comments from readers and scholars are gratefully welcome.

第一章　冠词

一、不定冠词

1. 不定冠词的常见用法

1 　用在普通单数名词前，表“类别”。

Mr. Lee is a teacher. 李先生是教师。［不宜译为“李先生是一位教师。”］

2 　用在普通单数名词前，表“泛指，即整体一类的事物或人”。［或：正方形有四个直角。］

A square has four right angles. 凡正方形皆有四个直角。

An ant is a gregarious（群居昆虫）insect. 蚂蚁是群居昆虫。［指蚂蚁，不论其为何种类，皆为群居昆虫］

3 　用在单数名词前，表示“每个”。

He earns 2,000 dollars a month.

He goes downtown only once a week.

4 　用在专有名词前，表示“某一个”。

He introduced me to a Mr. Brown, who was a writer. 他把我介绍给一位名叫布朗的先生，此人是个作家。

A Ms. Thomson is waiting for you at the gate. 有个叫汤姆森的女士在门口等你。

注：有时候不定冠词+专有名词，表示与该专有名词相仿的人或物，译时可灵活掌握。

Paul is a pretty good playwright（很不错的戏剧家）, but he is not a Shakespeare（不可与莎翁相提并论）.

He talks volubly like a Johnson. 他说起话来滔滔不绝，很像约翰逊。［Samuel Johnson是英国18世纪著名学者，以健谈闻名］

That guy is a Shylock. 那家伙是另一个夏洛克。［夏洛克是莎士比亚的名剧《威尼斯商人》中一个非常刻薄吝啬的人］

She wishes her son to be a Bell or a Lincoln. 她希望儿子成为像贝尔或林肯那样的人。［像贝尔那样的发明家或像林肯那样的政治家］

5 　用在单数名词前，表“具有相同的性质”，a=the same。

Birds of a feather flock together.［谚］物以类聚，人以群分。

If you ask me what I think of the two, I would say they are much of a muchness.［much of a muchness 系习用语，=they are very much the same意谓“大同小异”。］

The two boys are of an age（同年）.

6 　用在没有形容词修饰的单数名词前面，以强调“程度”。

It has rained for a time (=for a long time). 雨下了好长时间了。

That's an idea (=a great idea). 那真是个高见。

7 　用在有修饰语修饰的抽象名词或物质名词前，表“某种特殊性质或类别”。

This is wine.［wine是物质名词，前面不用冠词］

This is a fine red wine.［上品红葡萄酒，表示特殊性质或级别，故需用不定冠词］

• 此部分有更为详细的讲解和实例，请参见本书“名词”一章有关“不可数名词用法”部分。

当turn或go作“变成”解时，其后作表语的名词前不用冠词。如果主语为复数，其后之名词也不能用复数。例如：

She turned singer in her thirties.

Two of them turned traitor after being arrested.［注意：尽管主语是Two，但traitor仍用单数］

John has gone Republican. 约翰成了共和党人。

注：若作表语的名词前有形容词修饰时，则需用不定冠词。

He's turned a good husband. 他变成了一个好丈夫。

The maple leaves have turned a dark red. What a fantastic sight! 枫叶变得通红。多么迷人的景象啊！

2. “a”和“an”用法上的区别

1 　名词发音以辅音开始的，用a。

a cup/a camel/a one-eyed man/a European

2 　名词发音以元音开始的，用an。

an orphan（孤儿）/an eagle/an hour/an heir（继承人）

3. a(n)和one含义上的差别

1 　at a time指“逐一地，一次地；同时”，而at one time指“从前，一度”。

比较：

Don't try to do all the things at once; take one thing at a time. 别打算把所有的事情都一块儿干，一次做一件事情。

At one time we used to go skiing every winter. 我们有一度每年冬天去滑雪。

Take the pills two at a time. 这药片一次服两粒。

At one time they used to mine coal in these valleys. 从前他们常在这些峡谷中采煤。

2 　比较以下两组句子：

It will take more than an hour to finish the job.［指1小时以上2小时以下］

It will take more than one hour to finish the job.［指不止1小时，可能要2小时、3小时］

This gigantic water conservancy project requires more than a decade to complete.［指完成这一浩大的水利工程需十年以上］

This gigantic water conservancy project requires more than one decade to complete.［指不止十年，可能要二三十年］

3 　as a man 意为“从普通人的观点”，而as one man 则是“一致地”。

I speak as a man, not as a president. 我是从普通人的观点而不是从总统的观点来讲话。

The audience stood as one man and applauded. 观众一致起立鼓掌。

4 　当表示“对照”的时候，用one 而不用a(n)。

One man's meat is another man's poison.［谚］对甲有利的未必也对乙有利。

That's only one way of translating it, but there are other and better ways.

5 　在以下习语中，a(n)和one可以互换。

in a/one word 简而言之

In a/one word, if we want to do our work well, we must make preparations carefully.

注：此处in a/one word可以为in short或in brief所替代，意思不变。

be of a/one mind 看法一致；一条心；一个心愿

The people of the various nationalities（各族人民）are of one/a mind in building China into a prosperous socialist country. 各族人民同心同德，要把中国建成一个繁荣昌盛的社会主义国家。

at a/one blow 一下子，一击，一拳

He felled three enemy soldiers at a blow.［或at a single blow，但不能用at one single blow］他一下子撂倒了三个敌兵。［这里fell不是fall的过去式，而是另一个动词，作“击倒；致……于死地”解］

When I bought this expensive pair of spectacles, two thirds of my monthly income was gone at one blow.

注：at a/one blow可被at a/one stroke代替，意思不变。

a/one hundred percent 十足的

He is a/one hundred percent idiot.

例外　有些习语中，a(n)和one不可互换。例如：one evening［不用an evening］/on an evening［不用on one evening］；a friend of mine［不用one friend of mine］。

4. a(n)的一些惯用结构

1 　so+形容词+a(n)+单数可数名词。

so useful a book=such a useful book

so hot a day=such a hot day

注：① 这里带有so的结构颇具文学色彩，如：I have never met so charming a girl. 我从未见过如此迷人的女孩。

② 此结构只适用于单数可数名词，而复数名词和不可数名词则不可用于此结构。

so tall buildings［错，应该用such tall buildings］

so expensive furniture［错，因为furniture是不可数名词，用such expensive furniture］

③ 根据不同情况，此结构中so可以被as，too，how等所代替。

I bet that she is as pretty a girl as you can wish to meet.

It is too difficult a book for my class.

The boy didn't realize how serious a mistake he had made till much later.

·有关此部分更详细的解析，请参见本书“代词”一章有关“指示代词”一节。

2 　a(n)+单数可数名词+of+a(n)+单数可数名词。

该结构颇具文学色彩，of前面部分充当定语成分，修饰of后面部分，相当于中文“……般的……”：

an angel of a wife 天使般的妻子

a doll of a house 一幢漂亮的房子

a beast of a place 像畜生般令人厌恶的脏地方

She has got an unfeeling brute of a husband. 她丈夫简直是个没有感情的畜生。

She lives in a palace of a house, but she is leading a hell of a life. 她住在宫殿般的官邸中，却过着地狱般的生活。

注：这一结构中第一个不定冠词可以用所有格或指示代词等来替换，但不能用定冠词the；第二个不定冠词不可省略。例如：that kitten of a girl（那个像小猫般温顺的女孩）；this skeleton of a dog（这条骨瘦如柴的狗）；that idiot of a woman（那个傻女人）；故“I got the devil of a headache yesterday.”错，应改为“I got a devil of a headache yesterday.（我昨天头痛得要命。）”

3 　of+a(n)+morning (afternoon, evening, etc.)。

这一表示时间的结构用于指一种经常性的行为，即“一般……”；“通常……”之意。

What do you do of a Saturday (=on Saturdays)? 星期六你通常干什么？

They always like to go there of an evening (=in the evening).

注：① 这一结构在现代英语口语中不常用，用“on Sundays, on Saturdays, in the evening, etc.”更好。

② 这一结构用于经常性的事，而不是一次性的事。比较：

Often, of an afternoon we'd go for a walk along the street.［对，此处表经常性］

The patient died of a morning.［错，此处表示一次性的情况，把of a morning改为in the morning］

4 　a(n)+单数名词+or two。

an hour or two 一两个小时；a day or two 一两天

注：在此句型中，a(n)不能由one所代替。例如：

one day or two［错，改为a day or two或one or two days］

one person or two［错，改为a person or two或one or two persons］

5. 带a(n)的若干习惯用语

Don't be a stranger! 别这么见外嘛！

Don't be a stranger! In case you need money, just let me know. 别这么见外嘛！要是你需要钱，尽管告诉我。

an eye for an eye 血债血还［出自圣经，“An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.”通常后半句省略］

They hanged him for killing their friend. That is what people call“an eye for an eye”. 他们因他杀了他们的朋友而把他吊死。这就是人们所谓的“血债血还”。

have a heart 行行好［用于祈使句中］

Come on, Mike! Give him another chance. Have a heart. 迈克，得了！再给他一次机会吧，行行好嘛！

注：① 用于带有主语的陈述句中，have a heart作“勇气”解。

He has a heart to defend the honor of his country. 他有勇气保卫国家的荣誉。

② 在否定疑问句形式中，“Don't you have a heart?”作“你有没有良心啊？”解。

I can't believe you beat your parents. Don't you have a heart? 想不到你竟然动手打你爸妈，你有没有良心啊？

It's a deal. 一言为定/就这样定了。

A: Ok, the matter is settled then. 好，这事就这样解决了。

B: It's a deal. 一言为定。

many a+单数名词接单数动词=a large number of/many+复数名词接复数动词

Many a man has been destroyed by gambling. 好多人都毁在赌博上。

Many a true word is spoken in jest.［谚］笑谈之中有至理。

Many a pickle makes a mickle.［谚］积少成多。

Many a time (=Many times) I have watched the trees glow as the sun sets behind them. 我曾好多次观看这些树在落日的映照下熠熠生辉。

注：因many a ...比many ...更强调，并带有文学性，故上列最后一例中之主谓也可倒置，即Many a time have I watched the trees glow as the sun sets behind them.

Not a chance.=No chance. 门儿也没有。［作“There is no possibility of that.”解］

A: Do you think we can get a raise next month? 你认为我们下个月会加薪吗？

B: Not a chance. 门儿也没有。

That's a bad idea if I've ever heard one! 你怎么想得出这么个馊主意！

A: Why don't we falsify the accounts to hide the company's loss from the board of directors? 我们干吗不篡改账目，向董事会隐瞒公司的亏损呢？

B: That's a bad idea if I've ever heard one! 你怎么想得出这么个馊主意！

Never is a long time.“决不”两字莫轻言。

注：这一习用语用于批评他人过早把话说绝，其中time一字也可换用word或day，但不及time普遍。

All things must come to an end. 天下没有不散的筵席。

I hate to say goodbye, but all things must come to an end. 我真不想说再见，但天下没有不散的筵席啊。

a private conversation 说几句悄悄话

My wife took me aside for a private conversation. 我太太把我拉到一边说几句悄悄话。

a+人名（用于某人姓名前）有个名叫……的人

There is a Miss Irene to see you at the school gate. 校门口有位艾琳小姐要见你。

throw sb a bone/throw a bone to sb 对某人施以小惠

The principal of the primary school threw a bone to angry teachers with a small pay increase.

该小学校长稍加一点工资对愤怒的教师施以小惠。

注：principal指小学或中学校长，president指大学校长。

break out in a (cold) sweat（因恐惧、焦急）冒出一身（冷）汗

He broke out in a cold sweat and fled from the room, his face as pale as death. 他冒出一身冷汗，逃出房间，面无人色。

注：break out in a (cold) sweat也可用be all of a sweat替代，指因恐惧，焦急或担心而冒出一身大汗。

in a manner of speaking（可用于句首或句末）不妨说；可以说

In a manner of speaking, you are putting the cart before the horse. 不妨说，你本末倒置了。

They have got him in a jam, in a manner of speaking. 可以说，他们已把他陷入困境了。

reach a climax 达到高潮

The story reaches a climax in Chapter Eight. 故事在第八章达到高潮。

注：如要表达“逐渐发展到高潮”则用“work up to a climax”。

bring sth to a close 使某事了结

We have been involved in the matter for too long; we must bring it to a close as soon as possible.

我们卷入这件事太久了，须尽早把它了结。

by a hair's breadth 间不容发地，险些儿

He escaped death by a hair's breadth 他死里逃生。

He escaped by a hair's breadth. 他险些儿遇难。

注：① to a hair's breadth和by a hair's breadth在意思上的明显差别。to a hair's breadth作“精确地；丝毫不差地”解，如Their measurements are correct to a hair's breadth. 他们的测量非常精确，丝毫不错。② 在现代英语中也常有by a hair来替代by a hair's breadth，如He missed the target by a hair. 他差一点儿射中目标。I lost the table tennis game by a hair. 我以微弱的差距输了这场乒乓球比赛。

by a whisker 以毫厘之差

He missed the opportunity by a whisker. 他以毫厘之差失去了这次机会。

注：within a whisker of指“险些儿……或差一点儿……”，如My father was within a whisker of bankruptcy. 我父亲险些儿破产。

a bird's-eye view of

① 鸟瞰

From the helicopter we obtained a bird's-eye view of the town. 我们从直升机上鸟瞰到城镇的全景。

② 概述

The professor of economy gave a bird's-eye view of the global economic situation. 该经济学教授概述了全球的经济形势。

③ 概观

All you need is a bird's-eye view of the important events of World War II to pass the test. 你只需要概观一下二次大战的重大事件便能通过该项测试。

a blank check

① 空白支票，即未填金额的签名支票

Mr. Smith was given a blank check in the choice of personnel for the new department. 史密斯先生被授予全权为这个新的部门挑选人才。

② 自由处理权，全权

The prime minister was given a blank check by the British parliament to continue the war. 英国议会授予首相全权可继续这场战争。

bang one's head against a brick wall 白费力气，枉费力气

You really expect that he will pay you back? You are banging your head against a brick wall.

你真的指望他会还你钱吗？你这是在白费力气。

注：在上面这一习用语中，a brick wall也可换用the wall。

bring matters to a head 使事态进入（陷入）紧急关头

Their sudden refusal to circulate necessary funds brings our project to a head. 他们突然拒绝融通资金使我们的项目陷入紧要严重关头。

注：以上表达法也可换用Our project comes to a head because of their sudden refusal to circulate necessary funds.

burn with a low blue flame 心里存着一股闷气（含义是：心里很火，但是未发出来）

By the time she showed up three hours late, I was burning with a low blue flame. 迟到了三个小时她才到来，我心里憋着一股闷气。

much of a muchness（口）很相像，差不多，半斤八两

The two candidates are much of a muchness — it's hard to choose between them. 这两位候选人不相上下——很难从他们俩中挑选。

drive a hard bargain 杀价；迫使对方接受苛刻条件

The shrewd businessman is adept at/in driving a hard bargain with the sellers.

该精明的生意人善于狠杀卖主的价格。

do a dry run of 排练；演习

Before the speech contest you had better do a dry run of your speech in front of a mirror.

在演讲比赛前你最好对着镜子试讲一下。

not a dry eye 无不流泪

After the tragic drama there wasn't a dry eye in the theatre. 看了那出悲剧，观众中没有一个不掉泪的。

a drug on/in the market 市场上的滞销品

Right now, small computers are a drug on（或in）the market. 就在现在，小型计算机已是市场上的滞销品。

get a thumbs-down 遭到反对

The proposal got a general thumbs-down. 这项提议遭到普遍反对。

注：这一惯用法的反面惯用语为thumbs-up表示赞同或满意，经常与动词give连用。如The workers applauded and gave the new economic management system a thumbs-up. 工人们拍手欢迎并跷起大拇指表示赞同新的经济管理体制。

at a premium

① 以超过一般的价格（价值），以高价

Hard-to-get rare-earth minerals are now sold at a premium. 紧俏的稀土矿物现在以高价出售。

② 奇缺的，非常需要的

In many big cities of China labor is at a premium. 在中国许多城市中，劳动力奇缺。

stretch a point 破例通融，变通处理

We'll stretch a point and reduce the price by five dollars. 我们愿意破例通融，降价5美元。

I think if we do not make too high a demand, they will be sensible enough to stretch a point.

我想如果我不是提出太高的要求，他们会通情达理变通处理。

注：在stretch a point这一习语中，stretch也可换用strain。

by a mile

① 离目标尚远

Your shot missed the target by a mile. 你的射击离目标很远。

② 大错特错

Tom was not conscientious in his studies. He just tried to guess on the examination and resultantly his answers missed by a mile. 汤姆不认真学习，考试时只是试图猜答案，结果所答的大错特错。

③ 一败涂地

Colin wanted to be governor, but in the election he missed by a mile. 科林想当州长，但在竞选中一败涂地。

hang by a thread 千钧一发，岌岌可危

The old patient is hanging by a thread. 该老年病人现在生命垂危。

by a run 突然

The temperature came down by a run in the middle of the night. 在半夜中温度突然下降。

have an embarrassment of... 多得难以选择

The collector has an embarrassment of art curiosities. 该收藏家收藏的艺术珍品多得难以选择。

My father has an embarrassment of friends. 我爸爸的朋友多得他难以应付。

an act of God 天灾，指不可抗力，如风暴、洪水、地震

My insurance company would not pay for the damage because it was an act of God. 我的保险公司因该损失是天灾造成不予赔偿。

an act of kindness 善行

An act of kindness bears good fruit. 善行结善果。

put on an act 装模作样

He was not really angry; he was putting on an act. 他并没有真的发怒，他是在装腔。

as an aside 小声（低声）说的话

At the wedding, Tom said as an aside,“The bride doesn't look well.”在婚礼上，汤姆悄悄地说，“新娘长得不好看。”

within an inch of 差一点儿，险些儿

In that car crash he was within an inch of his life. 在那次撞车事故中，他差一点儿丧命。

He was beaten by the sinister gang to within an inch of his life. 他被黑帮人员打得半死。

A little boy fell into water and was within an inch of drowning. 一个小男孩掉进水里，险些儿淹死。

Give him an inch and he'll take an ell.（谚）得寸进尺

That guy is insatiably greedy. Give him an inch and he'll take an ell. 那家伙贪得无厌，得寸进尺。

注：ell埃尔（旧时量布的长度单位，相当于45英寸或115厘米）在现代美语中，已把ell改用mile，意思不变，通常采用两种形式：Give him an inch，and he will take an ell，或If you give him an inch，he will take a mile. 如First we let John borrow our car for a day. Now he wants to use our car on a two-week vacation. If you give him an inch, he will take a mile.

cast sth/sb aside like an old shoe 弃之如敝屣

I won't trust him an inch. He'll cast you aside like an old shoe when he has no further use of you. 我不会相信他。他一旦用不着你，就把你弃之如敝屣。

be on an upbeat 上升，向好的方向发展

Our business is on an upbeat. 我们的生意越来越红火。

keep an eye on sth/sb

① 留心，不停地注意

Keep an eye on the stove in case the milk boils. 注意炉子，别让（或以防）牛奶沸出。

② 照顾，看护

Please keep an eye on the children while I am out, will you? 我出去时请照顾一下孩子们好吗？

二、定冠词

1. 定冠词的常见用法

1 　用于一个再次出现或前面提到过的名词前面。

There is some difference in our views, but the difference can be easily settled.

在实际应用中，再次提到的名词并未第二次出现，但在“虽无其词，却有其意”的情况下，仍需用the，试以下面一段对话为例：

A: Can you get me some marijuana? 你能帮我弄些大麻吗？

B: Sure. You give me the money, I'll get you the goods. 当然啦，一手交钱，一手交货。

2 　用于由限定性定语或限制性定语从句修饰的名词前面。

This is the book that I promised to lend you.

注：用在限定的名词前的the也表整体或全部，试比较：

They are the teachers of our school.［指教师全部到场］

They are teachers of our school.［无the，指尚有一部分未到场］

所以，“He is the student of Class A.”表述错误，应改为He is a student of Class A.［a student of Class A=one of the students of Class A］

3 　用于最高级形容词前面。

The Mississippi is one of the largest rivers in the world.

比较：① David is a most diligent boy.

② David is the most diligent student of our class.

第一句中，a most是强势表示法，意为a very，并不表示比较；第二句中，the most是最高级表现形式，意为David is more hardworking as compared with other boys in our class。

4 　用于某些独一无二的物体名称前。

the sun/the world/the moon/the universe/the Bible

5 　用于河流、海洋、山脉、沙漠、船只、半岛、群岛的名称，及民族、政治机构、社会阶级、杂志、俱乐部和重要的政治或社会事件的名称之前。

the Changjiang River 长江

the Yellow Sea 黄海

the Pacific Ocean 太平洋

the British Channel 英吉利海霞

the Himalayas 喜马拉雅山脉

the Spectator《观察家》杂志

the Daily Telegraph《每日电讯》报

the Senate 美国参议院

the House of Representatives 美国众议院

the Duma 杜马（即俄国议会）

the Kremlin 克里姆林宫

the Pentagon 五角大楼

6 　用于国家语言名称前：

the Chinese language, the English language, the French language

注：当国家语言名称后紧接language时，前面须用the；否则，不可用the，如Chinese，English，French。

7 　用于某些国家或城市名称或其他专用名称之前（尽管在大多数的专有名词前不用定冠词the），例如：

the Ukraine 乌克兰

the Hague 海牙

the Netherlands 尼德兰（西欧国家荷兰Holland，用Holland时，前面不用the）

the Sudan 苏丹

the Congo 刚果

注：① 一般讲，由词组构成的专有名词（a proper name of the phrase type）宜冠以定冠词the。试比较：

in America

in the United States of America

in China

in the People's Republic of China

the World Trade Organization 世贸组织

② 词组式专有名称用简略式时，前面也宜加上the，如：

China's entry into the WTO

the USA 美利坚合众国

live in the PRC 中华人民共和国

再如：

the Asian Development Bank 亚洲开发银行

the Asian-Pacific Region 亚太地区

the United Kingdom 英国；联合王国

8 　用于序数词前面。

She was the first to join the singing group.

February is the second month of the year.

注：① 当序数词表示“再一，又一”的意思时，要用不定冠词。

He failed in the experiment six times, but wanted to try a seventh time.

The first nail being thus driven, a second and a third were fixed.

② 当序数词用作副词，或表示“名次”时，前面不用冠词。

First read fast to get a general idea. Second read in detail.［在本句中，first作“先”解，second作“然后”解。］

She took first place in the match. 她在比赛中获得第一名。

9 　用于四个基本方位名称前（即东南西北）。

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

但是，在“The Yellow River runs from west to east.”这句中，方位词前不用the，因为在“from...to...”这一结构中，两名词对比使用时一概用单数，且均不用冠词，方位词west和east亦不例外。

注：类似地，在两个方位词同时应用，中间插进介词这一结构时，方位词前也不用冠词。例如：

north by east 北偏东，south by west 南偏西（by作“偏”解）

10 　用于泛指的乐器名称前面。

Mrs. Priestley plays the piano.

Mr. Priestley is learning to play the violin.

11 　用于船只、火车、飞机、宇宙飞船和航天飞机名称前面。

the Queen Mary 玛丽皇后号；the Peace 和平号

12 　用于有后置定语修饰的专有名词前。

He is the Lu Xun of the age. 他是当代的鲁迅。［the age也可换用the time］

The Asia of the 21st century will be more prosperous. 21世纪的亚洲会更加繁荣昌盛。

She comes on the last Sunday of each month. 她在每个月的最后一个星期日来。

13 　用于代表整体或表泛指的单数名词前面：

这两例意指凡狗，不论其品种或产地，皆对主人很忠实；同样，凡蜜蜂，皆为群居昆虫。但译时用“狗是忠实的动物”，“蜜蜂是群居昆虫”即可：

The dog is a faithful animal.

The bee is a gregarious insect.

注：掌握“the+单数名词”表泛指这一用法便能轻易译出“春江水暖鸭先知”苏东坡的这一著名诗句。显然，按句意“春江”和“鸭”都系泛指，也就是说可用“the+单数名词”这一结构来译：“The duck knows first when the river becomes warm in spring.”

14 　用于身体或身体器官前。

the body, the head, the brain, the nose, the eyes, the heart, the lungs

The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak. 心有余而力不足。

Poetry serves to stimulate the mind. 诗能激发心灵。

Disease enters by the mouth and trouble comes out of the mouth. 病从口入，祸从口出。

注：在现代英语中，名词并列使用，定冠词往往省略。

Meditation is good for body, mind and soul.

15 　用于形容词或分词形容词前，与之一起充当名词，表示整体。

Philosophically, opposites such as the right and the wrong, the good and the evil, the beautiful and the ugly exist at all times and in all places. 从哲学角度看，对立面诸如是非、善恶、美丑无时无地不存在着。

The accused was acquitted. 被告被宣判无罪。［指一个人］

▶▶在“the+形容词”这一结构中，这类形容词，也可用比较级或最高级形式：

Even the humblest have their rights in the world. 即使最卑贱的人在世界上也有自己的权利。

The wise always seek advice from the wiser. 聪明人总是向更聪明的人求教。

▶▶有时可用形容词性物主代词代替这类形容词前的定冠词，例如：

Your sick will be nursed and your young will be fed. 你们的病人将得到护理，你们的孩子会被抚养。

注：the+haves表示“富人，富国”，the+have-nots表示“穷人，穷国”，the+help表示“佣人”，这些都是“the+名词”结构。

Information technology allows the haves to increase their control on the global market — with destructive impact on the have-nots.

有关这一“the+形容词”用作名词的结构，本书将在“形容词”一章有关“形容词的一些特殊用法”一节内再作详细阐述。

16 　用于the+比较级……，the+比较级……结构中。

在此结构中，第一部分是状语从句，第二部分是主句。试看下列两道试题：

The harder the shrub is to grow, _____.

A. the higher price it is

B. the higher price it would have

C. the higher the price is

D. the higher is the price

［答案：C］

注1：此结构中，第一个the是关系副词，意为“by how much”；第二个the是指示副词，意为“by so much”，引出主句，相等于汉语的“越……越……”。

The harder you work, the greater progress you will make.

The more a man knows, the more he discovers his ignorance.

The longer you stay, the better it is（或it will be）.

注2：The..., the...这一结构一般接平行式比较级形容词或副词，但现代英语往往突破这一框框，如：

The older you get, the more aches and pains you get. 年纪越大，疼痛就越多。

上列句子也可改写为“You get more aches and pains as you get older.”显得更为自然。

The more precise_____, the more effective the communication.

A. a writer's words

B. are a writer's words

C. that a writer's words

D. they are a writer's words

［答案：A，words后面的are省略］

注：① 很多国外作家在运用此结构时，在主句部分（即第二部分）采取倒装形式。但在用作从句的第一部分中，不可用倒装形式。

The more we listened, the more did we laugh.（对）

The more did we listen, the more we laughed.（错）

② 该结构前后任一部分出现be动词时，往往省略。

The higher a mountain（is省略）, the more I like to climb it.

The greater the truth（is省略）, the worse the libel（is或will be省略）.

真理意义越伟大，诋毁也越厉害。

③ 有时此结构中前后主语和动词都省略，尤其在口语体中。

The sooner, the better./The more, the better.

17 　用于下列结构中，表特指。

18 　用于“the+形容词比较级+of the two”结构中。

Emily and Emma are both tall girls; actually, Emily seems to be the taller of the two.

比较：Emily is taller than Emma.［“taller”前不能用the］

Emily is the taller of the two.［“than Emma”该为“of the two”时，“taller”前须用the］

19 　用于某些单数名词前，表示该单数名词所具有的功能、属性或抽象概念。

The singing is pleasing to the ear. 歌声悦耳。［the ear=the sense of hearing］

The view is pleasing to the eye. 景色悦目。［the eye=the sense of sight］

He spends two hours a day in the saddle. 他每天骑马两小时。［in the saddle=riding on horseback］

The managing director hopes to remain in the saddle for two more years. 这位总经理希望再多留任两年。［in the saddle=in his job/in a position of control］

At that time we were so poor that we could hardly keep the wolf from the door. 那时我们穷得很厉害，很难维持温饱。［can not keep the wolf from the door=have no enough money to avoid hunger and need］

Don't play the fool. 不要装傻。

The pen is mightier than the sword. 笔墨胜刀剑。［the pen指文字，文化；the sword指武力，战争］

20 　用于计量单位前，表“a，per，each，或every”的。

My car does fifty miles to the gallon. 我的汽车每加仑汽油跑50英里。

The workers here are paid by the hour/by the piece（按小时计酬/按件计酬）.

There are 20 packages to the box. 每箱装有20包。

21 　to the day和to a day 都意为“整……，刚好……（exactly）”，而 to this day 意为“直到今天（even now）”。

I have been here three years to the day (=to a day). 我待在这里整整三年了。

To this day, I still don't know why she divorced him. 直到今天我还搞不清楚她为什么同他离婚。

22 　用于“及物动词+宾语+介词+the+身体部位”结构中。

The ball hit me on the forehead. 球打在我额头上。

She slapped him in the face. 她搧了他一记耳光。

He took the robber by the collar. 抓住强盗的衣领。

His callous remarks cut the girl to the heart. 他没良心的话语使姑娘伤透了心。［动词cut和to连用］

下面两个句子都正确，注意含义上的不同：

He kissed his mother on the cheek. 他从面颊上吻他妈妈。［强调 his mother］

He kissed his mother's cheek. 他吻他妈妈的面颊。［强调cheek］

这一结构也可用于被动语态：

The policeman was wounded in the shoulder. 警察的肩部受伤。［伤痛常发生在体内，故用in］

23 　定冠词可表示“对照”。

One should see the bright side of life. Beside the poison there is the antidote. 应该看到生活中光明的一面。有毒药，也有解毒药。

I like the country rather than the city. 我喜欢乡村胜于城市。

He has chosen the right person for the job. 这工作，他算是找对人了。

24 　人名前若有形容词修饰，表示人的特征或气质时，要用定冠词。

The life of the noble Lincoln has inspired many people.

The honorable George Washington delivered a famous speech there.

25 　年份之前不用冠词，但在逢“十”的复数数词前，表年代，用定冠词。

The song was very popular in China in the seventies（在70年代）.

但如表人的岁数时，则须把the改为相应的物主代词。

I think she is somewhere in her fifties（五十多岁）.

26 　the+普通名词+of+抽象名词，该结构系一个带有比喻用法的句型。

the sun of the young woman's beauty

=Her beauty is as bright as the sun. 这年轻妇女的美貌光彩夺目。

I detest（憎恶）the beast of his behavior（他的残忍行为）.=I detest his behaving like a beast.

2. 带 the的若干习惯用语

That's not the point. 这不是重点。

That's not the point. You don't understand.

注：在日常应用中，the point可指“要点，中心意思”。如：Did you catch the point of his talk? 你领会他讲话的主要意思吗？

Let's stop talking about trivial details and come/get to the point. 咱们别再谈论琐碎细节了，说正事吧。

You are the boss. 你说了算；一切听你的。

注：boss原意是“老板，公司领导”，但在日常应用中也用来指“某人因能力强，有见解，大家都听他的”。例如：

Who is the boss in your family? 你家里谁说了算/谁当家啊？

You got the wrong person. 你找错人了。

I'm not Mike. You got the wrong person.

He rubs me the wrong way. 我看他不顺眼。

注：rub sb. the wrong way原指“惹怒或触犯某人”，如He is a friendly sort of person if you don't rub him the wrong way. 只要你不惹着他，他是个很好相处的人。在日常应用中，“A rubs B the wrong way”可引申为“B看A不顺眼”，如I don't like him even though I never talked to him. He just rubs me the wrong way. 虽然我没跟他说过话，我就是看他不顺眼。

The truth hurts. 现实总是残酷的/现实总是不尽如人意。

注：这一讲法常用来抚慰对方，提醒他世事总是不尽如人意，劝他想开些。如: I'm sorry to hear that, but the truth hurts. 听你所说，我也很难受，但现实总是不尽如人意的。

Speak/Talk of the devil. 我们刚好聊到你。

注：该常用语原是“Speak/Talk of the devil and he appears.”，相当于汉语里的“说到曹操，曹操就到。”在现代英语中，第二部分（and he appears）通常省略。如：Look who is here! Speak of the devil! 看谁来啦！我们刚好聊到你呢！

be old hat 过时的，陈腐的

That's a silly idea. It's old hat. 那种想法很愚蠢，现在已过时了。

Today's hits rapidly become old hat. 今日红极一时的东西很快就会过时。

注：old hat通常用作表语，前面一般不用the或a(n)冠词；如用作定语时，前面可按实际情况加上the或a(n)如：That is an old-hat idea./We were disgusted with the old-hat ideas expressed in his speech. 我们对他在讲话中所表示出来的陈腐想法很反感。在上面第二例句中之hit指极受欢迎的人或事物，如The duo were a real hit in last year's Chinese Spring Festival gala. 这一对搭档在去年中国春晚演出中大受欢迎。

bite the dust

① 倒下，倒地身亡

The floor is very slippery; be careful enough not to bite the dust. 地板非常滑，千万当心不要滑倒。

The guerrilla raised his gun and banged; another Japanese devil bit the dust. 游击队员举起枪，嘣的一声，又一名日本鬼子倒地身亡。

② 失败，丢脸

To our great disappointment, our school basketball team bit the dust. 我们的校篮球队输了，令我们大失所望。

bite the hand that feeds one 以怨报德，忘恩负义

He is your benefactor. Don't you know that when you speak ill of him, you are biting the hand that feeds you! 他是你的恩人。你知不知道你说他坏话的时候，你是在忘恩负义啊！

by the same token

① 而且

Table tennis is easy to learn, and by the same token, table tennis players do not need a lot of space to practice it. 乒乓球容易学，而且玩乒乓球的人不需多大场地便可打球。

② 同样地，由于同样理由

Failure strikes a person a severe blow. But, by the same token, the rewards for success will be great. 失败给人沉重的打击，但同样，成功就会获得很大的回报。

by the sweat of one's brow 靠自己辛勤劳动，靠吃苦流汗

The woman achieved success by the sweat of her brow. 该妇女靠辛勤耐劳获得成功。

by the skin of one's teeth 刚好，勉强

We caught the airplane by the skin of our teeth. 我们刚好赶上飞机。

I passed the examination by the skin of my teeth. 我勉强考及格。

carry the ball 在困难或意外情况中承担起责任

My co-worker is laid up, so I have to carry the ball. 我的搭档病倒了，所以我得负起全责。

注：He is laid up 也可用He is down with an illness（病倒了）来替换。

carry the can (for sb/sth) 承受责难，（尤指）代人受过，背黑锅

I see no reason why I should carry the can for her mistakes. 我看不出有什么理由要我代她受过。

When the danger of the company was becoming obvious, one by one Jason's trading partners backed out, and left him to carry the can. 当公司的危急情况逐渐变得明显时，贾森的贸易同伙人一个个打了退堂鼓，让他一个人背黑锅。

down in the dumps 忧郁的，闷闷不乐的

Try to cheer Helen up. She is down in the dumps these days. 设法使海伦振作起来，她目前在闷闷不乐。

注：down in the dumps的同义词组是down in the mouth，如Bob has been down in the mouth since the car wreck. 自从那次汽车失事后鲍勃一直在闷闷不乐。car wreck=car crash

三、冠词的省略

下列情况中，一般不用冠词。

1 　在大多数的专有名词前。

China，America，Russia，Shanghai，New York，London，Beethoven，Isabel

2 　在表泛指的抽象名词或物质名词前。

She speaks English with fluency.

Love is an eternal theme in literature.

3 　在表泛指的复数名词前。

Dictionaries are indispensable to students of English.

注：表泛指也可用“the/a(n)+单数名词”结构。故上句可改为：The/A dictionary is indispensable to students of English. 再如：I hope my book will meet the needs of readers/the reader/the reading public.

4 　在表泛指的“一顿饭”的名称之前。

After lunch I usually take a short nap.

Have you had supper?

5 　在季节、月份、天以及大多数的节日名称前面。

Summer is the best time of the year in London.

I prefer to stay home on National Day/on New Year's Day.

（但是，中秋节是the Mid-autumn Festival，端午节是the Dragon-boat Festival）

6 　在体育项目和游戏名称前。

We often play table tennis.

They are playing chess now.

7 　和school，church，prison等词连用所表示的意思同建造这些场所的目的有关时，便不用冠词。

I go to school（去学校读书）every day except Saturday and Sunday.

My parents go to church（去教堂做礼拜）every Sunday morning.

He was sent to prison for three years. 他曾入狱，监禁三年。

They returned from work/school/town. 他们下班/放学/进城回来。

如因其他原因去那些地方，则须用the：

But he has gone to the school. (=...has gone just to see the place, not to study)

They are in the church right now. (=...merely looking round)

类似的用法有：

in red 穿着红色的衣服

in the red 亏损，负债

in office 在办公；执政

in the office 在办公室

at sea 在航海

at the sea 在海边

in hospital 住院

in the hospital 在医院里

in class 在上课

in the class 在这个班里

in bed 在睡觉；卧床

in the bed 在床上（看书等）

with child 怀孕

with a (the) child 带着孩子

go to court 起诉

go to the court 去法院（办事）

8 　在用作表语的最高级形容词前面。

This is the deepest part of the river.［deepest作定语，前有the］

The river is deepest at this point.［deepest作表语，the省略］

We have the coldest weather at midnight.［coldest作定语，前有the］

It is coldest at midnight.［coldest作表语，无the］

9 　在学科名称前。

Physics is the science concerned with（有关）the study of matter（物质）and natural forces（大自然的威力）such as light, heat, movement, etc.

10 　在宗教名称前。

Most people in Hongkong and Taiwan believe in Buddhism（佛教）.

11 　在下列结构中，也不用冠词。

▶ at+形容词最高级

His answer was at best evasive, at worst downright misleading. 他的回答往好里说是含糊其辞，往坏里说完全是误导。

We can stay here only three days at longest. 我们在这儿最长只能待3天。

He smokes at least half a pack of cigarettes a day. 他抽烟至少一天半包。

It won't take too long to get to the entertainment center, an hour at most. 去娱乐中心要不了多长时间，至多一小时。

▶ from+形容词最高级+名词

Superstitious beliefs and practices have existed from earliest times. 远古以来就存在着迷信的观点和做法。

▶ from+单数名词+to+单数名词

from time to time 时时；不时地

Even though the Smiths have moved（搬了家）, we still see them from time to time.

from beginning to end/from start to finish

The book is interesting from beginning to end.

The parade was a grand spectacle（宏伟景象）from start to finish.

from strength to strength 不断强大；日益壮大

Relations between our two countries will grow from strength to strength. 两国关系将日益得到加强。

from cover to cover［指书籍］从头到尾

I have read this book from cover to cover.

from hand to mouth 挣一天吃一天地，仅够糊口地

At that time life was hard for me; I lived from hand to mouth. 那时候我日子不好过，做一天吃一天。

from head to foot/from top to toe 从头到脚

The actress was dressed in red from head to foot.

I was caught in a shower and was drenched from top to toe. 我遇到阵雨浑身上下淋了个湿透。

from mouth to mouth 口口相传；广泛流传

The news of victory spread rapidly from mouth to mouth. 胜利的喜讯很快就传开了。

from place to place 处处

Dialects vary from place to place in China, but the written language is the same throughout the country.

注：在现代英语中，如from...to...所接的两个宾语是指同一个人/物，表明该人/物的明显对照或变化，则可用或不用不定冠词。如：

She had undergone an amazing metamorphosis（变化）from awkward schoolgirl to beautiful woman. 她经历了从笨女孩到大美人这一令人惊讶的变化。［不用不定冠词，《牛津高阶》（六版）］

his metamorphosis from a sheltered teenage boy to an adult finding his own career in life

他从一个自闭在家的少年成为一个自谋生路的成年人的转变过程［用不定冠词a，an］

▶ by+交通工具（单数，无冠词，表交通方式）

travel by boat/by ship/by train; leave by plane

go to work by bike 骑自行车上班

▶ 在下列习语中也不用冠词：

hand and foot 手脚一起地；全身心地

The man was bound hand and foot, and was dragged into a cell. 那人被捆住手脚，拖进牢里。

Mrs. Robinson looked after her husband hand and foot（悉心照料她丈夫）during his illness.

arm in arm 臂挽臂地

The two girls strolled（漫步）arm in arm in the park.

hand in hand 手拉手地；连在一起地

Theory and practice should go hand in hand. 理论和实践应紧密联系。

Industrial progress should go hand in hand with the development of agriculture. 工业进展应同农业的发展携手并进。

hand over fist 大把大把地

With these advanced products, we are making money hand over fist. 依靠这些先进的产品，我们在大把大把地赚钱。

face to face 面对面地

The burglar turned the corner and found himself face to face with a policeman.

After losing all his money in speculation, he came face to face with poverty for the first time.

law and order 法治

A good government establishes, maintains and upholds law and order（建立、维护和坚持法治）.

man to man 诚恳地；单独地；一对一地

Let's talk man to man. 咱们推心置腹地交谈吧。

That night I spoke to my son man to man. 那晚，我单独和儿子谈了次话。

Larry wanted to fight it out man to man with Colin. 拉里要同柯林单打独斗，决出个雌雄。

day after day 日复一日地

They did the same things day after day.（类似的结构有：week after week/year after year）

time after time 屡次地，几次三番地

Time after time we warned him not to do it, but he wouldn't listen to us.

day in, day out/day in and day out 天天［表示连续不息］

Day in, day out, the postman is busy delivering mail.

They go to the same campsite year in, year out. 他们年年去同一个营地野营。

▶ 两个或三个单数名词并列使用表“对照”时

两个名词并列：

the contact between East and West

Please pass me pencil and paper.

The horizon is the apparent meeting place of earth and sky.

比较：

三个名词并列：

有时候，一组单数名词连在一起作“列举”之用，定冠词也省略：

In a thesis references must be made to chapter, section, paragraph, page and line.

▶ 在某些独立主格结构中

比较：

The man was sitting in an armchair with a pipe in his mouth.

The man was sitting in an armchair, pipe in mouth.［with省略后，a和his也需同时省略］

The writer sat at his desk with his coat off, his head down, and a pen in his hand.

The writer sat at his desk, coat off, head down, and pen in hand.［省略方法同上］

▶ 在“a/what kind (sort, species) of+单数名词”结构中

Do you know what kind of man he is?

What sort of jacket do you want to buy?

This is a rare species of cricket. 这是一只上品蟋蟀。

▶ “...be family”表“……是一家人”（family作“亲属”解时，系不可数名词，前无冠词）

Whatever happens, you can depend on me. We're family. 无论发生什么事，有我在。我们是一家人嘛。

12 　在用作同位语或主语补足语以说明主语身份、职位、头衔或表示某种抽象概念等的名词前面一般不用冠词。

His father is professor of the college.［professor在此句中为不可数名词，表示抽象概念，相当于抽象名词professorship，它不是指教授中的一个，而是表示教授这一职位。如果表示具体的一位教授，则是a professor of the college］

Tom is captain of the football team.

Churchill, famous statesman and writer, was the former British Prime Minister.

She was appointed director of the company. 她被任命为公司的董事长。

注：① 如果职位或头衔名词前不用冠词，表示“独一无二”的职务或正职；如果用不定冠词，则含有“其中之一”的意思。比较：

He is dean of the department. 他是这个系的系主任。（正主任或唯一的一个主任）

He is a dean of the department. 他是这个系的［一个］主任。（正副主任中的一个）

② society作“社会”解时，如果泛指一般的社会，前不用定冠词；如果表示特定的某个社会，要用定冠词。

A robber is a danger to society. 盗贼是社会的危害。

The society of the Greeks was based on freedom. 希腊社会是建立在自由基础上的。

13 　在以人名作为书名、剧名、电影名或表示作者的作品时，前不加定冠词。

I'm reading Einstein. 我在读《爱因斯坦传》。

We watched Hamlet last week. 上周我们观看了《哈姆雷特》。

Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy.《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是一出悲剧。

I haven't read Mark Twain. 我从没读过马克·吐温的作品。

Exercises

一、在空格内填入适当的冠词

1. In_____past, _____country called Persia existed in_____Mid-Asia.

2. To_____most people, _____superstition does not exist.

3. _____plants do not grow well in_____Sahara Desert.

4. _____Queen Elizabeth was destroyed in_____big fire.

5. Is this_____best of_____times or_____worst of_____times?

6. _____harder you work, _____more rapid progress you will make.

7. There is_____big hall in_____front of their house.

8. There is_____mountain in_____front of their house.

9. _____Chinese are_____hardworking people.

10. He caught me by_____arm.

11. Some people say_____life is but_____empty dream.

12. Not many countries can live in_____peace in_____modern world.

13. Is_____Alps_____highest mountain range in_____Europe?

14. Not all_____boys like to play_____football.

15. _____Suez Canal joins_____Red Sea and_____Mediterranean Sea.

16. I happened to find_____one-dollar note in her drawer_____other day.

17. Henry! I have_____good news for you.

18. _____invention of_____aeroplanes has brought about great advantages.

19. _____elephants are_____big animals, but_____elephant may be frightened by_____mouse.

20. We must catch_____man by_____hook or by_____crook.

21. She often makes_____faces at her friends.

22. My brother goes to_____office every day.

23. He came by_____way of_____Hague.

24. They got_____wind of_____affair and escaped.

25. Have you_____cash in_____hand?

26. Our headmistress is_____lady of_____noble nature.

27. In_____ancient times_____dinosaurs existed.

28. _____chemistry began to grow in_____16th century.

29. These tigers are_____native to_____northeast China.

30. That woman is_____native of_____Philippines.

31. He is indifferent to_____praise or_____blame.

32. I don't think_____man like Henry will do anything of_____sort.

33. Mr. Jones is now here on_____holiday.

34. On_____New Year's Eve we had a wonderful party at_____White House.

35. He is_____M.A., not_____B.A.

36. _____way in which pyramids of_____ancient Egypt were built remains one of_____unsolved mysteries of_____world.

37. _____life is still far from being easy; quite_____few people barely live from_____hand to_____mouth.

38. There is no air in_____space to resist_____passage of_____solid body.

39. We are in_____hurry to go.

40. _____bananas are now off_____season.

41. _____true happiness consists not in_____multitude of friends, but in_____worth and choice.

42. _____life was very hard for_____primitive man. All his days were spent in_____struggle to survive against_____hunger.

43. Last night, I saw_____black and_____white dog. It had_____long tail.

44. _____workers in this factory are paid by_____hour.

45. It is said that all_____people are of_____origin.

46. Many people go through_____life merely as_____camp followers.

47. We are not in_____position to make any comments at_____moment.

48. Your advice is_____most valuable.

49. That idle man is said to have fallen_____heir to a fortune.

50. We were fortunate in having_____good weather during our stay in_____Netherlands.

二、以下每个句子中都含有一个常用短语，用适当的冠词（定冠词、不定冠词或零冠词）填空

1. He showed great bravery in_____face of（面临）danger.

2. In_____place of（代替）meat we are having fish.

3. In_____middle of the night（夜半时分），we finally reached that city.

4. Being bankrupt, Stanley had to sell his goods at_____discount（廉价出货/打折售货）.

5. She was standing too close to the fireplace and her dress caught_____fire（着火了）.

6. He is at_____disadvantage（处于不利地位）in the race; he's so much shorter than the others.

7. _____fat is in_____fire（闯祸了，事情搞糟了）.

8. The boys beat_____hasty retreat（赶紧溜之大吉）after breaking the window panes.

9. Women now do_____duty for（或as）drivers（如今妇女当起了司机）.

10. They put（或set）_____cart before_____horse（本末倒置）and took the effect for the cause（以果为因）.

11. Eva was very fond of jewellery, with_____exception of agates（玛瑙除外）.

12. It is certainly unreasonable that he should put_____blame on you（归咎于你）.

13. We caught_____sight of the boar as it emerged from the thick fog.

14. He made_____best of his opportunities to learn（抓住一切机会进行学习）.

15. The laid-off worker said that he had to find a job to keep_____pot boiling（糊口；混碗饭吃）.

16. Policemen help to keep_____peace（维护治安）.

17. Although it was his fault, he tried to pass_____buck（推卸责任）on to someone else.

18. His remark broke_____ice（打破冷场）and aroused everyone's interest.

19. Quite a number of strikers were arrested on the charge of breaking_____peace（以扰乱治安罪名）.

20. Every time I thought of my narrow escape（死里逃生）, I broke out in_____cold sweat（吓得浑身冒冷汗）.

21. For weeks we have been longing for rain, and now it has come with_____vengeance（猛烈地，极度地：这里指“雨一下就下得那么厉害”）.

22. Johnson made_____killing（赚了一大笔）in his recent stock speculation（股票投机）.

23. No matter what difficulties may come our way, we must never lose_____heart（灰心丧气）.

24. He has sent_____word（捎信来说）that he may be a little late, so we don't need to wait for him.

25. The ship will set_____sail（起航）from Shanghai tomorrow morning.

26. Follow his advice and I'm sure you'll make_____way（进步）.

27. The newspaper took a poll of 300 people（对300人进行民意测验）to see what_____man in the street（普通老百姓）thinks.

28. He is_____man of his word（守信用的人）; he is sure to fulfill the task on time.

29. His disease is beyond_____hope of cure（治疗无效）.

30. The guerrillas（游击队员）entered the town under_____cover of darkness（在夜幕的掩护下）.

31. Mr. Li helped to keep_____house（为……料理家务；为……管家）for the three orphans when their parents died suddenly.

三、多项选择

1. I like black coffee so much because the stronger it is, _____.

A. I like it better

B. the more I like

C. the better I like it

D. I like it more

2. Hells Canyon, _____deepest canyon in the United States, was carved out by the Snake River.

A. as the

B. is the

C. which the

D. the

3. _____ratchet is a wheel or bar that can move in only one direction.

A. A

B. It is a

C. Although a

D. There is a

4. Giant pandas resemble bears in shape and in_____.

A. a slow, clumsy way they walk

B. the slow, clumsy way they walk

C. they walk in a slow, clumsy way

D. their slow walk is clumsy

5. _____temperature at which air holds as much water vapor as it can is called the dew point.

A. It is the

B. Is the

C. A

D. The

6. One important lemon by-product is citric acid, _____white crystalline powder.

A. being

B. which is the

C. the

D. a

7. _____Pennsylvania Avenue merchants formed a group to decide on a special street sale.

A. Any

B. The

C. A

D. Is of the

8. The ponderosa pine is the source of_____used by forest-product firms in the Black Hills of South Dakota.

A. most timber

B. most timbers

C. most of the timber

D. most of timber

9. In that factory the workers are paid_____.

A. by a hour

B. by an hour

C. by hours

D. by the hour

10. _____united effort is needed if the problem of the“underground economy”is to be resolved.

A. An

B. A

C. It is a

D. There is a

11. Unlike the owl, bats cannot see very well, but they do have_____.

A. a good hearing

B. good hearing

C. very well hearing

D. quite a good hearing

12. In 1992, Albert Gore Jr., the son of a former United States senator, became_____Vice President of the United States.

A. forty-fifth

B. a forty-fifth

C. the forty-fifth

D. the forty-fifty

13. The DMZ（=demilitarized zone 非军事区）extends about two hundred kilometers_____.

A. from the east to the west

B. from the east to west

C. from eastern to western

D. from east to west

14. Until the eighteenth century, charcoal was_____used in blast furnaces（［冶］高炉，鼓风炉）, as well as in glassmaking, blacksmithing, and metalworking（金属加工）.

A. a chief fuel

B. the chief fuel

C. what a chief fuel

D. the chief fuel that

15. Braille（布莱叶盲字点字法）, _____printing reading materials for use by people who are blind, consists of a system of raised points or dots that are read by touch.

A. the method of

B. is the method of

C. a method of

D. a method is of

16. The higher the standard of living and the greater the national wealth, the_____.

A. greater is the amount of paper is used

B. greater amount of paper is used

C. amount of paper is used is greater

D. greater the amount of paper used

17. The more people chopped down trees, _____.

A. the erosion became very bad

B. the worse the erosion became

C. the erosion became much worse

D. the worsening erosion caused much difficulty

18. “Talking about sports, what does John like best?”

“I think he likes playing_____!”

A. football

B. a football

C. the football

D. football game

四、改错

1. Because of their (A) maneuverability and ability to land (B) and take off in small areas, the helicopters (C) are used in wide range (D) of services.

2. Anthropologist Jane Goodall has contributed (A) wealth of information (B) concerning primate（灵长类）behavior through (C) her studies (D) of chimpanzees.

3. The hardness (A) of mineral (B) often gives (C) a clue to (D) its identity.

4. Despite the fact (A) that the world's natural resources are diminishing with each passing (B) day, a little (C) has been done on a world-wide (D) scale to slow down this process.（with each passing day 一天天地在减少）

5. Before (A) pioneers cleared the land for farms, cities, and road (B), forests covered (C) about 40 percent of what (D) is now the state of Illinois.

6. Fibers can come from plants (A), animals, or mineral ores, or (B) they may be made from (C) variety of chemical (D) substances.

7. In 1991 Antonia Novello, the United States Surgeon General, launched (A) several programs (B) to address (C) particular problem (D) that young people have.

8. Electric motors range (A) in size from the tiny (B) mechanisms that operate sewing machine (C) to the great engines in heavy locomotives (D).

9. The nitrogen (A) makes up over (B) 78% of the (C) Earth's atmosphere, the gaseous mass surrounding (D) the planet.

10. The Mississippi, the longest (A) river in the United States, begins as small (B), clear stream (C) in northwestern (D) Minnesota.

11. Archeological studies have provided (A) evidence that (B) the use (C) of plants for decoration as well as for food developed early in the history (D).

12. Pharmacist (A) fill drug prescriptions（药剂师配药方）, keeping (B) records of the drugs their patients are taking to make sure (C) that harmful combinations are not prescribed (D).

13. Henry David Thoreau was an (A) American writer who is (B) remembered for (C) his faith in the religious significance of the nature (D).

14. Large, multicolored insects with (A) wings, dragonflies play (B) a very important role in the ecosystem of humid area (C) by controlling (D) the population of mosquitoes（指蚊子数量）.

15. The teaching machines (A) are devices that can store instructional information (B), present displays, receive (C) responses from a learner, and act on (D) those responses.

16. Murres are black-white diving (A) birds that mate every five or six years and lay (B) only a single (C) egg at time (D).

17. The Everglades, a large Swamp area (A), is an unique (B) wilderness (C) extending over much (D) of southern Florida.

18. A large collection of (A) materials focused (B) on Louisiana's history and culture is provided (C) by Williams Research Center (D) in New Orleans.

19. Since (A) the advent of rock music in 1950's (B), the popular music of the United States has become a significant (C) musical influence around the world (D).

20. Male (A) fiddler crabs have huge claws that move back and forth as (B) violinists move their (C) arms when playing violin (D).

21. The ethics (A) is a branch of philosophy that deals with (B) the values (C) of life in a coherent, systematic, and scientific manner (D).

22. Gatherings of (A) more than three (B) persons were prohibited supposedly in the name of (C) the law and order (D).

23. Her dress was spotlessly (A) clean and well made, but it was the kind of a (B) dress which (C) the daughter of a poor man might have worn (D).

24. Eminent physicists from all over (A) the world came (B) to the United States to celebrate (C) a (D) centennial of Einstein's birth.

五、将下列句子翻译成英语（注意冠词的正确用法）

1. 正确和荒谬相去只有一步。

2. 他不是我几天前遇到的那个布朗先生。

3. 他按小时租车。

4. 最伟大的人物并非总是最高尚的人。

5. 我们一下子解决了两个问题。

6. 三角形有三个角。

7. 他伤了玛丽的胳膊。

8. 如果你行为如此鲁莽的话，就准备承担后果吧。（consequence）

9. 冬去春来，白天也渐渐变长了。

10. 在他逃离前一定要抓住他。（hold，wing）

11. 不管做什么事，他总是很有毅力。（will）

12. 油画远看更好。

13. 快要淹死的人拼命要捞救命稻草。（straw）

14. 我白天睡觉，夜间工作。

15. 我决心每月读一本新书。（point）

16. 那个女人发现她心爱的花瓶被打碎了，便大吵大闹。（scene）

17. 为了及早完成那份长篇翻译，他开了将近两个星期的夜车。

18. 我慢慢苦等了不知多长时间他才来。

19. 公共汽车来了个急刹车，乘客们猛地向前一颠。（sudden）

20. 请原谅，对于你的建议我有不同看法，我确信它是行不通的。（exception）

21. 演出结束后，杂技演员们在观众的热烈掌声中一再登台谢幕。（bow）

22. 蹩脚的工匠总是埋怨自己的工具不好。

23. 试验失败了，抱怨也无济于事。我们现在应善处逆境，把试验重新搞起来。

24. 要跟上形势的发展，我们就必须每天阅读报纸。

25. 她总是什么事都闷在肚子里，因此人们觉得很难了解她。

Key

一、在空格内填入适当的冠词

1. the，a，/

2. /，/

3. /，the

4. The，a

5. The，/；the，/（the best of times作“最好的情况”解；the worst of times作“最糟的情况”解，两个短语的开头都需有the）

6. The，the

7. a，the（in the front of作“在……的前部”解）

8. a，/（in front of作“在……的前面”解）

9. The，a（“a”表示类别）

10. the（“表动作的动词+宾语+the+身体部位”是个固定结构，如The ball hit him on the nose. 球打在他的鼻子上。the不能改为his；在本题中，因表caught的方法，故用介词by）

11. /，an（but这里作副词=only）

12. /，the（in the world中，the不能省略，故in the modern world中，也需有the）

13. the，the，/

14. /，/

15. The，the，the

16. a，the（the other day=a few days ago）

17. /

18. The，/（复数形式aeroplanes前不用the表泛指，也可以用the aeroplane表泛指）

19. /，/，the，the（理由请见上题中之解释）

20. the，/，/（by hook or by crook系习用语，作“千方百计，不择手段”解）

21. /（make a face at/make faces at sb.作“向某人做鬼脸”解）

22. the（在现代英语中，go to the office或go to office都有，但前者更正规）

23. /，the

24. /，the（get wind of sth作“风闻某事”）

25. /，/

26. a，/

27. /，/（表整个时代时，times是复数，前面无the，如in modern times）

28. /，the

29. /，/（northeast China指“东北”，前不用the，首字母n也小写；另一写法是the Northeast，有the，“n”需大写，native用作形容词，前不用the。）

30. a，the（这里native是单数可数名词，前用a。）

31. /，/

32. a，the

33. /

34. /，the

35. an，a

36. The，/，the，the

37. /，a，/，/

38. /，the，a（space作“外层空间”解时，前无 the）

39. a（in a hurry为习用语，作“匆忙地”解，其中有“a”）

40. /，/（off season作“落市”解，其中无冠词，可换用out of season；反义词组为in season）

41. /，the，the（题意是“真正的幸福不在于朋友多，而在于朋友的价值和选择”）

42. /，/，a，/（man作“the human race”解时，前面无冠词，primitive man指原始人类，故前也不能用冠词。）

43. a，/，a（a black and white dot指一只黑白相间的狗，故用it来指代之）

44. The，the（The workers指“本厂的全部工人”，be paid by the+时间单位指“按……计酬”）

45. /，an（an=the same）

46. /，/（camp followers指“依附于某集团或权贵等的追随者”）

47. a，the（be in a position to do sth.指“能够或有条件做某事”，如Are you in a position to help us?）

48. /（最高级形容most valuable用作表语，故前面不用the）

49. /，/（be/fall heir to a fortune作“继承一笔财产”解，heir前无冠词）

50. /，the（weather 前不用冠词，climate前则用不定冠词a，如Shanghai has mild weather/Shanghai has a mild climate.）

二、以下每个句子中都含有一个常用短语，用适当的冠词（定冠词、不定冠词或零冠词）填空

1. in face of

2. in place of

3. in the middle of

4. at a discount

5. caught fire

6. at a disadvantage

7. The fat is in the fire.

8. beat a hasty retreat

9. do duty for (or: as)

10. put (or: set) the cart before the horse

11. with the exception of

12. put the blame on

13. caught sight of

14. made the best (or: the most) of his opportunities

15. keep the pot boiling

16. keep the peace

17. pass the buck on to

18. broke the ice

19. breaking the peace

20. broke out in a cold sweat

21. with a vengeance

22. made a killing

23. lose heart

24. sent word

25. set sail

26. make way

27. the man in the street

28. a man of his word

29. beyond (or: pass) hope of

30. under cover of

31. keep house for

三、多项选择

1. C (the better I like it)

2. D (the)

3. A (A)

4. B (the slow, clumsy way they talk)

5. D (the)

6. D (a)

7. B (The)

8. C (most of the timber)

9. D (by the hour)

10. B (A)

11. B (good hearing)

12. C (the forty-fifth)

13. D (from east to west)

14. B (the chief fuel)

15. C (a method of)

16. D (greater the amount of paper used)

17. B (the worse the erosion became)

注：题句开头的the more 修饰的不是people而是people chopped down trees。

18. A (football)

四、改错

1.［D］in wide range → in a wide range

2.［B］wealth of information → a wealth of information

注：a wealth of 大量的，可接不可数或复数可数名词，如a wealth of experience（丰富的经验），a health of friends（众多的朋友）

3.［B］of mineral → of a mineral

4.［C］a little → little

5.［B］road → roads

6.［D］variety of chemical → a variety of chemical

7.［D］particular problem → particular problems

8.［C］sewing machine → sewing machines

9.［A］The nitrogen → Nitrogen

10.［B］as small → as a small

11.［D］in the history → in history

12.［A］Pharmacist → Pharmacists

13.［D］the nature → nature

14.［C］humid area → humid areas

15.［A］The teaching machines → Teaching machines

16.［D］at time → at a time

17.［B］an → a

18.［D］Williams Research Center 为词组合成的专有名词→ the Williams Research Center（前宜加the）

19.［B］in 1950's → in the 1950's

20.［D］violin → the violin

21.［A］The ethics → Ethics

22.［D］the law and order → law and order

23.［B］kind of a → kind of

24.［D］a → the。centennial (N.)（一百周年纪念）在一个人的一生中只有一次，故前用the，既表限定又表全部。

五、将下列句子翻译成英语（注意冠词的正确用法）

1. There is but one step from the true to the false.

2. He is not the Mr. Brown that I met the other day (=a few days ago).

3. He hired the car by the hour.

4. The greatest are not always the noblest.

5. We solved both problems at a (single) blow.

6. A triangle has three angles.

7. He wounded Mary in the arm.

8. If you behave so recklessly, you must be ready to take the consequences.

9. As winter gives way to spring, the days begin to lengthen.

10. Be sure to get hold of him before he takes wing.

11. Whatever he does, he does it with a will.

12. Oil paintings look much better at a distance.

13. A drowning man tries hard to catch at a straw.

14. I sleep by day and work by night.

15. I make a point of reading a new book every month.

16. When the woman found that her favorite vase had been broken, she made a scene.

17. In order to finish that long piece of translation as soon as possible, he burnt the midnight oil for nearly two weeks.

18. I waited for an eternity before he came.

19. The bus stopped all of a sudden and the passengers were jolted forward.

20. Excuse me for taking exception to your suggestion, but I do believe it's not feasible.

21. After the performance was over, amid the audience's wild applause the acrobats reappeared to take a bow not once but several times.

22. A bad workman always finds fault with his tools.

23. It's no use complaining about the failure of our experiment; what we should do now is to make the best of a bad job and get ready to start anew.

24. We should read the daily press to keep track of current events.

25. She always keeps things to herself, so it's really difficult to get to know her.

第二章　数词

一、英语中万的表达法

汉语中除了百、千这样的数词，还有万这个数量单位，而英语中则没有万。要说几万就要用几十个thousand来表示。

ten thousand 10,000 一万

twenty thousand 20,000 两万

a (one) hundred thousand 100,000 十万

英语中百万这一单位有对应的词million。例如：

a (one) million 1,000,000 一百万

two million 2,000,000 两百万

千万和亿英文中没有相应的词汇，要用million来表达。

ten million 10,000,000 一千万

twenty million 20,000,000 两千万

a (one) hundred million 一亿

two hundred million 两亿

注：① 英国英语中十亿是a (one) thousand million，而美国英语中常用a billion来表示；英国英语中兆（万亿）是a billion，而美国英语中常用a trillion来表示。

② 以上表示具体数字时，thousand，million等词后面不能用复数：

twenty thousand people (√)

twenty thousands people (×)

two million people (√)

two millions people (×)

③ 既可以说two million people；又可以说two million of them

④ one and a half millions和one million and a half都可以指1,500,000。

two and a quarter millions和two millions and a quarter也都可以，指2,250,000。

在表达不确定数目时要用thousand, million等词的复数形式。

tens of thousands of people 数万人；成千上万的人

数万人或成千上万人也可用thousands upon（或on）thousands of people来表示。

hundreds of thousands of people 数十万人；成百万人

millions of people 数百万人

tens of millions of people 数千万人

hundreds of millions of people 数亿人

thousands of millions of people 数十亿人

（或billions of people）

注：① 当thousand of, million of等词前面有a few, some, several, many等表示不确定的词修饰时，单复数都可用：

several thousand(s) of people　many million(s) of people

② thousand，million等词的意义根据上下文已清楚时，其后的of短语可以省略：

Hundreds of thousands (of people) are starving. 数十万人在挨饿。

Millions are homeless. 数百万人无家可归。

The dollar revenues each year were undoubtedly in the tens of thousands. 每年美元税收无疑要以万计。

二、表示“许多”的数词用法及一些常用量词短语的用法

dozen指“12”，score则表示“20”，通常用dozens of或scores of来表示“许多”。

He says he won't go there because he has been there dozens of times. 他说那里已去过好多次，所以这次就不去了。

I have been there scores of times. 我去过那里好多好多次。

注：① dozen和score表示精确数字时不能用复数形式

比较：several dozens of eggs

two dozen of eggs［表精确数目，dozen用单数］

some scores of visitors 一大批来访者

three score of visitors［确定为60位来访者，故用单数］

② 用作前置定语时，均须单数，如：

many dozen bottles of coca-cola 许多瓶可口可乐

four score and ten years 90岁

③ 要表示“十多个……”及“二十多个……”时，可用“a dozen or more...”及“a score or more...”：

A dozen or more students attended the seminar（研讨班）.

A score or more（或Two dozen or more）scholars attended the symposium（研讨会）.

三、英语中倍数增减的表达法

1. 倍数增减的表示法

在日常生活中我们常常会遇到需要用倍数来表达的场合。如：A是B的……倍；A比B多/大……倍，等等。同时在有些考试中（如雅思考试的学术类部分），也出现要求用数字来描述所给数据，便涉及增加或减少多少倍的表达。

1 　用times表示倍数。

Your room is three times as large as mine. 你的房间是我的房间的三倍大。或：你的房间比我的房间大两倍。

Your room is three times the size of mine.［意思同上］

The output of chemical fibre was 3.5 times greater than that of last year. 化纤产量比去年增加了3.5倍。或：化纤产量是去年的4.5倍。

The total output value of industry last year was 23 times as high as that of 1978. 去年的工业总产值是1978年的23倍。或：去年的工业总产值比1978年增加22倍。

注：在汉译上述句式时，如要表示“比……大/多/增加……倍”，则需减一，即“你的……是我的……三倍大/你的……比我的……大两倍。”

这里作者提请读者注意下面两个句式：

Your hall is three times as large as ours.

Your hall is three times larger than ours.

英国出版的著名英语教学刊物ELT（English Language Teaching）曾对类似上列的两个句式在英语世界范围内展开广泛的讨论，作者跟踪不息；数月下来，结果仍各执一端，不了了之。但经数十年的反复验证，对上列两个句式的理解似已趋明朗，即：

Your hall is four times as large as ours.

你们的大厅是我们的四倍大。（或：你们的大厅比我们的大三倍。）

Your hall is four times larger than ours.

你们的大厅比我们的大四倍。（或：你们的大厅是我们的五倍大。）

葛传椝教授是我国英语惯用法领域中独步一帜的权威学者，名扬海内外，在英语世界中可谓是个家喻户晓的泰斗式人物。在其谢世后，2002年6月由译文出版社出版的《英语惯用法词典》（新修订本）（A Dictionary of English Usage）的第617页/10.项下有一段相关的论述，现全文摘录如下，供读者考虑：

下面第一句和第二句意思相同，但第三句不同：

① Your house is three times the size of mine. 你的房子是我的房子的三倍大小。

② Your house is three times as large as mine.

③ Your house is three times larger than mine. 你的房子比我的房子大三倍［就是我的房子的四倍大小］。

在表示某数是另一个数的几倍时可用as much as，如：

Sixteen is four times as much as four. 16是4的四倍。（或：16比4大三倍。）

2 　表两倍时用twice，double，twofold或as...again as来表示，不能用two times。

He is twice my age. 他的年龄比我大一倍。（或：他的年龄是我的两倍。）

The man charged me twice the usual price. 那人向我索要的价比平常多一倍。（或：那人索要的价是平常的两倍。）

注意区分下列两句：

This university is twice as large as that one. 这所大学是那所大学的两倍大。（或：这所大学比那所大学大一倍。）

This university is twice larger than that one. 这所大学是那所大学的三倍大。（或：这所大学比那所大学大两倍。）

Twenty is the double of ten. 20是10的两倍。

This leather jacket cost me as much again as the last one I bought. 这件皮夹克的价钱比我最近买的那件贵一倍。（或：这件皮夹克的价钱是我最近买的那件的两倍。）

注：如去掉again，“...cost as much as...”，句意便变为“这件皮夹克的价钱同我最近买的那件相同。”

We have produced twofold as many bicycles as we did last year. 我们今年生产的自行车是去年的两倍。或：我们今年生产的自行车比去年增加一倍。

3 　用double表示倍数时的用法。

表示倍数时double可用作形容词、限定词、副词、名词或动词。请注意以下几点：

A. 用作形容词时后接单数名词。

an egg with a double yolk 双黄蛋

He did it with a double purpose. 他这样做有双重目的。

We must make a double check of this safety apparatus. 我们须对这一安全设备作两次仔细的检查。

He is playing double dealing 他在耍两面派。［注意：double dealing前无a，如换用a double game，前须有a，意思相同］

Because he has published a few articles, he considers himself a real doubledome. 他因为发表了几篇文章，就自以为是很有学问的人了。［dome原指“圆房顶”，后引申为人的头脑，doubledome指“有双重头脑”］

It has the double advantage of being cheap and at the same time very good. 它具有价廉物又美的双重优点。

B. 作为限定词，double用在定冠词、形容词性物主代词（my，your，his，our等）、名词性物主代词（mine，your，hers，theirs等）、名词所有格或从句前。

［用在形容词性物主代词前］

I'm doubleyour age. 我的年龄比你大一倍。

I'll be doublemy pay with this new job. 干这个新工作，我的工资将加倍。

Mike's salary is double Mary's. 迈克的薪水是玛丽的两倍。［用在名词所有格前］

Your annual income is double mine. 你的年收入是我的两倍。［用在名词性物主代词前］

We need double the amount we already have. 我们需要有现有金额的两倍。［用在定冠词前］

He earns double what she earns. 他挣的钱是她挣的两倍。［用在从句前］

C. 作为副词，double通常用在动词后面。

Fold the blanket double and lay it on a chair. 把毯子对折起来放在椅子上。

The big boy had to bend double to hide under the table. 那个大男孩须弓着身子才能藏身于桌子底下。

You two little girls can sleep double tonight. 你们两个小女孩今晚可合睡一张床。

This room is double (=twice) as large as that one. 这个房间是那个房间的两倍大。（或……比那个房间大一倍。）

D. 作为名词，double用在定冠词后，接介词of。

I was paid the double of this amount.［在这一句式中by them 通常省略］他们付给我的报酬是这个数目的两倍。

注：上列例句在现代英语中不如“I was paid double this amount.”来得普遍。［double用作限定词］

在当今流行的英语中，这一结构中的the 往往省略，of便改用for，如：

He is paid double for doing the same job that I do. 他与我做同样的工作，但报酬却比我多一倍。

E. 作为动词，double既可及物又可不及物。

The population of the emerging city has doubled in the last few years. 几年来这一新兴城市的人口翻了一番。［用作不及物动词］

Double all/the quantities in the recipe to make enough for eight people. 把菜谱上的量都增加一倍以够八人用餐。［用作及物动词］

4 　词尾-fold表示倍数的用法。

The value of the house in Shanghai has increased fourfold since 1998. 上海房价自1998年以来增加了三倍。（或：上海房价自1998年以来已增至原来的四倍。）

The factory has produced threefold as many TV sets as it did last year. 这个厂今年生产的电视机是去年的三倍。（或：……的电视机比去年增加两倍。）

从以上两例可看出，基数词+times=基数词+fold，都表示A是B的多少基数倍，但如果表示“A比B增加多少倍时，则须减一，如以X为基数，则须X-1。”再比较如下：

These new modern machines have raised efficiency threefold (or: three times). 这几台现代化新机器使效率提高了两倍。（或：这几台现代化新机器使效率提高到三倍。）

5 　也可用triple（或：treble），quadruple，quintuple and septuple替代“基数词+times”表示倍数。

Your salary is treble/triple mine. 你的工资是我的三倍。（或：……比我的大两倍。）［用作形容词］

Black unemployment rate runs triple/treble the figure for whites. 黑人失业率是白人失业率的三倍。［用作限定词］

Many children in the slums of New York City suffer from the treble/triple handicap of poverty, parental neglect and bad schooling. 纽约市贫民窟的许多孩童遭受着贫穷、疏于家教和教育不良的三重不利条件。［用作形容词；注意，handicap用单数］

Fifteen is the triple/treble of five. 15是5的三倍。［用作名词］

The enterprise tripled/trebled its profits last year. 该企业去年利润增至三倍。［用作及物动词］

Cases of food poisoning have trebled/tripled this year. 今年食物中毒事件已增加了两倍/增至三倍。［用作不及物动词］

Our company has an annual profit quadruple that of last year. 我们公司的年度利润是去年的四倍/比去年增加三倍。［用作限定词］

a quadruple whisky 一份四倍的威士忌［用作形容词］

Our sales have quadrupled in the last three years. 三年来我们的销售额已增至四倍/已增加三倍。［用作不及物动词］

The factory has quadrupled its output to one million tons or so. 该厂已把产量增至100万吨左右，是原来的四倍/比原来增加三倍。［用作及物动词］

Sixty is the quadruple of fifteen. 60是15的四倍。［用作名词］

▶▶ quintuple（六倍），septuple（七倍），octuple（八倍），nonuple（九倍）等用法同上。

6 　用again来表示倍数的用法。

The coat cost me as much again as the last one I bought. 这件衣服的价钱比我上次买的那件贵了一倍。

The coat cost me half as much again as the last one I bought. 这件衣服的价钱比我上次买的那件贵了半倍。

注：again之前出现half，便减少一半，表示贵了半倍。

以下实例可以说明again表示倍数的常用句型的区别：

as many/much again as 是……的两倍/比……贵一倍

half as many/much again as 是……的一倍/比……贵半倍

He has as much money again as you.［注意，句中无half］

他的钱是你的两倍。（或：他的钱比你的多一倍。）

This building is half as tall again as that one.

这幢大楼比那幢大楼高一半儿。（或：这幢大楼是那幢大楼高的一倍。）

2. by和to表示倍数的用法

1 　表示增加多少或减少多少用by。

The number of students in our university has increased by 20 percent over the previous year. 我们大学的学生数量比上一年增加了百分之二十。

The output of coal went up by four times. 煤炭产量增加了四倍。

The production has multiplied by five times. 产量增加了五倍。

The sales of washing machines have increased by a factor of nine. 洗衣机的销售量增加了9倍。

The production was reduced by thirty percent. 生产减少了百分之三十。

The cost of air-conditioners has decreased by 50 percent. 空调的成本下降了50%。

注：factor在数学中指系数，在日常应用中可指倍数。当前国内很流行的一部语法著作指明，factor表示增加的倍数时，意为增加x-1；表示减少时，意为，并举例：increase by a factor of 8（增加了7倍）。事实上，by是用来表示原来数目和增加或减少的数字之间的相差数，根本不存在x-1的问题，现举两例以佐证本书作者的观点：

例1：go up by an average factor of 50% 以50%的平均系数上涨［陆谷孙主编的《英汉大词典》］

例2：The real wage of the average worker has increased by a factor of over ten in the last 70 years. 近七十年来，工人的实际工资平均增长超过了十倍。［《牛津高级英汉双解词典》第6版］

2 　表示增加到/至……或减少到/下降到/至……用介词to。

The students in our university have increased to 12,000. 我们大学的学生已增加到一万二千。

The production was reduced to thirty percent. 生产减少到百分之三十。

注意区分下列句型：

a）increase by 30% 增加了30%

increase to 3,000 增加到3,000

b）increase 3 times/threefold 增加至三倍或增加了两倍

increase by 3 times 增加了三倍

increase by a factor of 3 增加了三倍

multiply 3 times 增加至三倍或增加了两倍

c）3 times as long as 为……的三倍长或比……长二倍

3 times longer than 为……的四倍长或比……长三倍

d）decrease by 30% 减少了30%

decrease to 30% 减少至30%

decrease by a factor of 3 减少了三分之二或减少至三分之一

decrease 3 times 减少了三分之二或减少至三分之一

注：“decrease by a factor of+基数词/基数词+times”则可用这一程式来计算，x表基数词。

四、英语中概数的表示法

1. about，some，nearly，or so，more or less

这些词都表示“大约”，“左右”，“上下”：

The road is more or less 2,000 meters long. 这条路长两千米左右。

The baby weights 3.5 kilograms or so. 这个婴儿重3.5千克左右。

It is some ten feet tall. 它有十英尺左右高。

The boy is about 9 years old. 那男孩约九岁。

2. more than，above，over，odd

这些词表示“多于”，“以上”：

He has been in Shanghai for over two years. 他来上海两年多了。

The coat cost me $100 odd. 这件衣服花了我一百多美元。

The bag is over 70 pounds. 这个袋子重七十磅以上。

This is for people above 60. 这是为六十岁以上的人准备的。

3. less than，under，below

这些词表示“不足”，“以内”，“少于”：

The cost was below $10. 那费用在十美元以下。

He ran 5,000 meters in under 15 minutes. 他在十五分钟之内跑完五千米。

He earns less than $500 a month. 他每月赚钱不足五百美元。

五、“每”和“每隔”的表示法

用“every”来表示，如：

注：用“隔”时需减一。

every five days 每五天或每隔四天

every seven minutes 每七分钟或每隔六分钟

every two lines 每两行或每隔一行

上面的含义也可以分别用下列短语表示：

注：用序数词时接单数名词

every fifth day

every second line

另外，“每隔一天/行”除了用“every two days/lines”，“every second day/line”的表示法以外，还可以用“every other day/line”来表示。

六、长度、宽度、高度、重量等的表示法

The bridge is 200 meters long（或in length）. 该桥有200米长。

This river is one li wide（或in width）. 这条河有1里宽。

The dam is 50 meters high（或in height）坝高50米。（或：The dam has an altitude of 50 meters.）

他身高6英尺3英寸。

He stands six foot（或feet）three inches.

He is six foot（或feet）three.

The heavy snow fell to a depth of two chi. 这场大雪下了2尺厚。（或：The heavy snow was two chi deep.）

The cypress in our back garden is two feet thick（或in diameter）,six feet round（或in circumference）and fifteen feet high（或in height）. 我家后花园的那棵柏树直径2英尺、周长6英尺、高15英尺。

那块钢板重2吨。

That steel plate weighs two tons.

That steel plate is two tons in weight.

The weight of that steel plate is two tons.

七、年代、年月、年龄等的表示法

1. 年代、年月的表示法

in 1990/in 2005等的表示方式中，不能用冠词，即不可说in the 1990/in the 2005。

in the twentieth century，in the twenty-first century等表达法中必须有定冠词the。表示……世纪的初期、中期或晚期时，可用early，mid或late，定冠词the也不能省略，如in the early/mid/late twentieth century（在20世纪初期/中期/晚期）。

在in May 2005/in August 1999等只有月份和年份的表达中，月份和年份之间不能用逗号加以分开，如in May, 2005/in August, 1999等常见错误中，宜把逗号去掉。

on May 1, 2005/on August 8, 1999等月份、日期和年份一起使用时，日期和年份之间必须以逗号隔开；如写成on May 1 2005（无逗号）/on August 8 1999（无逗号）均属不妥，须在日期和年份间加上逗号。

表示……世纪……年代时，要注意以下两点：

A. 在世纪和年代前均须用the。

B. 表年代的基数须用复数。

在in the nineties of the nineteenth century（在19世纪90年代）中用阿拉伯数字表示时，仍须用the，并在最后的一个阿拉伯数字后加上's或s，在现代英语中往往把s前之“'s”省略，如in the 1990s（在20世纪90年代）/in the 1880s（在19世纪80年代）

以下是些纯粹阿拉伯数字后加s或's的例子：

China has bought from the U.S.A. more than 20 Boeing 767's. 中国已向美国购买了20多架波音767客机。

I have got five As in the examinations. 我已在考试中得了5个A。

2. 年龄的各种表示法

他20岁。

He is 20 years old.

He is 20 years of age.

He is 20.

注：在上列第1、第2句式中，old和of age可换用，口语中多用old。可说He is 20，但不能说He is 20 years. 也不能说He is 20 old。

我先生快近40岁了。

My husband is getting on for forty.

My husband is going on forty.

他已过30岁。

He is past/above/over 30.

He is on the wrong/shady side of 30.

He is thirty-odd years of age.

He has turned 30.

• age结合数字概念的一些常用表达法。

这孩子已成年，应该自食其力了。

The boy has come of age and ought to be earning his own living.

The boy hasreached an adult age and ought to be earning...

The boy has grown up and ought to be earning...

boys between the ages of twelve and twenty 12至20岁之间的男孩

He was rejected by the army because he was under age. 他因尚未成年而被拒绝参军。

He died at the premature age of thirty. 他30岁英年早逝。

He was not eligible for the examination because he was over age. 他不够格参加考试，因为他已超龄。

My parents are now advanced in years. 我父母年事已高。

In respect of age, I am his senior. 论年纪，我比他大。

Time zips by, old age creeps on without being noticed. 时光荏苒，暮年不知不觉地到来。

May we all live to a green old age and be prosperous and happy. 祝我们大家长寿，老当益壮，富裕康宁。

八、运用数词的一些常见习语

▶▶ Once

once again/once more 再一次

It once again proves that the trend of history cannot be stemmed. 这再一次地证明，历史的潮流是谁也阻挡不了的。

注：不要把once again和once and again混淆，once and again作“再三；好几次”解，如：

Why did you make this kind of mistake once and again? 你为什么再三犯这种错误？

once (and) for all 一次了结地；永远不再；一劳永逸地

This is not something that can be completed once for all. 这不是件可以一劳永逸的事情。

once bitten（或bit）, twice shy 一回上当，二回乖

A man once bitten by a snake will for three years shy at a rope. 一朝被蛇咬，三年怕井绳。［在此例中，shy用作动词］

注：① once bitten, twice shy也可译作“一朝被蛇咬，三年怕井绳。”② shy这里用作形容词，作“胆小的；害怕的”解，如Don't be shy of telling me what you think. 你有什么想法尽量告诉我，不要怕。a book-shy child 怕读书的孩子

once in a blue moon 千年难得；极少

This sort of thing only happens once in a blue moon. 这种事情难得发生一次。

once in a lifetime 一生只能有一次地

People used to think that one fell in love and got married once in a lifetime. 人们过去总是认为，恋爱结婚在人的一生中只能有一次。

once too often 屡次三番（含有侥幸难再之意）

You have tried this trick once too often. 你故伎重施，可这次再逃不脱了。

once upon a time（用于讲故事的开头）从前，很久以前

Once upon a time there was a rich old man who had three sons. 从前，有一位富翁，他生了三个儿子。

give sth a quick once-over 匆匆打扫

I gave the room a quick once-over before the guests arrived. 趁客人还没来，我匆匆把房子打扫了一下。

once seen,never forgotten 一次看到了，永远忘不了

When I was in the United States about eight years ago, I made a special trip to the magnificent Falls of Niagara, once seen, never forgotten. 约8年前在美国时，我专程去景象宏伟的尼亚加拉瀑布那里，一次看到了，永远忘不了。

注：① 中国人有尊师重道的传统美德，至今仍流传“一日为师，终身为师”的讲法。汉英词典，把它译为“He who teaches me for one day is my teacher for ever.”这样的译文实际上是对原文的解释，体现不出原文的精炼神韵。作者认为还不如套用上列这一习语，译为“Once a teacher, never forgotten.”（or：Once a teacher, always a teacher.）更易为英美人所接受。② 该习语模式还可用来表示讽刺等负面意思，如When she lost her temper, she used such foul language as to be once heard, never forgotten. 她发火时使用极为难听的污言秽语，听到一次就永远忘不了。

▶▶ One

one and all 全部；大家

I would like to thank you, one and all. 谢谢大家。［常用于对一群人讲话的场合］

one by one/one after another/one after the other 一个接一个地；相继

Please get on the bus one by one. 请一个一个地上车。

The soldiers marched in line one after another（或the other）. 士兵们列队前进。

One and the same 同一个（的）；完全一样（的）

Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde were one and the same person. 吉基尔博士和海德先生是同一个人。

注：Dr. Jekyll系19世纪英国小说家R. L. Stevenson 1866年所著小说The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde《化身博士》中的善良温厚的医生，因服用了自己发明的一种药物，一到晚上就变成另一个名叫Mr. Hyde的凶残的人；白天来临时，便又恢复成原来善良温厚的医生。该小说一经问世便脍炙人口，轰动一时，当时在民众中就出现一些与此有关的讲法，仍流传至今，如He is a Jekyll and Hyde.（他是个一会儿善良温厚、一会儿凶残无比的人。）；a Jekyll-Hyde man（具有善恶两重性格的人)；/I want you whole, not Jekyll and Hyde,half here,half there.（我要的是整个儿的你，不是一半这样善良、一般那样兇残的你。）

One good turn deserves another.［谚］以德报德。

If he does you a favor, you should do him a favor too. One good turn deserves another. 如果他帮你的忙，那么你就也应帮他的忙，以德报德。

One man's guess is as good as another's. 谁都拿不准/大家都心中无数。

The stock market quotations are so uncertain that one man's guess is as good as another's. 股票行情如此多变，谁都捉摸不准。

one of those things 不可避免的事

Don't take such a trifling matter to heart. It is just one of those things. 别为这样一件小事想不开，这种事在所难免。

one in a thousand 千里挑一的人或物；稀有的人或物

She is one in a thousand.She does her work quickly and conscientiously and can always be relied on. 她这个人是极为难得，干活利索认真，又总是那么可靠。

one too many 多余的一个（尤其指在妨碍事的人或物）

I wish he'd go away; he is one too many for the occasion. 我真希望他能走开，在这种场合他完全是多余的。

▶▶ Two

two bites of（或at）the cherry 两次尝试；两次机会

One is not given two bites at the cherry in the world of business. 在商界中机不可失，时不再来。

注：“机不可失，时不再来”国外还有另一种讲法，用once这一数词来表示，即Opportunity knocks but once.

two doors away（或off）隔壁第二家

The Wangs are our neighbors. They live two doors off. 王家是我们的邻居；他们住在隔壁第二家。

注：“住在隔壁第三家”，可说“live three doors away（或off）”。

two hearts 有二心；不真诚

Take care. That woman is a person of two hearts. 当心。那女人表里不一。

be two 不投机，合不来

You and he are two, I hear. 听说你跟他合不来。

in two twos［英口］立刻；一转眼

The job was done in two twos. 事情一下就办完了。

put two and two together 综合起来判断

If you put two and two together, there can be only one conclusion. 根据事实判断，只可能有一个结论。

Two of a trade never agree.［谚］同行是冤家/同行难相合。

in two shakes 马上；很快

I'll be back in two shakes. 我马上就回来。

注：原用in two shakes of a lamb's tail，但在现代口语中“of a lamb's tail”往往省略；现在也有人用in half a shake来替换in two shakes。

two-time A with B瞒着自己的男/女友和另一个男/女友约会，即在谈恋爱时持脚踏两条船的不严肃态度；two-time系动词，two-time A with B意指“瞒着A（自己的男/女友）和B约会，如Larry is two-timing Mary with Amy. Larry瞒着自己的女友Mary和Amy约会。”

when two Sundays meet（或come together）决不会；永远不会有那一天

He'll pay you back when two Sundays come together. 等到太阳从西边升起，他才会还你钱。

注：作者认为如改用till，句意便更铿锵有力，即He'll never pay you back till two Sundays meet. 国外还有人说“He'll never pay you back till there are three Sundays in a week.”

many a one 许多人（接单数动词）

Many a one has said that he is a good guy. 许多人曾说他是个好人。

注：这一习用语有个反义的习用语，即never a one（没有一个人），如Never a one has said that he is a good guy. 没有一个人说过他是个好人。

one and all 个个都，全都，大家都

The proposal was agreed by one and all. 该建议大家都同意。

have had one too many 微醉，醉意朦胧

Don't urge him to drink any more. He has had one too many. 别劝他再喝了。他已醉意朦胧了。

A is one too many for B A非B所能敌，B不是A的对手

The robber attempted to escape from the policeman, but the policeman was one too many for him. 那抢劫者试图从警察手中逃脱，但他非警察的对手。

by ones and twos 三三两两地

People began to leave the Fuel Economy Exhibition by ones and twos. 人们三三两两地离开燃料节约展览会。

注：by ones and twos也可换用in twos and threes，意思不变，前者用介词by，后者用in，如People arrived in twos and threes.

I for one+谓语…拿我来说……

I for one think it would be nice if we moved to Hawaii. 拿我来说，我觉得要是我们搬到夏威夷州去就好了。

a two-way process 一种相互的关系

Friendship is a two-way process. 友谊是一种有来有往的关系。

two-time（用作vt）对（情人或爱人）怀有两心

She is two-timing her boyfriend. 她对男朋友不忠。

Are you sure he's not two-timing you? 你肯定他没有背着你另有所爱？

注：在现代英语中，two-time这一动词有一个习用结构，即two-time A with B，意指瞒着A和B好，具体地说，一个男的瞒着自己的女友和另外一个女性约会，也可反过来指一个女的瞒着自己的男友和另一个男性厮混。

▶▶ Second

get a second 得第二名

He got a second in the race. 他在赛跑中得第二名。

注：在get a second中second是名词，前须有a，如换用come (finish) second也可，意思不变，但second前不能有a，因这时second的词性已有名词转化为副词，但如在second前加上形容词便又须再加上a，因second已回转成名词。比较：

The young runner finished (came) second.［无 a］

The young runner finished (came) a creditable second. 这名年轻的跑步运动员获得了当之无愧的第二名。［有a］

settle for second best 退一步求其次

The department store did not have exactly what I wanted, so I had to settle for second best. 百货公司没有完全合乎我需要的东西，所以我只好退而求其次。

second nature 第二天性

Habit is second nature. 习惯成自然。

second-degree burns 二度烧伤［burns须用复数，其余依此类推，如first-degree/third-degree burns］

second-guess

① 预测

It is impossible for our competitor to second-guess what we'll do next. 我们的竞争对手不可能预测我们下一步要干什么。

② 事后批评

There is no point in second-guessing the event. 事后说长道短（或：事后评头品足）已毫无意义。

second opinion

① 因有争议而请人复议的意见；正式专家的意见或鉴定

If in doubt, get a second opinion. 如有怀疑，就再请人复议一次或请专家鉴定一次。

②［法律］（作为判案依据的）专家意见或理由

Before making a final decision, we'd better call for an experienced barrister's second opinion on the merits of the case. 在作出最后决定之前，我们最好请一位有经验的律师说说关于此案是非曲直的意见或理由。

second sight 先见之明；超人的洞察力

the second sight of a seer 先知者的先见之明

How was I to know that the car would break down midway? I haven't got second sight, you know. 我怎么能预先知道汽车会中途抛锚？我又没有先见之明。

The girl's second sight enabled her to see through the alluring fraud at once. 该姑娘超人的洞察力使她马上识破那诱人的骗局。

second string［美；运动］后备队员；替补队员

He is only a second string on the Shanghai basketball team. 他仅是上海市篮球队后备队员。

have a second string to one's bow 有后备手段

If that won't do, I have a second string to my bow. 如果那样不行，我还有后备手段。

on second thoughts 经过重新考虑

On second thoughts, maybe I won't apply for the job after all. 转念一想，也许我根本不会申请这份工作。［on second thoughts（复数）是英式英语，on second thought（单数）是美式英语，在实际应用中on second thoughts更为常见］

without a second thought 毫不犹豫

He dismissed the rumor without a second thought. 他毫不犹豫地不屑理会那谣言。

［在这一习用语中须有a，thought也须是单数］

have second thoughts about ... 关于……有新的想法［在此习用语中，thoughts用复数］

We're beginning to have second thoughts about buying another house. 关于再买一幢房子，我们开始有新的想法了。

be second to none 不比任何人差，首屈一指

As a violin soloist, Perlman is second to none. 帕儿曼作为小提琴独奏家是无与伦比的。

Second thoughts are best. 做事要三思而后行才好。［thoughts宜用复数］

▶▶ Three

get a good grounding in the three R's 在读、写、算三方面打下良好的基础

It is essential that the primary students get a good grounding in the three R's. 至关重要的是，小学生应在读、写、算三方面打下良好的基础。

注：the three R's指“reading, writing and arithmetic”as first essentials in education。

a three-D（或3-D）movie立体电影［three-D=three-dimensional］

a three-dimensional portrayal of heroic characters 对英雄人物形象的刻画入木三分

three sheets in（或to）the wind 酩酊大醉；醉得东倒西歪

I saw a middle-aged man coming down the street, three sheets in the wind. 我看见一个中年汉子喝醉了酒，沿着街跌跌撞撞走来。

a three-bottle man 善饮酒的人；酒量大的人

I didn't see that you were a three-bottle man. 看不出你竟是个酒量很大的人。

When three know it, all know it.［谚］三人知，众人晓。

when there are three Sundays in a week 决不会，永远不会有那一天

Your man is a womanizer.He will marry you when there are three Sundays in a week. 你那个男的是情场老手，他决不会同你结婚的。

▶▶ Four

on all fours 用手和脚在地上爬；匍匐着

The baby crawled around the floor on all fours. 那个婴孩在地板上到处乱爬。

on all fours with（常用于否定句）与……完全相等/完全一致

This simile is not on all fours with the thing that it is supposed to illustrate. 这个比喻同那个要说明的事物不大贴切。

the four corners of the country/the world 全国/全世界各地

He has been to the four corners of the earth to widen his experience of life. 他曾走遍天涯海角来扩大他对人生的阅历。

the fourth dimension（宽、长、厚之外的）第四维（在相对论中指时间）；日常经验之外的境界；虚无之境

It seems to me he is living in the fourth dimension. 我感觉他生活在第四度空间中［即生活在幻想中］。

four freedoms 四大自由

指the freedom of speech and expression，the freedom of worship，and the freedom from fear and want言论自由、信仰自由、免于恐惧、免于匮乏［系美国总统罗斯福于1941年1月6日提出，成为美国外交政策的目标］

four-eyes 四眼佬（指戴眼镜的人）

Hey, four-eyes, get over here. 嗨，四眼佬，到这边来。

Four eyes see more than two.［谚］两人总比一人想得周到。

You'd better ask your brother what he thinks of the new car.Four eyes see more than two. 你最好问问你兄弟他对这部新汽车的看法如何，两人总比一人想得周到。

▶▶ Five

five and ten/five-and-ten store 廉价杂货店

He said he bought those things at a five and ten（或or a five-and-ten store）. 他说他是在家廉价杂货店买到那些东西的。

注：five and ten原指出售5分及1角美元廉价物品的商店，现在则泛指出售各种廉价物品的商店，a five-and-ten store也可换用a five-and-ten-cent store或a five-and-dime store。

a five-finger discount 商店行窃，商店顺手牵羊

Nowadays there are still people who commit a five-finger discount while pretending to be customers. 如今依然有人在商店内装作顾客买东西时搞顺手牵羊的行窃活动。

a five-finger exercise原指钢琴上很容易的五指练习，现已引申为容易做的事情

That's a five-finger exercise. 那事容易干。

five senses 五官感觉（指视、听、触、嗅、味五种感觉）

注：要表示中国人所讲面貌的五官时不能用senses，需用feature，如“该男孩生得五官端正”英译时便应说“The boy has regular（或good）features.”

five-star 五星级的；第一流的

a five-star general 五星上将

a five-star restaurant 五星级饭店

a five-star opera 第一流的歌剧

Thank you, you have done a five-star job of it. 谢谢你。你这件事干得真漂亮。

take five［美口］休息五分钟；休息一会儿

▶▶ Six

It is six of one and half a dozen of the other.原意为“一方是六个，另一方是半打”，即汉语中的“半斤八两”，“不相上下”，“没有什么分别”，“都一样”或“差不多”

A: Which do you think is the better of the two houses? 这两幢房子你看哪一幢更好些？

B: Each has its own merits. It is six of one and half a dozen of the other. 各有千秋，两者差不多。

注：这一习语已有些陈旧，在现代英语中已产生一个变体，即six of one and two threes：

It is difficult to decide which of the two sides started the group scuffle. It seems to be a case of six of one and two threes. 双方谁先动手很难断定。看情况双方是半斤八两。

be at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟，杂乱无章；七嘴八舌，众说纷纭

Things in his room were at sixes and sevens when his wife returned after two days' absence,but she soon put them in order. 他妻子离开两天回家时，他房间里的东西乱七八糟的，但她很快就收拾整齐了。

The family members are still at sixes and sevens about this matter. 在这件事情上家里所有的人仍然意见不一致。

sixth sense 第六感觉，直觉

My sixth sense told me that he was probably a man with treachery behind his smiles. 我的直觉告诉我他可能是个笑里藏刀的人。

▶▶ Seven

seven/nine days' wonder 轰动一时便很快就被遗忘的事物或人

That pop star is merely a seven days' wonder. I doubt whether anyone will remember her in half a year's time. 那个流行歌曲歌星现在轰动一时，我不知道半年后还会有谁记得她。

in the seventh heaven［宗教］七重天，天外天（指上帝和天使居住的天国最高层；极乐之地）

The child was in the seventh heaven with his new toy bricks. 那小孩在搭新玩具积木，真是快乐极了。

注：在现代英语里，in the seventh heaven这一习语中的the也可换用所有格人称代词，或都可省略。如：The little boy was in his seventh heaven, playing with the other children in the park. 那个男孩在公园里和别的孩子一起玩，快乐极了。［the改用所有格人称代词］

Now that he has been promoted, he is in seventh heaven. 他得到晋升，简直乐上天了。［省略了the或his］

▶▶ Eight

have had one over the eight 微醉

It seems that he has had one over the eight. 看来他已微醉了。

weed out（或remove）the eight balls 剔除不称职的人

The factory leadership has decided to remove all the eight balls from office. 厂方领导已决定把所有不称职的人统统革职。

behind the eight ball［注意，ball用单数］处于不利地位

Our volleyball team got behind the eight ball in the first game. 我们排球队在第一场比赛中大为失利。

an eighteen carat lie 厚颜无耻的谎言，弥天大谎

He had the audacity to tell an eighteen carat lie in the presence of all. 他竟敢放肆当着大家的面撒了个厚颜无耻的大谎言。

▶▶ Nine

nine days' wonder 昙花一现的事物或人

Your success will be nothing more than a nine days' wonder if you don't keep up with your training. 你要是不坚持锻炼，那你这次所取得的成功不过是昙花一现而已。

nine times out of ten 十有八九；几乎总是

Nine times out of ten their prospect of success will vanish like soap bubbles. 十有八九他们成功的希望将化为泡影。

注：比这一习语更为强调的是ninety-nine times out of a hundred，意指“十有九成九，差不多总是”。

talk nineteen to the dozen 说个不停；喋喋不休

Once he is on the subject, he just talks nineteen to the dozen. 一旦说到这个问题，他就会喋喋不休。

on cloud nine［原指吸毒上了瘾，处于飘飘然状态］得意洋洋

He was on cloud nine after his wife had the baby. 他因太太生了个小宝宝而喜气洋洋。

be dressed to the nines（为某种场合）穿上最好或最漂亮的衣服

The whole family were dressed to the nines when they left for the wedding. 去参加婚礼时，全家都穿上了各自最好的衣服。

▶▶ Ten

ten to one 十有八九；很可能

Ten to one he will fail to keep the appointment again. 十有八九他会再次失约。

take ten 休息10分钟；小憩

Shall we take ten? 休息10分钟好吗？

ten feet tall（对自己）很满意，很自豪

When he was given a high position with a large income, he felt ten feet tall and was overwhelmingly arrogant. 他获高官厚禄后，春风得意，不可一世。

注：这一习语多与be, feel, look, seem等系动词搭配使用。

a ten-minute man［褒］为了努力争取成功的人；［贬］外貌帅但内心不诚的男人

You'd better take care, Irene. For all I know, he is a ten-minute man. 埃玲，你得当心；就我所知，他是个外表帅但花心很重的男人。

▶▶ Eleventh

at the eleventh hour 在最后时刻，在危急之时

The two explorers were rescued at the eleventh hour. 两个探险家在最后一刻被营救了。

注：the eleventh hour也可用作定语，中间宜加连字符“-”，如：

His eleventh-hour victory in the election campaign was described as a miracle. 他在最后一刻的竞选运动中获胜被称为是个奇迹。

before the eleventh hour 趁还来得及的时候

Now is the time for you to pull back before the eleventh hour. 现在是你悬崖勒马的时候了。

▶▶ Sixteen

sweet sixteen 妙龄，二八年华

When I went abroad, you were just a ting dot; now you have grown into a girl of sweet sixteen. 我出国时你只是个小不点儿；现在你已出落成一个亭亭玉立的花季少女了。

▶▶ Twenty

twenty and twenty 许多；无数

We have made twenty and twenty suggestions concerning the clearing of air pollution, hoping they will draw serious attention from the municipal authorities. 我们已提了好多好多关于清除空气污染的建议，希望这些建议会引起市领导的重视。

twenty to one 非常可能；十之八九

The boy has drunk plenty of dirty water, and twenty to one he will have loose bowels. 这孩子喝了很多脏水，他极可能会拉肚子。

twenty-four hours a day 每时每刻；一天24小时

He is a staunch Christian, living in accordance with the Bible 24 hours a day. 他是个虔诚的基督徒，一生中无时无刻不在遵循《圣经》的教导行事。

▶▶ Forty

forty winks 小睡，打个盹

In the United States, when a car driver feels sleepy, he stops by the side of the road to catch forty winks. 在美国汽车驾驶员觉得困时，就把车停在路边，小睡片刻。

▶▶ Fifty

fifty-fifty 各半；平分

It is fifty-fifty that the delivery woman survives her difficult labor. 该产妇难产，幸存的可能性只有一半。

注：delivery woman：产妇，又叫lying-in woman；difficult labor：难产；顺产则叫natural labor或normal childbirth

My partner refused to go fifty-fifty with me in the loss. 我的合伙人拒绝和我平摊损失。

a fifty-fifty chance 机会均等，各占一半

It's a doubtful match between Team A and our Team. The two teams are well-matched. Whether we win or lose, it's a fifty-fifty chance. A队和我们队之间的比赛胜负令人难料。两队势均力敌，我们是赢是输各有一半可能。

▶▶ Seventy

seventy times seven 无数次

Seventy times seven had I warned you to be on guard against him, but you did not listen. Now he has got you involved in trouble. 我多少次告诫你要防备他，但你不听。现在他把你拖下水了。

▶▶ Hundred

a hundred and one 大量的，许许多多的

I have a hundred and one things to do these days. 这些天我有许许多多的事情要做。

We must raise the per unit yield in a hundred and one ways. 我们要千方百计地提高单位面积的产量。

注：在这一习语之前通常用a，不用one。

hundred percent 百分之百；完全

He is a hundred percent hypocrite. 他是个百分之百的伪君子。

注：这一习语前可用a或one。

hundred to one 一百与一之比；可能性极大

count a hundred 静默几分钟

When angry, count a hundred. 每当生气时，应该静默几分钟。

come down like a hundred of bricks 来势凶猛地，势不可挡地

Before I could defend myself, two hired thugs came down on（或upon）me like a hundred of bricks. 我还来不及防卫，两个打手就以泰山压顶之势向我扑来。

注：a hundred of bricks也可用a thousand of/a load of bricks，语气变得更重。

▶▶ Thousand

a thousand and one 无数的，不计其数的

The government official made a thousand and one excuses to explain away his serious dereliction of duty. 该政府官员找了无数的借口来为他严重的失职申辩。

a thousand to one chance 极渺茫的机会；极少的可能性

There is a thousand to one chance of success. 成功的可能性微乎其微。

注：这一习语，如再欲加强，可用a million to one chance。

▶▶ Million

the million/the millions 大众，群众

I like music for the million. 我喜爱大众音乐。

Most great writers write for the millions. 大多数伟大的作家都为大众而写作。

A good government attaches importance to education for the million. 好的政府重视大众教育。

feel like a million dollars 觉得精力十分充沛；感觉非常好/愉快

When he won a big prize in a lottery, he felt like a million dollars. 他的彩票中了大奖，他感到春风得意，非常愉快。

以下是些实用的million搭配词语：

the awakening millions 觉醒中的大众

the toiling millions 千千万万的劳苦大众

countless millions 无数的民众

education for the million 大众教育

The force of habit in millions and tens of millions is a most formidable force. 千百万人的习惯势力是种非常可怕的势力。［在此句中，a most=a very...，故most formidable...不构成最高级，前不用the］

Exercises

一、英译汉

第一部分

1. Millions of individuals buy and sell small lots of stocks and commodities while mutual funds and trusts trade in large lots.

2. The tumble of the country's stock market, which has caused a loss of $1 trillion in paper wealth, is but the first step in a process that must sober its people.

3. The total import volume for the next five years is expected to be no less than 300 billion U.S. dollars.

4. The market capital has reached a total of nearly 4,000 billion US dollars.

5. It not only raised US $8.20 million for Intel, but enabled the investors and the employees of Intel to jointly own the stocks and the stock options of the company.

6. By the middle of this century, some two thirds of the world's nations, with at least five billion people, will be enjoying a standard of living which only the advanced economies now have.

7. Some three billion of these people will live in Asia.

8. The BBC World Service is the world biggest radio network, with 140 million listeners across the globe, broadcasting in 44 languages, heard on short wave, medium wave, FM and satellite.

9. On August 6, 1991, 55,000 (55 thousand) people gathered in Hiroshima to commemorate the 46th anniversary of the bombing. The devastating bombing had killed an estimated 140 thousand people.

10. People stood three or four deep in the streets to welcome the world's celebrated heroes of peace.

第二部分

1. The particles on the surface layer are three times more than those beneath the crust.

2. The distance is eight times as long as the previous one.

3. The intensity of the impact is 11 times the momentum changes.

4. Auto accidents increased by 2.5 times compared with the late 1960s.

5. Plans to duplicate this capability were under study at Fermi Lab in 1979.

6. The signal-collection area of each system would be at least 100 times greater than that of the Arecibo telescope.

7. Consequently, the impact on an unrestrained driver or passenger would be about 10 times greater than the impact on the car.

8. They found that the rays were 20 times more active at night than during the day, drifting over the rocky bottom searching for prey.

9. The region of depletion is five to six times greater than the region of transition.

10. Under high pressure the particles beneath the crust are 2,000-fold more than normal.

11. Signals will be issued every fourth minute.

12. The record of hexagon cell behavior must be checked every 4 and a half hours.

13. People's spending increased from 27% in March to 38% in April, and dropped to 12% the following month.

14. In the past, owning a private car was but a dream for most Chinese people because the price of a car could be 10 times more than the annual income of the average wage-earner.

15. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, since 1994 technology-related revenues have grown at an estimated rate of 15% per year, approximately five times the growth rate of U.S. economy.

二、汉译英

第一部分

1. 这个小女孩比她哥哥聪明十倍。

2. 他的房子是我的三倍大。

3. 1974到1977年间，海外来宾数量增加27%。

4. 这裤子洗后缩水将近1/4。

5. 太阳比月亮大很多倍。

6. 美国人每天摄取的蛋白质是所需的两倍。

7. 氢原子的重量约为氧原子的1/16（即比氧原子约轻15/16）。

8. 电压升高10倍，电流强度便降低9/10（即90%）。

9. 这种薄膜比普通纸张要薄一半（即是普通纸厚度的1/2）。

10. 该设备误差概率降低了4/5（即降低到1/5）。

11. 生产已迅速减少到1/7（即减少了6/7）。

12. 这些产品的主要优点是重量减轻了1/2。

13. 这辆小车的速度比那辆卡车快两倍。（是那辆卡车的三倍）

14. 这条街是那条街的四倍长。

15. 这座山的高度是那座小山的四倍。（比那座小山高三倍）

16. 我们今年生产的粮食比去年增长一倍。（是去年的两倍）

17. 采用新的技术以后，那个工厂1988年生产的拖拉机是前一年（1987年）的两倍。（比前一年增长一倍）

18. 这个壶里的水（量）是那个壶里的三倍。

19. 长江差不多比珠江长两倍。

20. 这本字典比那本恰好贵5倍。

21. 新扩建的广场是未扩建时的四倍大。

22. 我的年龄是他的两倍。

23. 我出了5倍于往常的价格买这枚邮票。

24. 与去年相比，我们公司职工的收入增加了50%

25. 上海的房价超过几年前的两倍。

第二部分

1. 让我们彻底地解决这个问题吧。

2. 从前，在一个小村庄里隐居着一位姓沈的书生，他有经天纬地之才。

3. 一着不慎，满盘皆输。

4. 他因超速次数太多而被罚款$500。

5. 祝各位新年快乐。

6. 人单力薄，难以成事。

7. 这是一本集英语语法、习惯用法、词的搭配和句法的综合性著作。

8. 他一身兼董事长、总经理和财务主任三职。

9. 院子里零零星星地开了一些花。

10. 她没有告诉我她爱他，但我根据事实看得出来。

11. 在大多数情况下，有经验的记者对新闻有第六感觉。

12. 展出的五光十色的宝石琳琅满目、美不胜收。

13. 他说，“作为女人，她可比你强多了。”

14. 十有八九他已经把这事给忘了。

15. 直到最后一刻警方才得到抢劫银行计划的风声。

16. 他在最后一刻获准缓刑。

17. 她病情危急时，那位大夫好几天一直看护着她，只是白天打个盹儿。

18. 他们找到了那批财宝，把它平分了。

19. 要提防隐蔽的敌人。他们经常渗透到关键岗位，企图从内部破坏国家政权。

20. 基本建设是百年大计，要求质量第一。

Keys

一、英译汉

第一部分

1. 数以百万计的人做小额的股票和商品买卖，而共同基金和信托公司则进行大宗交易。（注：small lots of 少量/小量；trusts=trust companies 信托公司）

2. 该国股票市场暴跌，造成了一万亿美元的票面损失；这仅仅是让国人开始清醒的过程中的第一步。［注：tumble（股票价格）暴跌］

3. 今后五年的进口总额有望可不少于三千亿美元。

4. 市场资本已达四万亿美元。

5. 这不仅为英特尔筹集到820万美元资金，而且使英特尔的投资者和职工能共同拥有公司的股票和享有优先认股权。注：stock option：优先认股权（指在规定日期前按规定的优惠价格认购一定股数股票的权利）。

6. 到本世纪中叶，世界上约三分之二的国家，至少五十亿人口，将享受到目前只有经济发达国家才享有的生活水平。注：economy作可数名词时，可作“采用某种经济制度的国家”，如the different economies of the world（世界不同经济制度的国家），an open economy（经济开放国家）。

7. 其中约三十亿人将生活在亚洲。

8. 英国广播公司的对外广播是世界上最大的无线电广播网，在全球拥有1.4亿听众，可以通过短波、中波、调频和卫星收听到以44种语言广播的节目。

9. 1991年8月6日，55，000人在广岛集会，纪念原子弹轰炸46周年。那次毁灭性的原子弹轰炸曾使约14万人丧生。

10. 街上的人站成三、四排来欢迎驰名世界的和平英雄。注：deep可和基数词构成形容词，作“……层/排”解，如People were standing three deep on either side of the street. 街道两边的人群站了三层。Please line up four deep. 请排列成四排。

第二部分

1. 表层的粒子数量比地壳下粒子数量多三倍。

2. 这一距离是前者的八倍。

3. 撞击强度是动量变化的11倍。

4. 车祸比20世纪60年代末期增加2.5倍。

5. 1979年费米实验室正在研究将这个能量翻一番的计划。注：Fermi系美籍意大利物理学家，1938年获诺贝尔物理学奖。

6. 每个系统的信号收集区域将至少比阿雷西博望远镜大100倍。

7. 结果，不系安全带的司机或乘客所受到的撞击力比汽车本身受到的撞击力约大十倍。

8. 他们发现当鳐鱼漂过岩石底部搜捕食物时，它们在晚间的活跃程度是其白昼运动的21倍。注：ray［鱼］鳐

9. 耗尽层区比过度层区大5至6倍。

10. 高压下地壳下面的粒子数比常压下多2，000倍。

11. 每4分钟发出一次信号。注：every fourth minute=every four minutes 每4分钟（或：每隔3分钟）

12. 六面体胞囊活动的记录必须每4个半小时检查一次。

13. 人们的消费水平由三月份的27%增至四月份的38%，而接下来的一个月下降到12%。

14. 过去，对于大多数中国人来说拥有一辆私家车只是一个梦想，因为一辆汽车的价格比普通工薪阶层一年的工资会多十几倍。

15. 据美国商务部估计，1994年以来，与技术相关的收入年增长率估计达到15%，约为美国经济增长率的五倍。

二、汉译英

第一部分

1. The girl is ten times cleverer than her brother.

2. His apartment is three times as large as mine.

3. Between 1974 and 1997, the number of overseas visitors expanded by 27%.

4. The pants shrank nearly one fourth in the wash.

5. The sun is many times the size of the moon.［或：...many times larger than the moon.］

6. Americans take in twice as much protein as they actually need every day.

7. The hydrogen atom is nearly 16 times as light as the oxygen atom.

8. When the voltage is stepped up by ten times, the strength of the current is stepped down by nine times.

9. This sort of membrane is twice thinner than ordinary paper.［或：...is half as thick as ordinary paper.］

10. The equipment reduced the error probability by a factor of 5.

11. There has been a rapid decrease by a factor of 7 in production.

12. The principal advantage of these products is a two-fold reduction in weight.

注：a two-fold reduction也是采用x-1/2之算法，故表示“重量减轻了1/2”。

13. The car runs twice faster than that truck.［或：...three times as fast as that truck.］

14 This street is four times the length of that street.（或：This street is four times as long as that street.)

15. This hill is four times the height of that small one.［或：...is three times higher than that small one.］

16. Our grain yield this year has registered a 100% increase over last year.［或：We have produced twice as much grain this year as we did last year.］

17. After introducing the new technique, the factory produced twice as many tractors in 1988 as the year before.

18. There is three times as much water in this pot as in that one.

19. The Changjiang River is almost twice longer than the Pearl River.［或：...is almost three times as long as...］

20. The dictionary is exactly five times more expensive than that one.［或：...is exactly six times as expensive as...］

21. The newly broadened square is four times the size of the previous one.

22. I'm twice double his age.

23. I've paid five times the usual price for the stamp.

24. The average income of the staff of our company has increased by 50 percent compared with last year.

25. The housing price in Shanghai has registered more than a two-fold increase over a few years ago.

第二部分

1. Let's solve this problem once (and) for all.

2. Once upon a time, there lived in seclusion in a small village a scholar by the name of Shen. The scholar was possessed of an ability to rule the country.

3. One false move may lose the game.

4. He exceeded the speed limit once too often and was fined $500.

5. Happy New Year to one and all!

6. One man, no man.

注：这一模式，很有用。如要表示“只是一人出来讲话是没用的”这一意思时，便可说“The voice of one man is the voice of no man.”还可用“The effort of one man is the effort of no man.”来表示“仅一人蛮干，无济于事”这意思。

7. It is a book of English grammar, usage, collocation and syntax (all) in one.

8. He is Board Chairman, Managing Director and Treasures in one.

9. Flowers came out in twos and threes in the courtyard.

10. She did not tell me that she loves him, but I put two and two together.

11. Experienced journalists have a sixth sense of news in most cases.

12. One is dazzled by the endless array of beautiful gems of various colors on display.

注：“五光十色”系汉语的实化手法，译成英语时可用虚化手法——of various colors，“美不胜收”的意思已隐含在endless array of beautiful gems之中。同样，汉语中的实化手法“六亲不认”，译成英语也就用虚化手段，如“他这人没良心，飞黄腾达后六亲不认”，可以这样表达“He is heartless; after rising high, he turns his back on his own flesh and blood.”

13. “She is twice the woman you are,”he said.

注：twice这一句式也可用于同一个人，意指“……比以前身体好多或劲头大多了”；用于不同的两个男人或女人，则指“能力等各方面比对方强多了”，试比较：He is twice the man he was. 他身体或劲道比以前强得多或好得多了。（指同一个人，he was指以前的他。）

He is twice the man you are. 作为男人他可比你强多了。（指不同的两个男人，you are指现在的你）

14. It is ten to one that he has forgotten about it.

注：在现代英语中“it is”及“that”均省略，ten to one 用作状语，即：Ten to one he has forgotten about it.

15. It was at the eleventh hour that the police got wind of the plans to rob the bank.

注：get wind of... 风闻……

16. He won his reprieve at the eleventh hour.

17. When the patient's condition was critical, the doctor stayed with her for days and had only forty winks in the daytime.

18. They found the treasure and divided it up fifty-fifty（或on a fifty-fifty basis）.

19. Beware of the fifth column. They often infiltrate into key positions and seek to undermine the body politic from within.

注：the fifth column：第五纵队，指帮助敌人的人事谍报、破坏等颠覆国家政权等活动的内奸；body politic：在这一名词短语中politic用作名词，body politic作“国家”或“视作整体的民族（人民）”解。

20. Infrastructure（或：capital）construction projects, which are crucial for generations to come, call above all for good quality.

第三章　名词

名词方面的试题主要涉及名词的可数与不可数，名词作为前置形容词用时的单、复数形式，复合名词的单、复数形式，集体名词在数上的主谓一致性和单数名词以复数形式出现及名词单、复数同形等问题。

一、名词的性

在许多欧洲语言中，名词在语法上存在着“性”的区分，即阳性、阴性和中性三者的区别。但在英语中，名词与语法上的“性”没有多大关系，名词的性主要关系到人称代词、所有格及相应的关系代词上。英语中只有一部分名词随着词义的不同而分为阴性和阳性，其中大都不分性别，属于中性，即：既可表阳性，又可表阴性，具有阴阳双重性。

1. 表示人及动物的性别相对的名词

注：在日常用语中，一般都用阳性来表示两性，如家中养一只母犬和母马，都用dog和horse来表示，不会用bitch和mare。

2. 有些名词在词尾加上“-ess”构成阴性

阴性

阳性

actress 女演员

actor 男演员

goddess 女神

god 神

heiress 女继承人

heir 男继承人

hostess 女主人

host 男主人

waitress 女服务员

waiter 男服务员

stewardess 女乘务员

steward 男乘务员

empress 女皇

emperor 皇帝

countess 女伯爵

count 伯爵

duchess 女公爵

duke 公爵

marchioness 女侯爵

marquis 侯爵

mayoress 女市长

mayor 市长

princess 公主

prince 王子

negress 女黑人

negro 黑人

mistress 女主人

master 主人

lioness 母狮

lion 公狮

tigress 雌虎

tiger 雄虎

leopardess 母豹

leopard 雄豹

注：表示爵位的词后面跟人名时其首字母大写，如Count Tolstoy，Countess Rosebery。Negro和Negress无论在什么情况下首字母都需大写。

3. 名词前后加man，woman，he，she等表示性别

可在名词的前或后按约定俗成的方式加上man，woman，he，she，male，female，boy或girl等来表示性别。如：

policeman/policewoman

salesman/saleswoman

postman/postwoman

man doctor/woman doctor

boyfriend/girlfriend

he-wolf/she-wolf

landlord（房东）/landlady（女房东）

male-reader/female-reader

orphan-boy（孤儿）/orphan-girl（孤女）

peacock（雄孔雀）/peahen（雌孔雀）

注①：我们通常把model（模特儿）和nurse（护士）这样的词看成女性，而把judge（法官）和wrestler（摔跤运动员）看成男性。因此当我们需着重说明情况时，应特别注明，如male model（男模特儿），male nurse（男护士），woman judge（女法官），woman wrestler（女摔跤运动员）。

Though death befalls all men alike, it may be weightier than Mount Tai or lighter than a feather. 人固有一死，或重于泰山，或轻于鸿毛。

A man can do no more than he can. 人做事须量力而行。

注③：实际应用中，很多英语名词，除了必须指出性别的场合以外，都用中性形式来表示两性。如：

the author of the book也可指女作者（authoress）

She is an eminent poet. 她是位卓越的诗人（这里如用poetess反而显得不自然，而且往往带有贬义）。

He brought down the fierce tiger with a single shot. 他一枪撂倒那只凶猛的老虎（这里tiger也可指雌虎）。

顺便一提，汉语口语中有“他的老婆是只雌老虎”的说法，与之相应的英语表达便须指出性别，而用“His wife is a tigress.”但不能说“His wife is a female tiger.”因tigress另有一个比喻意义是“a ferocious woman”，而female tiger则无此喻意。在文学语言中则用“His wife is a virago.”

4. 拟人化的阳性词和阴性词

在实际写作中，有些无生命名词并非总是用第三人称代词it来重复或代替该词，而是用拟人化的阳性代词he或阴性代词she来代替。

1 　用he来重复或代替的无生命名词

time 时光；mountain 山；wind 风；war 战争；storm 暴风雨；thunder 雷；despair 绝望；anger 愤怒；sun 太阳；hurricane 飓风；revenge 复仇

2 　用she来重复或代替的无生命名词

moon 月亮；spring 春；night 夜；nature 自然；peace 和平；hope 希望；virtue 美德；truth 真理；earth 地球；liberty 自由；fame 名声；faith 信仰；mercy 慈悲；

The sun sheds his warmth on the earth. 太阳把他温暖的光芒洒向大地。

A bright full moon cast her shadow on the quiet surface of the West Lake. 一轮明亮的圆月把她的影子投在西湖寂静的湖面上。

Nature rewards those who love her. 大自然回报那些热爱她的人。

注：船、火车、国家、都市等名词通常看做阴性词。例如：

The Titanic sank on her maiden voyage. 泰坦尼克号在她的首航中即告沉没。

China is proud of her long history. 中国为其历史悠久而自豪。

Shanghai is famous for her internationalization. 上海以国际化著称。

二、名词的可数与不可数

英语名词最基本的类别是可数与不可数。凡表示可以计数的名词叫做可数名词（countable noun），在英语字典里以［C］来表示；凡表示不可以计数的事物的名词叫做不可数名词（uncountable noun），英语字典里以［U］来表示。

可数名词有单数和复数两种形式；不可数名词只有单数一种形式，如music，information等。但名词可数和不可数的划分并不是绝对的，有时一个名词在用于一种意义时属于不可数一类，在表示另一种意义时属于可数一类。就以information为例，一般属不可数，但用作“公诉人对一项刑事罪犯提出的控告”时便成为可数名词，如：lay an information against sb.（控告某人）。可数名词与不可数名词的划分参照下列图表：

例　“The Johnsons have just moved into a larger house.”“Did they have to buy_____for it?”

A. many new furniture

B. much new furnitures

C. many new furnitures

D. much new furniture

［分析］furniture（家具）是物质名词，不能加s。故A和C应改为many new pieces of furniture；B中much只能修饰不可数名词，须去掉furnitures结尾的s。正确的选择应是D。

三、不可数名词的转化

有些名词的可数与不可数可以相互转化，但词义也同时发生变化，如：

1. 一些抽象名词数的转化

anxiety 焦虑

anxieties 使人忧虑的事情

business 生意

bussinesses 多爿商店或多家企业

delicacy 微妙

delicacies 山珍海味

disorder 混乱

disorders 小病；微恙

experience 经验

experiences 经历

fear 恐惧

fears 种种担心

friendship 友谊

friendships 表示友谊的事例

joy 欢乐

joys 令人快慰的人或事

kindness 善意；盛情美意

kindnesses 善行

pity 怜悯

pities 不幸

security 安全

securities 证券；债券

sympathy 同情

sympathies 表示慰问的函电等

2. 一些物质名词数的转化

bread 面包

breads 几种（客）面包

coffee 咖啡

coffees 几杯咖啡

desert 沙漠

deserts 一片片沙漠

fat 脂肪

fats 各类脂肪

fish 鱼

fishes 各类鱼

food 食物

foods 各类食物

fruit 水果

fruits 各类水果

lemonade 柠檬汁

lemonades 几瓶柠檬汁

metal 金属

metals 各类金属

sand 沙子

sands 一片沙漠

steel 钢

steels 各种钢材

tea 茶

teas 各种茶叶

tobacco 烟草

tobaccos 各类烟草

wheat 小麦

wheats 各种小麦

3. 不可数名词（物质名词及抽象名词）的转化实例

She saw a smoke in the distance. 她看到远处有一缕青烟。

Their hopes proved to be smoke. 他们的希望到头来都落空了。

The young man walked with an air. 那个年轻人走路有风度。

Birds fly in the air. 鸟在空中飞翔。

It was really a heavy rain. 确是一场大雨。

There was rain in the night. 夜里下雨了。

That German drank three sodas. 那德国人喝了三瓶汽水。

Add some soda to the whisky, please. 请在威士忌中加点苏打水。

The boy has a keen intelligence. 那男孩具有敏锐的头脑。

Use your intelligence, and you're sure to achieve something. 若发挥你的聪明才智，你一定能取得成就。

There has been a disturbance in the street. 街上曾发生过一阵骚乱。

I dislike external disturbance when I am reading. 我看书的时候不喜欢外界的骚扰。

The poor girl was full of cares and fears. 这可怜的姑娘忧虑重重。

Cross the road with care. 过马路要留神。

The soldiers lost heart and retreated. 士兵们失去了勇气而退却了。

The boy and the girl lost their hearts (=fall in love with each other). 小伙子与姑娘互相倾心爱慕。

It's a pity that you have to go so soon. 真遗憾你这么快就得走了。

I felt great pity for the woman whose baby died. 我很同情这个死了孩子的妇女。

There are delicacies of the season in that restaurant. 那家饭店供应应时的珍肴美味。

She spoke with delicacy of our recent loss. 她机敏婉转地谈到我们最近的损失。

He is a man of nerve. 他是个有胆量的人。

He does not know what nerves are. 他不知道什么叫害怕。

4. 专有名词数的转化

Fox 福克斯［指一人］

the Foxes［指Fox一家］

Robert Jones

the Robert Joneses［指该人一家］

注：姓变复数时指该姓的一家人，但前面须加the。

Mary

two Marys［指两个名叫Mary的人］

Mr. Berry

three Mr. Berrys［指三个名叫Berry的先生］

名词可数与不可数的相互转化也是考点之一。

例　A wide (A) range of disorder (B) can affect the human (C) muscular (D) system.

［分析］disorder作不可数名词时作“混乱”解，转化为可数名词时作“因身体机能失调而引起的病痛”解。题意是“众多的病痛会影响人的肌肉系统”。disorder在句中应为可数名词，故把B改为disorders。

四、不可数名词和可数名词的用法

1. 不可数名词前量词的用法

不可数名词前要加上表示“一些”，“许多”或“大量”等词语时，不能加a few，many或a large number of，而要用：

注：在上列词语中，some，a lot of (lots of)，plenty of，a large quantity of，a wealth of，和heaps of后面也可跟复数可数名词。

Give me some money, please./Give me some books to read.

Alan does not drink much wine.

The teacher's explanation is of considerable help to them.

It took the police a great (good) deal of trouble to crack the criminal case（破这件刑事案）.

There is lots of (a lot of) time./I received a lot of (lots of) birthday presents.

Don't hurry; there is plenty of time yet./There are plenty of foreign magazines in the room.

Almer has read a large amount of literature（大量文学作品）.［不能说a large amount of literary books，但可说a large number of literary books］

Englishmen consume a large quantity of beer every year./He has a large quantity of CDs.

David is said to have a wealth of learning（学识渊博）/a wealth of friends（朋友甚多/交友甚广）.

It did me a heap of (heaps of) good to see my old friends/We have heaps of opportunities（许多机会）.

2. 抽象名词+itself

“抽象名词+itself”可用在be的后面作为表语形容词。这是一个强势结构，能产生强烈的修辞效果。如：

I share the room with Isabel. She is tidiness itself (=very tidy).

The sentence is simplicity itself (=very simple).

例　Mr. Smith is prudence_____.

A. himself

B. itself

C. in itself

D. in himself

［分析］答案B。试题中由于主语是人（Mr. Smith），学员往往会选A或D，但实际上这是一个强调结构，因prudence是抽象名词。

Mr. Smith is prudence itself.=Mr. Smith is very prudent. 这一特殊强调结构有一个变体，即be+all+抽象名词。这两个强调结构可以相互换用而意思不变。试看以下两组例子：

At the moment, Freddy was all energy（浑身是劲=very energetic）.

At the moment, Freddy was energy itself (=very energetic).

Jessica has a loving heart.She is all kindness (=very kind).

Jessica has a loving heart.She is kindness itself (=very kind).

all+抽象名词和抽象名词+itself一样，也用作表语，在最大程度上体现该抽象名词的性质或情况，现再举数例：

When he spoke, we were all attention（聚精会神地听着）.

Rose will be all anxiety（焦急不安）until she hears from her brother.

Bob is all eagerness（非常渴望）to see Rue.

“I cannot help being all astonishment（惊叹不止）,”said Nelson,“whenever I reflect on what we have achieved.”

They showed us into a big office, all noise and bustle（一片喧哗忙乱）.［all noise and bustle前去掉which was］

Hearing the false accusation, Ambrose stood up from his chair, all rage and indignation（怒气冲冲）.

Mary is all woman（女人味十足）.

3. all+某些复数名词

这一结构在be后面也用作表语形容词：

* be all smiles 满脸笑容

When he heard the good news, Bill was all smiles.

* be all ears 全神贯注地听着；洗耳恭听

The children were all ears as they listened to the story.

* be all eyes 眼睛盯着看

When the little girl saw the birthday cake her mother bought her, she was all eyes.

* be all nerves 万分紧张

While she was waiting for the interview, she was all nerves.

* be all tears 泪流满面

Hearing that news, she was all tears.

* be all wrinkles 满脸皱纹

That old man is all wrinkles.

* be all skin and bones 骨瘦如柴

After a serious illness, Jack is all skin and bones. 一场重病，杰克已是形销骨立。

4. 不可数名词前冠词的用法

不可数名词前通常不用冠词，但在下列情况下不可数名词则和可数名词一样，前面需用冠词：

1 　当一个抽象名词或物质名词被限定时，它前面要用定冠词the。

The milk in the bottle has gone sour.［指这瓶中的牛奶］

The freedom you discussed just now is nowhere to be found in the world（在世界上根本找不到）.［主语部分是“你们刚才讨论的自由”，系特指］

2 　抽象名词或物质名词的前、后加上表示其特殊性质或类别的修饰语时，该名词前面应加不定冠词a或an，不能用定冠词the。

This is green tea.［绿茶系物质名词，前面不用冠词］

This is a green tea which was picked before the first rain in spring.［指第一场春雨落下前採摘下的雨前茶，表示该茶的一种特殊性质，故前面须用a］

Amy's room is furnished with simplicity.［simplicity系抽象名词，前不用冠词。］

Amy's room is furnished with a simplicity that is almost elegant.［指近乎雅致的简单，表示不是一般的simplicity，点出它的特殊性质，故前面须用a］

Mary Lee speaks English with fluency.［fluency系抽象名词，前不用冠词］

Mary Lee speaks English with a fluency not to be expected of an ordinary Chinese schoolgirl.［指讲英语流利的程度远非一般中国女学生所能达到，表示fluency的一种特殊性质，前面须用a］

The man disappeared with suddenness.［suddenness系抽象名词，前面无冠词］

At the crack of the shotgun the bird disappeared with a startling suddenness.［鸟一听见枪声就以惊人的速度飞走了，表示了非同一般的suddenness，故前面用a］

例　The (A) mind (B) is but (C) barren soil (D).

［分析］A和B都对，因作“思想”或“思想修养”解时，mind前有定冠词the，如：Reading is good for the mind. C中but在这里用作副词，相当于only，也对。D中的soil（泥土）是物质名词，通常前面不用冠词，但这里soil为形容词barren所修饰，barren soil指不毛之地，barren表示了此soil与其他soil不同的特殊性质，故前面应加上不定冠词a，即a barren soil。

5. 不可数名词数的表示法

不可数名词也可表示数，但须在其前面加上一个单位词（unit noun）：

a piece (an item) of news 一条新闻

a piece of advice 一个忠告

a piece (an item) of information 一份信息

a piece of work 一件任务

a piece (a slice) of bread/cake 一块面包/蛋糕

a piece (a sheet) of paper 一张纸

a slip of paper 一张纸条

a piece of thread 一根线

a piece (an article) of clothing/furniture/baggage 一件衣服/家具/行李

a piece of meat 一块肉

a piece (a lump) of coal 一块煤

a piece of land 一块土地

a piece of folly 一件蠢事

a cake of soap 一块肥皂

a bar of chocolate 一块巧克力

a length of cloth 一段布

a bolt of cloth 一匹布

a lump of sugar 一块方糖

a grain of rice/sand/salt 一粒米/沙/盐

a blade of grass 一根草

a sum of money 一笔款子

a head of cattle 一头牛

a drop of rain/blood/oil/dew 一滴雨/血/油/露水

a set of furniture 一套家具

a coil of mosquito incense 一盘蚊香

an ear of corn 一枝玉米穗

a bottle of milk/ink/perfume/wine/cough mixture 一瓶牛奶/墨水/香水/酒/咳嗽药水

a bucket(a pail) of water 一桶水

a cup of tea 一杯茶

a glass of lemonade/beer 一杯柠檬汁/啤酒

a bowl of rice 一碗饭

a burst of applause 一阵掌声

a fit of anger/laughter 一阵脾气/发笑

a peal of thunder 一阵隆隆雷声

a flash of lightning 一次闪电

an attack of fever 一阵寒热

a ray of hope 一线希望

a shower of criticism 一阵批评

▶▶ 与可数和不可数名词有关的number，amount和quantity：

如：

The number of your fingers is ten.

The amount of evidence against Jaime（不利于Jaime的证据）is great.

The quantity of books in the library is amazing（多得惊人）.

The quantity of heat in the office has not (been) increased.

例　During the past year the_____of automobile accidents in New York City has decreased.

A. degree

B. quantity

C. number

D. amount

［分析］介词of后面跟复数可数名词accidents，故应选C。quantity后面虽也可接复数可数名词，但句意的要求是数，而不是量，因此不能选B。

例　A large_____of older-model cars do not have proper smog-control devices.

A. many

B. lot

C. amount

D. number

［分析］选D，并请注意句中动词采用复数形式“do not have”。

6. 单数可数名词前不加冠词的特殊结构

单数可数名词前通常必须加冠词，但在下列特殊结构中不加：

be+某些表示个体的单数可数名词+enough+不定式

在这一结构中，名词起形容词作用，故前面不能加不定冠词a。例如：

Richard was gentleman enough to help Anna. 理查德极有教养，对安娜援手。

I was not scholar enough to read the inscription. 我学识不够，看不懂该碑文。

Ted was fool enough to believe that tall story. 泰德傻透了，竟相信那个荒唐的故事。

He was coward enough to submit to the unjust treatment. 他真是个胆小鬼，竟然屈服于这种不公平的待遇。

Adams and Joe were not man enough to admit their mistakes. 亚当斯和乔男子汉气魄不够，不敢承认自己的错误。［在此例句中，主语Adams and Joe是复数，但名词man仍用单数，不可改用men］

7. a (an)+单数名词+of+a+单数名词

在这一习语句型中，第一部分相当于一个形容词，起到定语的作用。例如：

an angel of a wife=an angelic wife 天使般的妻子

a brute of a fellow=a brutal fellow 野蛮的家伙

a fool of a man=a foolish man 傻里傻气的人

a mountain of a wave=a mountainous wave 山一般高的巨浪

a beast of a place=a beastly place 一个畜生般脏的地方

a labyrinth of a garden=a labyrinthine garden 一座迷宫般的花园

a jewel of an assistant=a jewel-like assistant 一位极有价值的助手

a poem of a night=a poetic night 一个诗一般的夜晚

Cathy lives in a palace of a house, but she is leading a hell of a life. 凯茜住在宫殿般的宅邸中，但却过着地狱般的生活。

注：① 这一句型中的两个不定冠词都不能省掉，也不能以定冠词the来代替第二个a。

② 这一句型中第一个不定冠词a可用指示代词this和that，以及物主代词my，your，his，her等来换用，但不能换用定冠词the：

her brute of a husband 她那个野蛮的丈夫

his dome of a forehead 他那似圆顶形隆起的额角

your tyrant of a father 你那位暴君般的父亲

this/that rascal of a boss 这个/那个恶霸般的老板

the rascal of a boss（错）

③ 这一句型中的第一部分相等于一个形容词修饰第二部分中的名词，因此这一句型中的两个名词位置不可互换。如决不可把a jewel of an assistant改为an assistant of a jewel，否则意思便成为“一个助手般的珠宝”。

8. many+a+单数名词

后面接单数动词，这是一个习语形式，通常用于书面语或诗歌中，要比“many+复数名词”强调。例如：

Many a man has (=Many men have) tried this experiment before.

Many a customer comes or goes (=Many customers come or go).

Almer has been there many a time (=many times).

例　There are (A) no doubt many a (B) reason (C) why (D) such a novel sells well.

［分析］句中的主语reason系单数，须用单数动词，故A错，应把are改写为is。

9. the+单数名词+of+相同的复数名词

这一强调结构表达一个“最”字，如：

Confucius is the teacher of teachers. 孔子是万师师表。

The Bible is the book of books. 《圣经》是书之经典。

He is the silly of sillies. 他真是傻到家了。

10. the+最高级形容词+of+复数名词

这一结构也表达一个“最”字，如：

That girl has the sweetest of smiles. 那女孩的微笑最甜美动人。

11. of+抽象名词=形容词

He is a man of wisdom (=a wise man).

She is a woman of learning (=a learned woman).

The book is of great value (=very valuable).

It is a matter of no importance (=an unimportant matter).

12. a man of his/a woman (girl) of her+单数名词

a man of his/a woman (girl) of her+单数名词，表示“一个像他那样有……的人”

Porf. Luo is a man of his word. 罗教授是一个守信用的人。

Jane is a woman of her particular gift. 简是一个有特殊才能的人。

13. what+(little/few)+名词

what+(little/few)+名词，表示“(尽管少)所有的……”

Give me what books you have on the subject. 把你所有关于这方面的书都给我。

What few friends I have here have been very kind to me. 我这里的几个朋友，虽不多，一直对我很好。

He used what little influence he had to make it a success. 他尽自己微薄的影响促成了那件事。

五、名词的数

1. 名词用作前置形容词的数的问题

现代英语中，人们往往把名词放在另一名词之前，用作前置形容词（premodifier），使行文简练。试比较下列短语：

市评议会

the council of the city

the city council［city放在council前，用作前置形容词修饰council］

石墙

a wall (made) of stone

a stone wall［stone用作前置形容词修饰wall］

情诗

a poem about love

a love poem

八月的天气

weather in August

August weather

英国剑桥大学的史密斯教授

Professor Smith of Cambridge

Cambridge Professor Smith

名词作前置形容词时请注意以下四点。

1 　把介词后面用作宾语的名词放在名词中心词的前面，然后去掉介词。

名词中心词+介词+用作宾语的名词=用作宾语的名词+名词中心词

例如：

the door（名词中心词）of the cupboard（用作宾语之名词）=the cupboard（用作宾语之名词）door（橱柜门）（名词中心词）

2 　名词用作前置形容词时，通常采取单数形式。

洗碗布

a cloth for dishes

a dish cloth［原来的dishes采用复数形式，用作前置形容词时则改为单数形式］

打虎

the shooting of tigers

tiger shooting［tigers变成单数形式］

磨剪石

a sharpener for scissors

a scissor sharpener［scissors通常以复数形式出现，但用作前置形容词时也采取单数形式］

a chair with arms=an arm chair 扶手椅

the legs of the trousers=the trouser legs 裤腿

a plant from the mountains=a mountain plant 来自山上的植物

a brush for brushing teeth=a tooth brush 牙刷

a table for playing billiards=a billiard table 桌球台

a box for holding cigars=a cigar box 雪茄烟盒子

the gap of the generations=the generation gap 代沟

例　Some bloods types (A) are quite common (B), others are regionally (C) distributed, and still others are (D) rare everywhere.

［分析］A中的bloods作前置形容词修饰types，应采用单数形式，须改为blood types。

3 　定语从句中的名词是中心词时，也可把该名词变为前置形容词来代替定语从句。例如：

a shop that sells shoes可改为a shoe shop。

a factory which produces bicycles可改为a bicycle factory。

4 　在现代英语中，也出现若干复数名词用作前置形容词的现象，以下是一些较为常见的实例：

an appointments secretary 安排约会的秘书

an arms depot 军火库

a clothes peg 晒衣绳上夹衣服之夹子

the civil rights campaign 民权运动

a commodities fair 商品交易会

a greetings telegram/a greeting telegram 贺电

an honours student 优秀生

a machines hall 机器展览大厅

a sales manager 销售部经理

a savings bank 储蓄银行

a sports meet 运动会

a sports page 报纸的体育版

a savings account 储蓄存款户头

a sports car 赛车

a two-thirds majority 三分之二多数

a wages policy 工资政策

2. 集体名词的数的问题

集体名词在句中用作单数还是用作复数，后面该接单数动词抑或复数动词，这些都应根据不同情况或意义来处理。集体名词分类如下：

1 　有些集体名词在句中通常作复数用，后接复数动词。

这些集体名词为：people，police，clergy，cattle，poultry，vermin，militia等。

The people of Norway are called Norwegians.

The police are making enquiries into the robbery. 警方正在调查这桩抢劫案。

The poultry have been fed. 家禽已被喂过饲料。

These vermin（害虫）are harmful to the crops.

The militia（民兵）were also called out to help keep order.

The clergy（牧师）are mostly recruited from theological schools（神学院）.

注：poultry不指家禽而指家禽肉时，用单数动词，通常前无冠词。例如：

Poultry is rather cheap now.

2 　有些集体名词在句中作单数用。

这些名词如machinery，merchandise（货物），foliage（［总称］树叶）等。

Modern machinery has been installed in this workshop.

The valuable merchandise was thrown overboard（被扔至海中）in order to save the vessel in the storm.

Dense green foliage affords a restful sight. 茂密的绿叶呈现出一派闲适宁静的景象。

3 　有些集体名词，若被看做整体时就作单数用，后接单数动词；若被看做组成该集体的各个成员时，就作复数用，后接复数动词。

如family，government，committee，class，audience，public，crew，team，company等。

The football team is playing well. 整个球队踢得不错。

The football team are having baths and are then coming back here for tea. 足球队员们正在洗澡，马上就要回到这里吃点心。

The Government has decided to pass the bill. 政府已决定通过这一议案。［表整体］

The Government have discussed the matter for a long time but they have shown no signs of reaching agreement. 政府中各成员对此事已讨论了很久，但尚未有迹象表明他们已取得一致意见。

The family is a very happy one. 这家人很幸福。

The family are very pleased about the news of William's success. 全家成员对威廉获得成功的消息都感到非常高兴。

The audience is enormous. 观众人数很多。

The audience are enjoying every minute of the concert. 自始至终听众都非常爱听这场音乐会。

The committee meets once a month. 委员会一月开一次会。

The committee are divided in opinion about the matter. 委员们对这事意见有分歧。

The class is a big one. 这个班人很多。

The class are unable to agree upon a monitor. 这个班级的学员在班长的人选问题上不能获得一致意见。

The public is convinced of the official's innocence. 公众都相信那官员是清白无辜的。

The public are requested not to leave litter in the park. 要求游客们不要在公园里乱丢东西。

例　The company are (A) planning a series (B) of lectures for its executives so that (C) they may be aware of how to deal with racial problems that may occur from time to time (D).

［分析］题中its指company，可见A项是错的，应把are改写为is。C项so that后的they是指executives，而不是指company。

◎ 集体名词people的用法：

a. （泛指）人们［people前不用the］

People will laugh at you if you do that.

Many people are present at the symposium（研讨会）。

b. （前面有定冠词the）人民

A true statesman works in the interest of the people. 真正的政治家是为人民的利益而工作的。

c. 民族、种族（前面用冠词或用复数）

The Chinese are an industrious and brave people. 中国人民是勤劳勇敢的民族。

the English-speaking peoples in the world 世界上讲英语的民族

d. 表示属于特定场所的人们，或个人的家族、近亲（前面用定冠词或my、his等物主代词）。

The library people（图书馆的人）always give us a lot of help when we go there.

My husband's people（我丈夫家里的人）are staying with us now.

How are your people? 你家里的人好吗？

注1：用peoples（复数形式）表示不同国别的人民。例如在表示“增进我们两国人民友谊”这一层意思时，不说“enhance the friendship between the people of our two countries”，而是通常说“enhance the friendship between our two peoples”，这样不仅行文简练而且语气显得亲切。

注2：不要把集体名词people和person（普通名词）混淆。person作“单个人”解，兼指男女。按习惯用法，person的复数形式，如果不指明精确数字，应用people而不用persons。如Many people（不说Many persons）agree with me。大数目的“人们”也用people，而不用persons，如The theater can seat five thousand people（不能说five thousand persons）。数字精确的少量的人则用persons，如There are only three persons in the room。

例　Negotiable (A) instruments（流通票据）such as personal checks may ordinarily (B) be transferred to another people (C) by endorsement（背书） (D).

［分析］上题的句意是“诸如私人支票等流通票据一般情况下可以通过背书转让给另外一个人。”“人”之单数应用person，不能用people。故应把C项改为person。

3. 以-ics结尾的名词的数

以-ics结尾的名词作“学科”解时，系单数性质，后接单数动词：

Politics（政治学/政治）is a good topic for discussion.

Linguistics（语言学）has developed rapidly in modern times.

Physics（物理学或物理）is concerned with the study of matter（物质）and natural forces.［大自然的威力，如风暴、地震等］

Electronics（电子学）has made possible the development of television, radio, radar and computer.

Mathematics（数学）includes arithmetic（算术，注意无s）, algebra（代数）, geometry（几何）, and calculus（微积分）.

Informatics（信息学）is the study of the means by which information is collected, processed, classified, and transmitted（收集、处理、分类和输送）, especially through computers and other automatic equipment.

Mechanics（力学）is the branch of physics dealing with the action（作用）of forces on solids, liquids, and gases at rest or in motion（处于静止或运动状态）.

Statistics（统计学）was the only course Jessica failed in.

Acoustics（声学或音响学）is taught in some colleges.

Optics（光学）is concerned with the study of the properties（性能）and phenomena of those electromagnetic waves（电磁波）with wave lengths greater than X-rays and smaller than microwaves（微波）.

Phonetics（语音学）deals with sounds.［deals with=is concerned with，作“研究”解］

Athlectics（体育课）is recommended for every student.

Economics（经济学）deals with the material welfare of mankind and such problems as those of capital, labor, wages, prices, tariffs（关税）, and taxes.

以上这类名词中，有些可作“学科”以外的其他解释，这时它们就作复数处理，后接复数动词：

The acoustics（音响效果）of this theater are admirable.

What are Alan's politics（政治观点或态度）？

Statistics（统计数字或资料）are classified systematically（系统地）.

The phonetics（语言现象）of the language are minutely（仔细地）observed.

Athletics（体育运动）include all kinds of sports, as running, rowing, boxing, etc.

What are the economics（经济要素/经济上的利弊）of this project?

4. 以-s结尾的名词的数

1 　有少数以-s结尾的名词，形式上虽然是复数，实际上作单数用，后接单数动词。

The news is encouraging.

A summons（传票）was served on him. 已向他发了传票。

The tidings（消息）comes a little late（来得晚了）.

The gallows（绞架）is still used for murderers in that country.

例　The news of the losses suffered (A) by our troops were (B) much worse (C) than expected (D).

［分析］news是以-s结尾的不可数名词，应接单数动词，故把B改为was。

2 　以-s结尾表示游戏名称的名词通常用作单数，后面接单数动词。

Bowls（滚木球戏，保龄球戏）is a sport which is usually played by people of middle age or past.

In some countries, dominoes（多米诺骨牌）is still the principal game.

Checkers（跳棋，英国叫draughts）is a game for two.

Fives（英国两人或四人玩的对墙投击之手球）is played with the hand.

Ninepins（九柱戏，竖立九根柱，以滚球撞倒之多寡而定胜负）is still a vacancy（空白）in Chinese sports.

Darts（掷镖游戏）is a game in which darts（镖，单数为dart）are thrown at a target.

Billiards（玩桌球）has been my favorite recreation since I was a young boy.

个别表示游戏的名词也有作复数用，后面接复数动词。例如：

Cards（玩纸牌）are not allowed here.

3 　以-s结尾的疾病名称一般都作单数用，后面接单数动词。

Diabetes（糖尿病）is a common disease among middle-aged and elderly people.

Mumps（腮腺炎）is infectious.

Measles（麻疹）is infectious.

Generally, arthritis（关节炎）occurs in people working in damp places.

Phlebitis（静脉炎）is an unpleasant ailment.

Rickets（软骨病）is rare now.

Shingles（带状疱疹）is serious: how long have you had it?

4 　由两部分组成的表物体的名词通常用作复数，后接复数动词。

Your trousers（裤子）are too large。They need to be taken in（收小）a little.

The scissors（剪刀）are dull. They need to be sharpened.

Calipers/Callipers（卡钳）are used to measure the dimensions（尺寸）of small metal objects.

Where are my suspenders（背带）? I can't find them.

Bobby's spectacles/glasses（眼镜）are very expensive. Their frame is gilded with 14-carat gold（镀14K金）.

Your shades（太阳眼镜）are the same as Johnny's.

其他由两部分组成的名词，如compasses（圆规），flares（喇叭裤），forceps（镊子），jeans（牛仔裤），pants（裤子），pincers（铗子），scales（磅秤），pliers（老虎钳），shorts（短裤），tweezers（镊子），stockings（长袜），socks（短袜），tongs（夹具），shears（大剪刀），handcuffs（手铐），slacks（便裤），braces（裤子背带），binoculars（双筒望远镜）等，也都用作复数名词。

注1：以上这类名词前，如用了a pair of等，后面动词的单复数则取决于pair 这一单词本身在句中的单复数形式。例如：

My new pair of pants does not suit me.

Here is a pair of jeans.

Here are some new pairs of socks.

注2：The scissors are on the table.（那把剪刀在桌子上。）但在现代英语中，也可用A scissors is on the table.（一把剪刀在桌子上。）这里的A scissors=A pair of scissors。

5. 单复数同形的名词

1 　某些动物名称单复数同形。

注：① fish指“鱼肉”时系不可数名词，如Fish is expensive now. 鱼价现在挺贵的。

② fish统指“鱼”时单复数同形，如a fish，two fish，three fish。

③ fish指不同种类的鱼时，复数须加“-es”，如two fishes，three fishes。

例：How many fishes do you know by name? 你知道多少种鱼的名字？

There are three fishes in the basin. 这鱼缸里有三个种类的鱼。

④ fish作为名词和动词，非常贴近生活，产生若干谚语及习语，运用在写作与日常用语中，可使之添色不少：

* fish (for) a needle in (out of) the ocean 大海捞针

Don't try to find the key any more. It is like fishing for a needle in the ocean.

* fish in the air 缘木求鱼

If you work on like this, your efforts will be in vain; it is just like fishing in the air. 你若这样工作下去，你所作的努力都将白费，就像缘木求鱼一样。

* fish in troubled（或muddy）waters 浑水摸鱼；趁火打劫

All he wanted was to make bad blood between you and fish in troubled waters. 他所要做的就是要在你们俩人中挑拨离间，从中浑水摸鱼。

* fish or cut bait（在两者中决定取舍）要么去做，要么走人

The boss told him：“Quit dawdling over your work! Fish or cut bait.”老板对他说，“别磨洋工了！要么干，要么就走人。”

* fish (sb.) with a golden hook（钓鱼钩）贿以重金

He fished the director of the personnel division with a golden hook and got a lucrative post. 他对该人事处处长贿以重金，获得了一份肥缺。

* have other fish to fry 另有其他事要做

I was asked to the party but I have other fish to fry. 我被邀参加晚会，但我有别的事要做。

* like a fish out of water 如鱼离水；不得其所的人

I feel like a fish out of water among so many strangers. 和这么多陌生人在一起我感到局促不安。

* Never offer to teach fish to swim 不要教鱼游泳；不要班门弄斧

It is silly to offer to teach fish to swim. 班门弄斧是在犯傻。

* Never fry a fish till it's caught 鱼未捉到不要忙着煎鱼；不要操之过急

You always expect things to turn out as you wish. Never fry a fish till it's caught. 你对事情总是想当然，没有把握前切不可操之过急。

* The best fish swim near the bottom. 好鱼在水底游/珍贵的东西不会轻易得到。

A: I got this beautiful and precious gem after travelling far and wide in search of it. 我踏破铁鞋才觅得这块美丽精致的宝石。

B: Indeed, the best fish swim near the bottom. 的确，珍贵的东西不会轻易得到。

* The best fish smell when they are three days old. 最好的鱼三天也会变臭/作客不可久留。

Even when I visit an old friend, I do not stay longer than necessary, as the best fish smell when they are three days old. 即使访问老朋友，我待的时间也不是很长，因时间待久会招人嫌。

* Fish begins to stink at the head. 鱼烂头先臭/上梁不正下梁歪。

When those above behave disgracefully, those below will follow suit. That is what is called“Fish begins to stink at the head.”上面行事不检点时，下面便跟风。这就是所谓的“上梁不正下梁歪”。

* Venture a small fish to catch a great one. 欲钓大鱼，先舍小鱼/小的不去，大的不来。

Never be mindful of a mere trifle in the way of profit. You must know the truth that one ventures a small fish to catch a great one. 切不要计较蝇头小利；你得知道小的不去，大的不来这一道理。

注：汉语中有“放长线，钓大鱼”的类似讲法，相应的英译是“throw a long line to catch a big fish”。

2 　以-ese或-ss结尾的民族名称。

3 　四个单复数同形的名词。

4 　以-s结尾的一些单复数同形的名词。

一般说以-s结尾的名词都作复数用，后面接复数动词。例如：

The goods（货物）are faulty（有毛病）.

Clothes are very expensive in Paris.

Small arms（武器）are still necessary in battles.

The archives（档案）of our corporation are kept in this room.

The minutes（会议记录）of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

His wages（工资）are $500 a week.

注：wages这个复数形式的名词，用作比喻意义时，后面须接单数动词，不能用复数动词：

The wages（代价）of sin is death.

The wages（代价）of poor eating is poor health.

但也有一些以-s结尾的名词却是单复数同形。以下是一些常见的例子：

A series of problems（一系列问题）has cropped up recently.

There are two series of books（两套丛书）：one for beginners and the other for advanced learners.

Every means（手段；方法）has been tried to solve the difficult problem.

All means have been tried to solve the difficult problem.

Wheat is a species of grass（一类草）.

All species of apples belong to the same genus（类）.

The headquarters（总部）of the American Red Cross is in Washington D. C.

Our headquarters are in West Berlin.

There is a gas-works/a steel-works（煤气厂/钢铁厂）in the town.

There are two gas-works/two steel-works in the town.

John wrote that his barracks（兵营）was a lively place.

The two barracks are inspected daily.

An alms（施舍）was given to the poor.

These alms were given to the poor.

one species of cat;

two species of cats

5 　表示度量衡、币制等单位的汉语英译名词。

one jin（斤）of rice

two jin of rice（不能用jins）

This box of cigars cost me 10 yuan（元）5 jiao（角）8 fen（分）.

We covered 60 li（里，不能说lis）yesterday.

One mu（亩）of land is required for the establishment of the school.

Southeast of the town are 200 mu of sandy wasteland which are unsuitable for growing crops.

6. 复合名词的数

1 　由连字号“-”连接的数词+名词的复合名词结构中，名词总是用单数。

这是因为这一复合名词通常用在名词前起前置形容词作用。

a five-year plan 五年计划

the eight-hour day (work/working system) 八小时工作制

a ten-dollar bill 一张拾元的美钞

a 10,000-ton ocean liner 万吨运输轮

a 24-storey building 一幢24层楼高的大楼

a ten-minute walk 10分钟的散步或路程

a 50-page booklet 一本50页的小书

例　The town we visited was (A) a four-days (B) journey from our hotel, so we took (C) the train instead of the bus (D).

［分析］显然B项错，应改为four-day。

2 　不用作前置形容词的复合名词变成复数时，通常将其中的主体名词变为复数。

a looker  -on 旁观者

some lookers  -on

a listener  -in 无线电收听者

many listeners  -in

a son  -in-law 女婿

two sons  -in-law

a daughter  -in-law 媳妇

three daughters  -in-law

a brother  -in-law 姐夫；妹夫；连襟

four brothers  -in-law

a grand-child   孙儿；孙女

six grand-children

an editor  -in-chief 总编辑

some editors  -in-chief

a man  -of-war 军舰

twelve men  -of-war

an air-raid   空袭

four air-raids

a good-for-nothing   无用的人

a few good-for-nothings

a comrade  -in-arms 战友

many comrades  -in-arms

a grant  -in-aid 中央对地方之拨款；补助金；助学金

three grants  -in-aid

an aide  -de-camp 随从；副官

two aides  -de-camp

◎ 有些复合名词没有主体名词，变为复数时通常在第二组成词后加-s。例如：

close-up 特写

close-ups

grown-up 成人

grown-ups

hold-all 旅行用的帆布袋

hold-alls

sit-in 静坐抗议

sit-ins

stand-by 备用品

stand-bys

touch-me-not 高傲自恃的人

touch-me-nots

forget-me-not 毋忘我草

forget-me-nots

go-between 媒人；中间人

go-betweens

◎有些复合名词已取消了中间的连字号“-”，连写成一个字；这类复合名词变复数时也在第二组成词后加-s即可：

brainpower — brainpowers 智囊团

ultracentrifuge — ultracentrifuges 超速离心机

pathfinder — pathfinders 开路先锋

telltale — telltales 搬弄是非者

scarecrow — scarecrows 稻草人

makeshift — makeshifts 权宜之计

blacksmith — blacksmiths 铁匠；锻工

stowaway — stowaways 躲在船里或飞机里偷渡或偷飞的人

toothpick — toothpicks 牙签

◎ 由man和woman构成的复合名词成为复数时，两个组成词都得变为复数：

woman doctor — women doctors 女医生

man-servant — men-servants 男佣人

gentleman-farmer — gentlemen-farmers 乡绅

◎ 也有少数是仅在第二个组成词后加s的。例如：

manslayer — manslayers 杀人者

manhole — manholes 工人修理锅炉或下水道时的出入口

maneater — maneaters 吃人的动物

man-engine — man-engines 矿井内载人的升降机

man-hater — man-haters 愤世嫉俗者；讨厌男人的女人

woman-hater — woman-haters 厌恶妇女的男人

7. 名词由单数变复数应注意的问题

名词的复数形式通常是在单数形式后面加-s构成，如cup—cups；如果以s，x，ch，sh结尾，则加-es，如class—classes，box—boxes，match—matches，brush—brushes。以“辅音字母+y”结尾的词，则变y为i再加-es，如city—cities，country—countries；如果y前是元音，则y不变，直接加-s，如boy—boys，key—keys。以上是最基本的变数规则。下面是一些极易混淆的变数现象。

1 　以辅音字母加o结尾的词大多加-es。

hero—heroes 英雄

echo—echoes 回声

potato—potatoes 马铃薯

tomato—tomatoes 番茄

Negro—Negroes 黑人

torpedo—torpedoes 鱼雷

◎ 词末为两个元音字母的词则加-s。

bamboo—bamboos 竹

cuckoo—cuckoos 杜鹃

zoo—zoos 动物园

curio—curios 古董

studio—studios 画室

radio—radios 无线电

portfolio—portfolios 公事包

◎ 以辅音加o结尾的词，其中有少数系外来词，这些外来词变复数时词尾加-s，不是加-es。

photo—photos 照片

tobacco—tobaccos 烟草

solo—solos 独奏

dynamo—dynamos 发电机

piano—pianos 钢琴

memento—mementos 纪念品

kilo—kilos 公斤

2 　以f或fe结尾的词，多数变f为v再加-es。

leaf—leaves 树叶

thief—thieves 贼

loaf—loaves 一只/几只［面包］

wife—wives 妻子

wolf—wolves 狼

shelf—shelves 书架

knife—knives 小刀

life—lives 生命

half—halves 一半

◎ 有些以f或fe结尾的词直接加-s而已。

roof—roofs 屋顶

chief—chiefs 头头

safe—safes 保险箱

cliff—cliffs 峭壁

grief—griefs 悲伤

turf—turfs 草皮

tariff—tariffs 关税

sheriff—sheriffs 行政司法长官

proof—proofs 证明；校样

belief—beliefs 信念

reef—reefs 暗礁

gulf—gulfs 海湾

dwarf—dwarfs 侏儒

cuff—cuffs 袖口

fife—fifes 横笛

◎ 有少数词可有两种复数形式。

3 　名词由单数变复数的不规则形式

不规则复数形式是指不是以加词尾-s或-es构成的名词复数，大体分下列两种情况。

A. 变换名词内部元音字母构成复数。

goo  se 鹅

gee  se

foo  t 脚

fee  t

lou  se 螽

li  ce

ma  n 男人

me  n

mou  se 鼠

mi  ce

too  th 牙齿

tee  th

woma  n 妇女

wome  n

◎ 当foot表示infantry步兵，horse表示cavalry骑兵，sail表示ship船时，它们看作不可数名词，表示复数不作变化。例如：

30000 foot and 5000 horse 三万名步兵和五千名骑兵

a fleet of 12 sail 一支由12条船组成的舰队

B. 带词尾-en的复数形式。这一复数形式系极少数，只见于以下三个名词：

brother — brethren（宗教团体内的教友）；child — children；ox — oxen

4 　英语中外来的复数形式主要源自拉丁语、希腊语、法语等。

A. 拉丁语源

◎ a（单数字尾）→ae（复数字尾）

formula — formulae 公式

larva — larvae 幼虫

nebula — nebulae 星云

注：不要混淆larva（幼虫）和lava（［不可数］火山喷出的岩浆）。

◎ um（单数字尾）→a（复数字尾）

addendum — addenda 附录；补遗

bacterium — bacteria 细菌

corrigendum — corrigenda 勘误表

erratum — errata 勘误表

medium — media 媒介

memorandum — memoranda 备忘录

stratum — strata 阶层

symposium — symposia 研讨会

◎ x（单数字尾）→ces（复数字尾）

appendix — appendices 附录；［医］阑尾

index — indices 指数；索引

matrix — matrices 母体

◎ us（单数字尾）→i（复数字尾）

stimulus — stimuli 刺激；鼓励

focus — foci 焦点；中心点

nucleus — nuclei 核心；原子核

syllabus — syllabi 讲义

terminus — termini 终点；界限

B. 希腊语源

◎ is（单数字尾）→es（复数字尾）

analysis — analyses 分析；分解

axis — axes 轴心

basis — bases 基础

crisis — crises 危机

diagnosis — diagnoses 诊断

eclipse — eclipses 日食

hypothesis — hypotheses 假说

oasis — oases 绿洲

parenthesis — parentheses 插句；括弧

synopsis — synopses 内容提要

◎ on（单数字尾）→a（复数字尾）

criterion — criteria 标准

phenomenon — phenomena 现象

C. 法语词源

◎ au（单数字尾）→x（复数字尾）

bureau — bureaux 局

plateau — plateaux 高原

◎ eu（单数字尾）→x（复数字尾）

adieu — adieux 告别；辞行

5 　名词的不规则复数形式和外来词的复数形式在日常应用中及各类考试中时常出现。

例　The freshman's skepticism (A) is (B) an inevitable (C) phenomena (D).

［分析］D项中的phenomena系希腊语源外来词的复数形式，但据题意应为单数，故把D项改为其单数形式phenomenon。

例　The crisis in (A) the countries of the Middle East (B) have been discussed (C) at (D) our weekly forums.

［分析］主语crisis系希腊语源的外来词，是单数形式，但C项中的动词却用了复数，破坏了主谓一致性，故须把C项改为has been discussed。

例　The spools in a telephone receiver (A) contain many foots (B) of wire coiled up (C) into a tiny (D) space.

［分析］B项错，名词foot的复数系属不规则形式，不是foots，应改为feet。

6 　关于外来词的复数形式的几点补充。

某些外来词除保留原来的复数形式外，还具有英语的规则复数形式，这种情况多发生在拉丁语源的外来词上。

外来复数

英语复数

appendix

appendices（拉）

appendixes

focus

foci（拉）

focuses

matrix

matrices（拉）

matrixes

medium

media（拉）

mediums

memorandum

memoranda（拉）

memorandums

nucleus

nuclei（拉）

nucleuses

radius

radii（拉）

radiuses

syllabus

syllabi（拉）

syllabuses

symposium

symposia（拉）

symposiums

terminus

termini

terminuses

adieu

adieux（法）

adieus

bureau

bureaux（法）

bureaus

plateau

plateaux（法）

plateaus

一般讲，在实际应用中外来词的原来复数形式多用于科学用语，其英语复数形式多用于日常生活。如formulae用于数学及化学中，formulas则用于日常生活。

有少数外来词的英语复数形式和原来的复数形式，其意义是不同的。

外来语复数意义

英语复数意义

appendix

appendices 附录

appendixes 盲肠

genius

genii 妖怪

geniuses 天才

index

indices 指数

indexes 索引

7 　字母、数字、单词、符号等，常加“'s”构成复数。

Mind one's P's and Q's. 言行谨慎。

Your 3's look like 8's. 你的3看起来像8。

She used too many but's and if's in her composition. 她作文里用了太多的but和if。

Pay attention to your &'s and @'s. 注意你的&号和@号。

Her speech was full of I think's. 她的演讲用了太多的“我想”之类的话。

注：① 年代的表示，例如20世纪50年代，the 1950s和1950's都可以。在当代英语中，第一形式更为普通。

② 字母S的复数：the s'es；5个5：five 5's。

8 　缩略词和拼缀词的复数一般加-s

VIP—VIPs

POW—POWs（战俘）

memo—memos（备忘录）

一些表示度量衡单位的缩略词，其复数往往不加-s。［参见“名词的数”］

km.—km.

kg.—kg.

ft.—ft.

cm.—cm.

9 　有些缩略词的复数形式为重复一个缩略字母。

P.—PP. (=pages)

l.—ll. (=lines)

gal.—gall. (=gallons)

8. 名词的单复数在意义上的不同

有些名词从单数形式变为复数形式时，表示特别的意义。如：

六、名词的格

1. 格的种类

格作为一种语法范畴是表示名词或代词与句中其他词之间意义关系的形式。现代英语里格的形式有两种：通格（common case）和属格（genitive case），属格又称为所有格（possessive case）。当名词在句中作主语、宾语或表语时，名词的词形不发生变化，即所谓名词的通格形式。

当名词在句中表示所有或其他某些关系时，名词便采用属格形式。名词的属格又分两种：一种是's属格，另一种是由介词词组构成的of-属格。如：

Mary's address（'s属格）

the name of the song（of属格）

在实际应用中，我们有时必须运用名词的's属格形式来表示同类间的比较或平行性的对比，这时为-s属格名词所修饰的后置名词通常都被省略。如：Tom's composition is better than Bob's. Bob's后面的composition被省略，如把Bob's改为Bob，便意味着把Tom的作文和Bob的为人进行比较。把类别或性质不同的两者进行比较不合词章。

例　Gerbrand von den Feckout, a Rembrandt's pupil, followed (A) the style of his teacher so implicitly that (B) his paintings (C) are sometimes confused with his master (D).

［分析］D错，his指17世纪荷兰著名画家雷姆卜蓝特（Rembrandt）的学生Gerbrand von den Feckout，意指Gerbrand不露痕迹地着意模仿他老师的绘画风格和神韵可以达到乱真的程度，以致有时候他的画和他老师的画分不出彼此。句意表示两者绘画作品间的比较，故须把D改为属格形式his master's，后面省略了paintings。

2. 's属格的形成

1 　单数名词和不以-s结尾的复数名词通常在词尾加's。

2 　以-s结尾的复数名词在词尾不加's，仅加（'）。

the students' dormitory

the teachers' reading-room

the Peasants' Association（农民协会）

3 　以-s结尾的专有名词后面可加's，也可只加（'），但一般都读作［iz］或［z］。

Engels'［'engəlz］/Engels's［'engəlziz］works

Burns'［bə:nz］/Burns's［'bə:nziz］poems

Dickens'［'dikinz］/Dickens's［'dikinziz］novels

◎ 但以［z］以外的清辅音［s］结尾的专有名词，其属格则加's读作［iz］。如：

Marx's［'mɑ:ksiz］works

Thomas's［'tɔməsiz］car

◎ 然而，习语for...'s sake的处理有些特殊。该习语作“为了……的缘故；看在……的分上”解。如：

for God's sake 看在老天爷分上

for old sake's sake 看在老交情分上

art for art's sake 为艺术而艺术

They are strange bedfellows, but for decency's sake they still pose as husband and wife. 他们同床异梦，但为了面子关系，对外仍作夫妻。

for health's sake 为了健康起见

for humanity's sake 出于人道

for simplicity's sake 为了简易起见

for precaution's sake 为了小心起见

在这个习语结构中，中间的名词都用's属格，但中间如换上清辅音［s］结尾的名词，该名词的属格不是以's来表示，而往往只在其词尾上加（'）。如：

for appearance' sake 为了面子

for conscience' sake 为了对得起良心

for convenience' sake 为了方便起见

for goodness' sake 看在老天爷分上；我求求你

for old acquaintance' sake 看在老相识分上

3. 's属格使用的对象

1 　用于有生命的、视为有生命的东西的这类名词。

A. 表示人、人名、职称等的名词。

Kissinger's China breakthrough 基辛格对中国的突破

Your Excellency's brilliant idea 阁下高见

Sir Winston Churchill's Speeches 温斯顿·丘吉尔爵士演说集

B. 表示集体的名词。

the majority's view 多数人的意见

the Party's basic line 党的基本路线

the government's reaction to the people's demand 政府对人民要求的反应

our corporation's business scope 我们公司的经营范围

the team's coach and players 该球队的教练和队员

the committee's decision 委员会的决定

the delegation's visit 代表团的访问

C. 表示较高等动物的名词。

the giraffe's neck 长颈鹿的颈

the ewe's milk 羊奶

the crow's caw 乌鸦的叫声

2 　用于某些无生命东西的名称。

A. 表示国家、城市、地区等名词。

the country's modernization program 国家的现代化规划

Beijing's Summer Palace 北京的颐和园

New York's Yellow Stone Park 纽约的黄石公园

Asia's population explosion 亚洲的人口大爆炸

例　_____was the day before yesterday.

A. The France's Independence Day

B. The day of the French Independence

C. French's Independence Day

D. France's Independence Day

［分析］选D。France's Independence Day指“法国独立日”，表示国家名称可用's属格。A中定冠词The须去掉，国家专有名称前通常不用the；B中day应改写为Day，“法国独立日”系一专有名称，还需去掉the，因用Day表示的节日前一般不用冠词，如May Day，Children's Day。

B. 表示天体名称的名词。

the moon's orbit 月球的运行轨道

the sun's rotation 太阳的旋转

the earth's surface 地球的表面

C. 表示工业、科技、交通、电讯、文化、艺术等名称的名词。

the industry's geographical distribution 工业的布局

science's contributions to mankind 科学对人类的贡献

the station's waiting-room 车站的候车室

the car's engine 汽车的发动机

the machine's design 机器的设计

the factory's modern equipment 工厂的现代化设备

the book's influence 这本书的影响

the novel's plot 这部小说的情节

the film's artistic appeal 这部电影的艺术感染力

the song's political significance 这首歌曲的政治意义

D. 表示时间名称的名词。

today's China Daily 今天的《中国日报》

yesterday's news 昨日新闻

Thursday's lecture 周四的讲座

an hour's drive 开了一小时汽车

a moment's rest 片刻的休息

this week's current events 本周的时事

the decade's changes 10年的变化

a good night's rest 好好睡了一晚

但须注意，当today，tomorrow，yesterday这些表时间的名称在意义上由“今天，明天，昨天”引申作“现在（如今），将来（未来），过去（昔日）”解时，通常不用's属格，而用of属格。如：

Young people of today have no manners. 现在的年轻人没礼貌。

The songs of today aren't as tuneful as when I was a boy. 如今的歌曲不如我孩提时那些歌曲那样动听。

The world of tomorrow will be very different. 未来的世界将大不一样。

The China of today is different from the China of yesterday. 新中国与旧中国是不同的。

表示某一地区对比的短语则一概不用属格，如“上海今昔”，不说“Shanghai's today and yesterday”，该说“Shanghai today and yesterday”。

E. 表示重量、价格、距离、长度等名称的名词。

two tons' weight 两吨的重量

ten dollars' worth of coffee 价值10美元的咖啡

twenty miles' walk 20英里的步行路程

at a stone's throw 掷石可及之距离；一箭之遥

F. 拟人化的名词。

Fortune's smile 命运的微笑

heaven's will 天意

例　“What can I do for you, sir?”“I want _____.”

A. a dime's worth of candy

B. candy a dime's worth

C. a dime worth of candy

D. a dime-worth candy

［分析］选A。dime指美元中的一角，表价格，故用's属格，意指“我要买一角钱糖果”。

例　“What have you finished?”“I have finished_____.”

A. a day work

B. a day's work

C. day's working

D. a-day work

［分析］选B。day表时间，故可用's。C中working强调动作，不妥，应改为work，day's前须加上a或the。

例　Is he determined to drift through life?”“Maybe. By_____.”

A. cruelty

B. cruelty's Fortune

C. cruelty of Fortune

D. Fortune's cruelty

［分析］选D。Fortune作“命运之神”解，拟人化，故用's。C在cruelty前须加上the。A及B不通。

4. 应用's属格需注意的问题

1 　复合名词在最后一个词后加's。

my son-in-law's house 我女婿的房子

the commander-in-chief's directive 总司令的指示

the grand-children's New Year cards 孙儿们的贺年卡

2 　作为一个整体的词组也是在最后一个词后加's。

someone else's comment 别人的批评

two hours and a half's piano practice 两个半小时的钢琴练习

3 　由两个或三个名词并列组成的词组，如在最后一个词后面加's，表示的是并列名词的共有关系；如各个名词后都加's，便表示各并列名词的各自所有关系。

Barbara and Audrey's car 芭芭拉和奥蕾两人共有的一部汽车［注意，car用单数］

Barbara's and Audrey's cars 芭芭拉和奥蕾两人各自的汽车［注意，car用复数］

Stanley and Jackson's fridge 史丹莱和杰克逊共有的一只冰箱

Stanley's and Jackson's fridges 史丹莱和杰克逊的冰箱［两人各自的冰箱，fridges用复数］

例　Cliff's and Al's (A) car broke down (B) again, but luckily (C) they knew how to fix (D) it.

［分析］A错。Cliff's and Al's car这一名词词组中，两个并列名词后都加's，表明Cliff和Al各自的汽车，car不该是单数，应采用复数形式，而句末的代词it又系单数指car，显然句意表示的是Cliff和Al's，只能把's加在Al后面，才表示共有关系。

4 　起修饰作用的名词，如不表示所有关系时，通常不用's属格。

a teachers training course 师资培训班［不表从属关系］

a foreign languages institute 外语学院［学院并不是为外语所占有］

例　“Jim was late for two classes this morning.”

“He said that he forgot both of the_____.”

A. rooms number

B. room number

C. room's numbers

D. room numbers

［分析］选D。在room numbers这一名词词组中，room作前置形容词修饰numbers，并不表示所有关系，故不能用C项中所表示的's属格。题内第二句中的both表示一个复数概念，故number应为复数numbers。

但需要说明的是：起修饰作用的复数名词用's属格表所有关系时，如果仅表示某一种类别或类型以示同其他类别或类型区别的话，往往以名词的单数通格形式来替代名词的属格形式。如：

可用peasant participation替代peasants' participation；

可用worker uprising（起义）替代workers' uprising；

可用student life替代students' life。

如表示类别以外的其他情况时，仍宜用复数词的's属格或复数名词。如teachers' training course或teachers training course，而通常不用名词单数形式teacher training course，因师资培训班是说明培训师资的班，而不在于说明这一类型与其他类型的区别。

5. 名词's属格的其他作用

名词's属格除了表示所有关系外，还能有其他作用。

1 　表示主谓关系，即表示动作的执行者。

Mr. Rubin's praise made me rather ashamed. 鲁宾先生的赞扬使我感到很惭愧。［这句可分为两句：Mr. Rubin praised me.和It made me rather ashamed.］

The distinguished guests' arrival received an enthusiastic welcome. 贵宾们的到达受到热诚的欢迎。［The distinguished guests' arrival表示The distinguished guests arrived这一主谓关系］

Everyone responds to the country's call. 人人响应祖国的号召。［the country's call=the call issued by the country，表示country是发出号召这一动作的执行者］

2 　表示动宾关系，即表示动作的承受者。

Children's education is of great importance. 儿童教育至关重要。［Children's education=the education of children，表children是education的承受者。］

People strongly demand the journalist's release. 人们强烈要求释放该记者。［the journalist's release=the release of the journalist，journalist和release构成动宾关系］

名词's属格究竟表示主谓关系还是动宾关系，需视上下文而定。如Germany's occupation可理解为德国占领别国，也可理解为别国占领德国。一般讲，名词后面跟of短语时，'s属格表示主谓关系；后面接by短语时，则表示动宾关系。如：

Germany's occupation of Paris in World War Ⅱ［指第二次世界大战中德国占领巴黎，表主谓关系］

Germany's occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War Ⅱ［指苏联占领德国，表动宾关系］

3 　表示店铺、楼房、建筑等。

这样用时，'s属格后面的名词通常都被省略，如：

I must go to the butcher's this morning.［the butcher's（肉店）=the butcher's shop］

注：表店铺时the不能省略，如the barber's（理发店），the grocer's（食品杂货店），the stationer's（文具店）。

He bought it at Harridge's.［Harridge's=Harridge's shop. Harridge系专有名称，故Harridge's前不用the，其余依此类推］

We visited St. Paul's.［St. Paul's=St. Paul's Cathedral（圣保罗大教堂）］

My son was educated at Merchant Taylor's.［Merchant Taylor's=Merchant Taylors' School］

We are having dinner at my uncle's tonight.［my uncle's=my uncle's house］

4 　表示其他关系。

's属格除了表示所有关系、主谓关系和动宾关系外，还可表示与人类活动有联系的其他关系。试看下列各例：

children's voices=voices of children［表示属性］

children's books=books for children 儿童读物［表示用途］

China Daily's editorial=editorial written by China Daily［表示由谁执笔］

the shop's invoice=invoice made out by the shop［表示发票由谁所开］

a customer's letter of complaint=a letter of complaint from a customer［表示抱怨信来自何方］

a world's anti-smoking movement=an anti-smoking movement launched by many countries in the world［表示禁烟运动的规模］

a doctor's degree=a doctoral degree［表示类别］

5 　表示对动名词的主谓关系，即作动名词意义上的主语。

I think it senseless Rudulf's arguing with Issac because Issac is awfully wilful. 我认为罗道尔夫同艾萨克争辩毫无意义，因艾萨克是个刚愎自用的人。［名词属格Rudulf's作动名词arguing意义上的主语］

Samual and his parents insisted on Walter's staying at their house for the weekend. 赛谬尔和他的父母坚持请华尔特在他们家度周末。［名词属格Walter's作动名词staying意义上的主语］

在口语体的现代英语中，名词's属格充当动名词意义上的主语时，往往可用名词通格来代替's属格。因而，在上两例句中，Rudulf's arguing和Walter's staying也可换用Rudulf arguing和Walter staying。但在标准化的结构试题的多种选择中，如果同时出现名词's属格和通格两种形式时，则须选择's属格这一正式结构作为动名词意义上的主语。

例　Would you agree to_____the operation?

A. Parson having full control of

B. Parson's having full control of

C. Parson's control of

D. be in Parson's control of

［分析］A和B都对，但B比A更为正式，故应选B。名词属格Parson's作动名词having意义上的主语。

当动名词用作主语时，它意义上的主语只能用名词's属格，而绝不能换用名词通格，即使在非正式英语中也是如此。

例　Tom calling (A) Marie made her (B) angry, so (C) she hung up (D) on him.

［分析］A错，应改为Tom's calling。

6. of属格的使用

1 　一般讲，凡不能用's属格的名词都可用of属格，即用of短语来表示所有关系。

Do you know the name of the song?

The advantage of the economic reform is obvious.

2 　表示人、动物、集体、机构、组织等的名词都可用of属格来替换's属格。

Mr. Cannon's apartment=the apartment of Mr. Cannon

the guest's arrival=the arrival of the guest

Bernard Shaw's plays=the plays of Bernard Shaw

the customer's complaint=the complaint of the customer

his family's background=the background of his family

the country's modernization=the modernization of the country

the government's foreign policy=the foreign policy of the government

The committee's decision=the decision of the committee

a dog's bark=the bark of a dog

a crow's caw=the caw of a crow

an elephant's trunk=the trunk of an elephant

3 　表示无生命东西的名词。

the adumbration of the future in science fiction 科幻小说中所预示的未来世界的景象

the contributions of science and technology

the melancholy melodies of Negro songs 黑人歌曲忧伤的调子

4 　带有后置修饰语的名词宜用of属格来表其所有关系。

the people's support

the support of the people across the world［后置修饰语］

the girl's name

the name of the girl standing over there［后置修饰语］

the students' suggestions

the suggestions of the students of Class A［后置修饰语］

the group's opinion

the opinion of the group set up to look into the problem 为调查此问题而设立的小组［后置修饰语］

5 　the+形容词或分词表示一类人或物时，也须用of属格表示其所有关系。

improve the livelihood of the poor 改善穷人的生活

support the struggle of the oppressed for freedom 支持被压迫者谋求自由的斗争

6 　含有一系列名词时也可用of属格。

a friend of Tom, Mary and Linda

the clients of France and China

7 　含有代词（指示代词）宜用of属格。

the advantage of both

the inside of this

the common ground of all

但可以说one's opinion，others' suggestion等。

8 　已有名词所有格修饰的名词宜用of属格。

the books of Smith's son［不宜说Smith's son's books］

the watch of Tom's sister［不宜说Tom's sister's watch］

7. 's属格和of属格在使用上的区别

's属格和of属格在很多场合可相互换用，但在下列场合则不能通用。

1 　表类别时。

's属格表示类别时便不能以of属格来代替。如：

children's books 儿童读物［不能改用books of children］

a women's college 女子学院［不能改用a college of women］

a bachelor's degree 学术学位［不能改用the degree of a bachelor］

men's suits 男装［不能改用the suits of men］

2 　表同位关系时。

A. “the+名词+of属格”表同位关系。如：

the city of Shanghai 上海市［of Shanghai同city构成同位关系，不能说Shanghai's city］

the state of Michigan（美）密歇根州［of Michigan同state构成同位关系，不说Michigan's state］

the six of us 我们六个人［of us同six构成同位关系］

B. 当被修饰的名词后面紧跟以逗号分开的同位语时，必须用's属格而不能用of属格。如：

Alan's sister, a woman lawyer, has a large practice.［同位语a woman lawyer指Alan的sister。如改用of属格：The sister of Alan, a woman lawyer, has...，该同位语便指Alan，含义变化，引起混淆］

Johnny's brother, a pop star, was here last night.［同位语a pop star（流行歌曲歌星）指Johnny的brother。如改为The brother of Johnny, a pop star, was..., a pop star便和Johnny构成同位关系，引起含义上的混淆］

8. 双重属格

1 　双重属格的结构和它所表示的含义。

兼用of属格和's属格两种属格的结构称为双重属格。它通常的模式是：不定冠词或表示数量的词或指示代词+名词+of+名词's属格。这是英语的一个特殊表现法，据语言大师Jespersen说，“这一结构有时含有全体中的一部分的意思，但不是永远这样。”

A. 表全体中的一部分。

This is a novel of Sidney Sheldon's. 即：This is one of Sidney Sheldons' novels.

These are two poems of Shelley's. 即：These are two of Shelley's poems.

B. 不表全体中的一部分，只起限定作用。

Look at that watch of my brother's.

这句话不可能理解为“Look at that watch of my brother's watches.”只能产生另外一种合理的解释：Look at that watch which is my brother's (watch)，意指“看我弟弟的那只表。”

2 　双重属格的使用。

双重属格通常使用在下列场合。

A. 被修饰的名词前有不定冠词（但不能用定冠词）。

Mr. Calloway is a friend of my father's.［a不能换用the］

但须注意，在双重属格中如果of后面的名词系著名人物，该名词往往采用通格而不用's属格，如：

a friend of President Roosevelt

an acquaintance of Lenin

a relative of the Premier

例　The man in (A) the gray suit was identified (B) as (C) an old and trusted associate of the Prime Minister's (D).

［分析］因Prime Minister（总理）系日理万机的著名人物，在这一结构中宜用通格，故把D改为of the Prime Minister。

这里有必要补充说明一下，“a+名词+of+名词（属格）”和“a+名词+of+名词（通格）”两者都可用，但含义不同。Jesperson在其不朽巨著“Modern English Grammar”中说：

...a friend of Tom's means one whom Tom looks upon as a friend，即Tom视作为朋友的人，含义是“Tom的一位朋友”。

...a friend of Tom means one who looks upon Tom as his friend，即一个把Tom当朋友看待的人，含义是“一位对Tom很友好的人”。

P.A. Erades在他的“English Studies”中列举以下一个对话，进一步说明上述含义上的区别：

A: Who told you that?

B: A friend of your father's. 你父亲的一位朋友。

A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father, whoever he may be. 他说这种话，不管他是谁，他未免对我父亲太不友善，不配做我父亲的朋友。

B. 被修饰的名词前有数词、不定代词、疑问代词等。

Which poem of Yeats' are you going to teach?

Several students of Professor Li's took part in the demonstration.

Some habits of my husband's are incompatible with good health. 我丈夫的有些习惯与健康不相容。

Donna will play three musical compositions of Chopin's for tonight's performance. 今天晚上的表演会上，唐娜将演奏三首肖邦的作品。

C. 被修饰的名词前有指示代词this/these，that/those。

This paper（论文）of Tony's is really inferior（蹩脚）.

I appreciate these brilliant ideas of your friend's.

That lecture of the philosopher's was greatly inspiring. 哲学家的那次讲座给人启发很大。

Those daughters of your aunt's are disgusting（令人恶心）。

从上列例句中不难看出，带有指示代词的双重属格明显含有爱憎褒贬的感情色彩。试比较下列例子：

Tom's big nose 汤姆的大鼻子［平铺直叙而已］

that big nose of Tom's［含有“汤姆那大得可厌或可笑的鼻子”之意，多了一层感情成分］

Arnold's long face 亚诺德的长脸孔［只是说明一个客观事实而已］

that long face of Arnold's［含有“亚诺德那长得出奇的脸孔”这一意思，带有感情色彩］

3 　双重属格和of属格含义上的差别。

双重属格和of属格应用到某些名词上时具有含义上的差别。如：

a portrait of the painter's指“这个画家所拥有的一幅肖像画”。

a portrait of the painter指“这个画家的一幅肖像画”，即画像中画的是该画家本人。

a story of Jack London's只指a story told by Jack London。

a story of Jack London指a story about Jack London或指a story told by Jack London。

an opinion of Hassel's指“哈瑟尔发表的一个意见或看法”。

an opinion of Hassel指“别人对哈瑟尔的意见或看法”。

从上面所举的例子中可找出以下两个规律：

① 当名词中心词即位于of前面的名词是portrait，picture，photograph，statue（肖像）等具体名词时，用双重属格便表示“某人所拥有或收藏的……”意思，用of属格则指“某人自己的……”意思。试比较：

a photograph of Elaine's指“伊连所收藏的一帧照片”

a photograph of Elaine指“伊连自己的一帧照片”，照片中是伊连本人

a statue of the late Premier's 已故总理收藏的一尊塑像

a statue of the late Premier 已故总理自己的一尊塑像（塑像是他本人）

② 当名词中心词是criticism，opinion，judgement，condemnation，estimate等具有动词含义的名词时，双重属格表示主谓关系，of属格则表示动宾关系。试再比较：

an estimate of the critic's指“这个批评家所作出的一个估价”［双重属格表主谓关系］

an estimate of the critic指“对批评家所作的一个估价”［of属格表动宾关系］

a criticism of the teacher's 这个老师所作的一个批评［双重属格表主谓关系］

a criticism of the teacher 别人对这个老师所作的批评［of属格表动宾关系］

9. 's属格的常见习语

有些名词既可用's属格也可用of属格来表示其所有关系，但在沿用的习语中，'s属格和of属格，由于约定俗成的缘故，就不能相互换用。如可以说a cat's paw（猫的爪子）或the paw of a cat，然而在make a cat's paw of sb.（利用某人）这一习语中，只能用's属格而绝不能换用of属格，即make a cat paw of sb是错的。以下是一些常见的's属格习语及例句：

a bird's-eye view 鸟瞰

We can obtain a bird's-eye view of the city from the top of this building. 从这座大楼的顶上我们可以鸟瞰全市。

a wolf in sheep's clothing 披着羊皮的狼；口蜜腹剑的人

Be on guard against him. He is a wolf in sheep's clothing. 要防着他，他是个口蜜腹剑的家伙。

at a moment's notice 一经通知；立即；随时

We'll start at a moment's notice. 我们一接到通知就立即动身。

at a snail's pace 爬行地；缓慢地

If we walk at a snail's pace like this, it will take us a long time to get there. 如果这么缓慢地走路，我们要花好长时间才能到达那里。

at one's wits'（或wit's）end 智穷计尽；不知所措；山穷水尽

Finding himself at his wit's end, Richard went to his friends for advice. 理查德发现自己实在想不出好办法，就去向朋友们请教。

at death's door 面临死亡；生命危在旦夕

Jim was literally at death's door, but modern surgery and medicine gave him a new lease of life. 吉姆差不多快死了，但现代化的手术和医药给了他新的生命。

at swords' points 处于剑拔弩张的紧张状态

It happened at the height of the quarrel when the two groups were at swords' points. 这事发生在双方剑拔弩张、争论最激烈的时候。

by a hair's breadth 差一点儿；一发之差

The car missed hitting the boy by a hair's breadth. 汽车差点撞了那男孩。

have sth. at one's fingers' ends/tips 对某事了如指掌；熟悉某事

You had better ask David—he has got the whole subject at his fingers' tips（或at his fingertips）. 你最好去问大维，他对该整个课题非常熟悉。

in one's mind's eye 在想象中；在心目中

In my mind's eye I saw again my parents who had died years before. 在想象中我又看到了我去世多年的双亲。

keep sb. at arm's length 对某人保持距离；对某人不予亲近

Keep Mrs. Jones at arm's length; she is a gossip. 对琼斯夫人不可亲近，她是个背后喜欢说长道短的人。

make a cat's paw of sb. 利用某人

He is not a true friend. He is only making a cat's paw of you. 他不是个真正的朋友，他只是在利用你做他的工具而已。

out of harm's way 避免受损害

Always try to keep out of harm's way. 随时设法保持安全。

reach one's journey's end 到达旅行目的地

When we reached our journey's end, we rested.

to one's heart's content 尽情地；痛痛快快地

Everyone danced to his heart's content at the party. 在交际聚会上大家尽情地跳舞。

within a stone's throw of 在投石可及的距离内；在……附近

Our headmaster lives within a stone's throw of the school. 我们的校长住在学校的附近。

Exercises

一、写出相应的英语

A. 学科类：

1. 物理学

2. 力学

3. 光学

4. 电学

5. 电子学

6. 声学

7. 经济学

8. 伦理学

9. 语言学

10. 政治学

11. 古典文学

12. 数学

13. 统计学

14. 信息学

15. 语音学

16. 体育学

17. 体操

18.【军】后勤学

B. 疾病类：

1. 糖尿病

2. 软骨病

3. 麻疹

4. 腮腺炎

5. 带状疱疹

6. 静脉炎

7. 关节炎

8. 阑尾炎

9. 心肌炎

10. 胃炎

11. 结肠炎

12. 痔疮

13. 鼻炎

14. 咽喉炎

15. 牙周炎

16. 牙龈炎

17. 支气管炎

18. 肝炎

C. 一些运动、游戏类：

1. 杂技

2. 台球

3. 滚木球戏

4. 跳棋

5. 掷镖游戏

6. 壁球

7. 多米诺骨牌

8. 九柱球戏

9. 玩纸牌

10. 掷骰子赌博

D. 成双搭对的用具、服装类：

1. 眼镜

2. 剪刀

3. 指甲剪

4. 钳子

5. 镊子

6. 火钳、卷发钳

7. 大剪刀

8. 双筒望远镜

9. 背带

10. 睡服

11. 牛仔裤

12. 裤子

13. 衬裤

14. 便裤、宽松裤

15. 紧身裤

16. 太阳眼镜

17. 短裤

18. 游泳裤

19. 三角裤

20. 马裤

二、多项选择

1. He has_____.

A. the degree of a doctor

B. a degree of the doctor

C. a doctor's degree

D. a doctors' degree

2. Mr. Smith is_____friend.

A. my father's and my mother's

B. my father's and mother's

C. father's and mother

D. my father and mother's

3. My_____house is just around the corner from ours.

A. father-in-law's

B. the father-in-law's

C. father's-in-law

D. father-in's-law

4. Almost immediately_____flashed on the Internet and was picked up, half a world away, by John Hofsess, executive director of the Right to Die Society of Canada.

A. a word

B. words

C. the word

D. word

5. Mr. Smith, who is a respectable person in the community, likes to make friends; our history teacher is_____.

A. a friend of him

B. a friend of his

C. the friend of him

D. the friend of his

6. The chief function of_____is to gain equal rights for women.

A. the Women' Society

B. the Womans' Society

C. the Womens' Society

D. the Women's Society

7. _____search for a cure for this disease is being funded by the government.

A. The university's scientist

B. University's scientists'

C. The scientists of the university's

D. The university scientists'

8. I want to have two_____.

A. scissors

B. sets of scissors

C. pieces of scissors

D pairs of scissors

9. The city map lists streets, parks, and_____.

A. what the tourists like to see

B. tourist attractions

C. tourists attractions

D. attracting tourists

10. The assignment for Monday is to write_____about your home town.

A. a five-hundred-word composition

B. a five-hundred-words composition

C. a five-hundreds-words composition

D. a five-hundreds-word composition

11. His face looks like_____.

A. his father

B. that of his father

C. the same as his father's

D. one of his father

12. The reason for his absence was_____.

A. due to sickness

B. owing to sickness

C. because of sickness

D. sickness

13. A dolphin six_____length can move as fast as most ships.

A. foot in

B. feet in

C. foot of

D. feet of

14. Today_____of the Earth live on a very small percentage of the Earth's land surface.

A. about two-thirds populated

B. the population is about two-thirds

C. about two-thirds of the population

D. of about two-thirds the population is

15. _____in the desert is mainly due to the limited supply of desert water.

A. Plants are widely spaced

B. The spacing of plants is wide

C. Plants to be spaced widely

D. The wide spacing of plants

16. _____plays an important part in commercial art, illustrating advertisement, textbooks, brochures, and articles in magazines and periodicals.

A. Drawing and

B. Because drawing

C. Drawing, which

D. Drawing

17. Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal program included_____designed to provide relief and counteract the effects of the economic depression that had begun in 1929.

A. measures were temporary

B. in temporary measures

C. temporary and measures

D. temporary measures

18. _____are inert outside living cells, but within the appropriate cells they can replicate, causing viral diseases in the host organism.

A. Viruses

B. That viruses

C. Viruses, which

D. Despite viruses

19. Social scientists believe that_____from sounds such as grunts and barks made by early ancestors of human beings.

A. the very slow development of language

B. language developed very slowly

C. language, which was very slow to develop

D. language, very slowly developing

20. Dehydration is_____that a land animal faces.

A. the often greatest hazard

B. the greatest often hazard

C. often the greatest hazard

D. often the hazard greatest

21. _____versatile performer, soprano Kathleen Battle has often concluded a program of art songs and arias with selections from ragtime or popular music.

A. A

B. Which

C. So

D. Because

22. Nebraska has floods in some years, _____.

A. in others drought

B. droughts are others

C. while other droughts

D. others in drought

23. What he told us about the affair simply doesn't make any_____.

A. idea

B. meaning

C. sense

D. significance

24. “Why couldn't they catch the 6:30 train?”“Because they were delayed by_____.”

A. some heavy traffics

B. any heavy traffic

C. a heavy traffic

D. heavy traffic

25. Julie went to the_____to buy a pair of shoes.

A. shoes store

B. shoe's store

C. shoe store

D. shoes' store

26. The Nazi kept those_____in their concentration camps.

A. prisoner-of-wars

B. prisoners-of-wars

C. prisoners-of-war

D. prisoner-of-war

27. Electronics_____rapidly in the last decade.

A. advance

B. has advanced

C. have advanced

D. advances

28. Recently, he has lost all his_____at cards.

A. wage and saving

B. wages and saving

C. wage and savings

D. wages and savings

三、改错

1. It is reported that one out of (A) every twenty-five people on the island is born deaf (B) and that the island as a whole (C) has a deafness rate at least 17 times greater than the rest (D) of the U.S.

2. The noise problem as well as several other issues is (A) going to be discussed in details (B) when the Congress is in session (C) again next spring (D).

3. Because material organic (A) decays slowly (B) in peat, the remains of prehistoric animals are often found (C) in the depths (D) of peat bogs.

4. An intrinsic part (A) of the sound structure of poet (B), the repetition of a consonant sound or sounds, may also be (C) exhibited in prose (D).

5. The Pulitzer Prizes are annual (A) awards for excellence (B) in United States journalism (C), literature, and musical (D).

6. Complex spacecraft are characterized by a various (A) of supporting (B) systems, including communications, guidance (C) and navigation, altitude control, and in some cases (D), life-support systems.

7. Ultrasonics is concerned with sound vibrates (A) or waves of a frequency above (B) 20,000 cycles per second, the upper (C) range audible to the human (D) ear.

8. The wide (A) range of (B) elevations in the southern Appalachian Mountains allows for the great diverse (C) of plant life found there (D).

9. Meridians (A) of longitude and parallels of latitude form grid (B) that can be used to locate (C) the position of any (D) point on the Earth's surface.

10. Mercury and Venus are (A) the only planets (B) in the solar system where (C) do not have moons (D).

11. Rainbows are formed (A) by the (B) refraction of sunlight (C) through falling raindrop (D).

12. Specially (A) bred varieties of lettuce (B) can be grown (C) in water containing dissolved nutritious (D) rather than in soil.

13. Winter broccoli has large, white heads similar to (A) those (B) of cauliflower, whereas (C) sprouting broccoli produces small purplish, green, or white clump (D).

14. The development of photographic techniques and equipment (A) provided an important (B) aid to (C) industry, medical (D), and research.

15. United States tennis championship (A) Pancho Gonzales gained international (B) acclaim for (C) his strong (D) serve.

16. Three fundamental aspects of forest conservation (A) are the protection of immature trees, the use of proper (B) harvesting methods, and provide (C) for an environment that supports (D) reproduction.

17. Located in Canada, the Columbia Icefield covers area (A) of 120 square miles and (B) is 3.30 feet thick (C) in some places (D).

18. Composer Richard Rodgers and lyricist Oscar Hammerstein Ⅱ brought to (A) the musical（这里作名词，指音乐剧）Oklahomal extensive (B) musical（这里作形容词，“音乐的”）and theatrical background as well as familiar (C) with the forms of operetta and musical comedy.

19. The purpose of (A) traveler's checks is (B) to protect travelers from theft (C) and accidental lost (D) of money.

20. While studying the chemistry (A) of human body (B), Dr. Rosalyn Yalow won a Nobel Prize for the research she conducted on (C) the role of (D) hormones.

21. Lawrence Robert Klein received (A) the 1980 Nobel Prize in economics for pioneering (B) the useful (C) of computers to forecast economic activity (D).

22. A typical (A) feature-length film costs (B) millions of dollars to make (C) and requires manifold skill (D).

23. Since their (A) appearance on farms (B) in the United States between 1913 and 1920, trucks have changed (C) patterns of production and market (D) of farm products.

24. Henry David Thoreau was an (A) American writer who is (B) remembered for (C) his faith in the religious significance of the nature (D).

25. Large, heavy (A) draft horses were commonly (B) used for labor farm (C) in the United States before the (D) introduction of tractors.

26. Rafting was an (A) essential mean (B) of transportation (C) from prehistoric times (D) to the nineteenth century.

27. One inventor (A) that Thomas Edison can take credit (B) for (C) is the light bulb (D).

28. The nitrogen (A) makes up over (B) 78 percent of (C) the Earth's atmosphere, the gaseous mass surrounding (D) the planet.

29. The Mississippi, the longest (A) river in the United States, begins as small (B), clear (C) stream in northwestern (D) Minnesota.

30. The hardness (A) of mineral (B) often gives (C) a clue to (D) its identity.

31. It is usually argued (A) that the earliest (B) influences exerted upon children will most likely have the strongest effectiveness (C) on their personalities (D).

32. Fireworks (A), which originated (B) century ago (C) in China, were brought (D) to Europe by Marco Polo.

33. The major works of Romanesqure sculpture (A) was created (B) near the end (C) of the eleventh century (D).

四、写出下列名词的复数形式

1. butterfly

2. storey

3. story

4. toy

5. bamboo

6. zoo

7. taboo

8. cargo

9. volcano

10. mosquito

11. buffalo

12. photo

13. piano

14. curio

15. foot

16. goose

17. tooth

18. roof

19. proof

20. wife

21. wolf

22. shelf

23. life

24. half

25. knife

26. loaf

27. leaf

28. thief

29. safe

30. cliff

31. grief

32. belief

33. gulf

34. reef

35. dwarf

36. chief

37. turf

38. scarf

39. wharf

40. hoof

41. handkerchief

42. dish

43. bush

44. match

45. watch

46. formula

47. nebula

48. larva

49. alumna

50. memorandum

51. stratum

52. medium

53. erratum/corrigendum

54. symposium

55. index

56. appendix

57. stimulus

58. focus

59. nucleus

60. syllabus

61. terminus

62. alumnus

63. basis

64. crisis

65. diagnosis

66. axis

67. ellipsis

68. oasis

69. parenthesis

70. synopsis

71. hypothesis

72. thesis

73. phenomenon

74. criterion

75. bureau

76. plateau

77. adieu

78. mouse

79. louse

80. daughter-in-law

81. listener-in

82. looker-on

83. good-for-nothing

84. grant-in-aid

85. close-up

86. grown-up

87. go-between

88. sit-in

89. forget-me-not

90. touch-me-not

91. hold-all/holdall

92. stand-by/standby

93. woman doctor

94. man-servant

95. gentleman-farmer

Keys

一、写出相应的英语

A. 学科类：

1. physics

2. mechanics

3. optics

4. electrics

5. electronics

6. acoustics

7. economics

8. ethics

9. linguistics

10. politics

11. classics

12. mathematics

13. statistics

14. informatics

15. phonetics

16. athletics

17. gymnastics

18. logistics

B. 疾病类：

1. diabetes

2. rickets

3. measles

4. mumps

5. shingles

6. phlebitis

7. arthritis

8. appenditis

9. myocarditis

10. gastritis

11. colonitis或colitis

12. haemorrhoids或piles

13. rhinitis

14. pharyngitis

15. periodontitis

16. gingivitis

17. bronchitis

18. hepatitis

C. 一些运动、游戏类：

1. acrobatics

2. billiards

3. bowls

4. checkers（美式英语），draughts（英式英语）

5. darts

6. fives

7. dominos

8. ninepins

9. cards

10. craps

D. 成双搭对的用具、服装类：

1. glasses/spectacles

2. scissors

3. clippers

4. pincers/forceps

5. tweezers

6. tongs

7. shears

8. binoculars

9. braces（英式）suspenders（美式）

10. pyjamas（英式）pajamas（美式）

11. jeans

12. trousers/pants

13. underpants

14. slacks

15. tights

16. shades

17. shorts

18. trunks

19. panties，briefs

20. breeches（英式）britches（美式）

二、多项选择

1. C

2. D

3. A

4. D

5. B

6. D

7. D

8. D

9. B

10. A

11. B

12. D

13. B

14. C

15. D

16. D

17. D

18. A

19. B

20. C

21. A

22. A

23. C

24. D

25. C

26. C

27. B

28. D

注1：第4题选D。D项中的word用作不可数名词，前不用冠词，作information，news解，如She sent word that she would be late. 她捎信来说她要晚些来。

注2：第11题选B。look like不能和the same as连用，连用便犯重叠之错。

注3：第12题，在同一句中reason后面出现due to，owing to或because of是犯重叠毛病，故只能选D。

注4：第22题，选项A中的in others=in other years，drought（也可用作不可数名词）和floods同作has的宾语。

三、改错

1.［D］the rest错，应改为that of the rest，that代表deafness rate。此题测试比较成分的对等性，句意是“据报道，该岛每25人中就有一人天生是聋的，整个岛屿聋哑率至少是美国其他地区聋哑率的17倍。”

2.［B］in details错，改为in detail。此题测试惯用短语的用法。In detail系惯用语，作“详细地”解，=at length；在该惯用语中detail须用单数。be in session作“在开会；在开庭；在上课”解。

3.［A］material organic错，改为organic material。organic material：有机物质；peat：泥浆，泥煤。这种题型近年来经常出现，其实很容易，只要把错项中的文字相互倒一倒即可。

4.［B］poet错，改为poetry或a poem。

5.［D］musical错，改为music。

6.［A］various错，改为名词形式variety。

7.［A］vibrates错，改为名词形式vibrations。vibrations：振动，颤动；frequency：频率，周率；cycle：周，周/秒，赫；ultrasonics：超声学

8.［C］diverse错，改为名词形式diversity。diversity多种多样；多样性；差异。a wide diversity of opinions（看法上的）众说纷纭同义词：variety

9.［B］form grid错，改为form a grid。grid作“格，风格，坐标方格”解，系可数名词，用作单数时前面加“a”。meridian：子午线；longitude：经度；latitude：纬度

10.［C］where错，改为that。在that do not have moons定语从句中，which指代planets，在该从句中作主语，where是关系副词，不能充当主语或宾语。

11.［D］raindrop错，改为raindrops，因raindrop（雨点）是可数名词；a raindrop（一个雨点），raindrops（许多雨点），根据句意应用复数。

12.［D］nutritious错，改为名词形式nutrition。

13.［D］clump错，改为复数形式clumps。clump前有形容词numerous（众多的=very many），须接复数名词，如numerous friends (books)。

14.［D］medical错，改为名词形式medicine。

15.［A］championship错，championship指冠军称号，不指人，如win a championship（获得冠军称号）。championships（复数形式）指锦标赛，如the World Tennis championships（世界网球锦标赛）。题句指“美国网球冠军Pancho Gonzales”，表示冠军的获得者，不是指冠军称号，故应把championship改为champion。

16.［C］provide错，谓语动词are接三个名词短语作为其表语，构成三项排比或平行结构，故须把provide改为其名词形式provision。

17.［A］covers area错，area作“面积”或“地区”解时是可数名词，前须加不定冠词an，即covers an area。

18.［C］familiar错，改为其名词形式familiarity。

19.［D］lost错，应改为其名词形式loss。

20.［B］of human body错，body前须加定冠词the。the human body（人的身体），the animal body（动物的身体）。

21.［C］useful错，应改为名词形式usefulness，充当动名词pioneering之宾语。

22.［D］skill错，skill前之定语manifold作“多种的，各种各样的”解，后接复数名词，故宜把skill改为skills。

23.［D］market错，改为marketing。...have changed patterns of production and marketing of farm products（已改变了农产品的生产和营销的模式。）

24.［D］the nature错，nature指“大自然”，前面不用冠词，如close to nature。故去掉D中的the。

25.［C］labor farm错，倒一倒改为farm labor。

26.［B］mean错，means作“手段”解时单复数同形，如Every means has been tried（或All means have been tried）to solve this technical problem，故把mean改为means。rafting：筏流木材

27.［A］inventor错，按句意，应为invention（发明，发明物）。

28.［A］The nitrogen错，nitrogen（氮）是化学元素，系不可数名词，前面不用冠词，故去掉the即可。

29.［B］as small错，small clear都修饰stream（小溪），stream是可数名词，small前宜加上不定冠词a。

30.［B］mineral错，在正式英语中mineral（矿物）系可数名词，用作单数时前须加a，如Gold is a mineral.（黄金是一种矿物。）故应在mineral前加上a。

31.［C］改为effect。

32.［C］改为centuries ago。

33.［B］改为were created。

四、写出下列名词的复数形式

1. butterflies

2. storeys

3. stories

4. toys

5. bamboos

6. zoos

7. taboos

8. cargoes

9. volcanoes

10. mosquitoes

11. buffaloes (or: buffalo)

12. photos

13. pianos

14. curios

15. feet

16. geese

17. teeth

18. roofs

19. proofs

20. wives

21. wolves

22. shelves

23. lives

24. halves

25. knives

26. loaves

27. leaves

28. thieves

29. safes

30. cliffs

31. griefs

32. beliefs

33. gulfs

34. reefs

35. dwarfs (or: dwarves)

36. chiefs

37. turfs

38. scarfs (or: scarves)

39. wharfs (or: wharves)

40. hoofs (or: hooves)

41. handkerchiefs (or: handkerchieves)

42. dishes

43. bushes

44. matches

45. watches

46. formulae

47. nebulae

48. larvae

49. alumnae

50. memoranda (or: memorandums)

51. strata(or: stratums)

52. media (or: mediums)

53. errata (or: erratums) corrigenda (or: corrigendums)

54. symposia (or: symposiums)

55. indices (or: indexes)

56. appendices (or: appendixes)

57. stimuli

58. foci

59. nuclei

60. syllabi

61. termini

62. alumni

63. bases

64. crises

65. diagnoses

66. axes

67. ellipses

68. oases

69. parentheses

70. synopses

71. hypotheses

72. theses

73. phenomena

74. criteria

75. bateaux (or: bureaus)

76. plateaux (or: plateaus)

77. adieux (or: adieus)

78. mice

79.lice

80. daughters-in-law

81. listeners-in

82. lookers-on

83. good-for-nothings

84. grants-in-aid

85. close-ups

86. grown-ups

87. go-betweens

88. sit-ins

89. forget-me-nots

90. touch-me-nots

91. hold-alls (holdalls)

92. stand-bys(standbys)

93. women doctors

94. men-servants

95. gentlemen-farmers

第四章　代词

代词（Pronoun）在句中能代替名词或名词词组，它和主谓一致（agreement）关系很密切，也是各类英语测试中的一个常见内容。

一、代词的分类

代词可分为下列10类：

人称代词（Personal Pronoun）

疑问代词（Interrogative Pronoun）

物主代词（Possessive Pronoun）

关系代词（Relative Pronoun）

反身代词（Reflexive Pronoun）

连接代词（Conjunctive Pronoun）

相互代词（Reciprocal Pronoun）

不定代词（Indefinite Pronoun）

指示代词（Demonstrative Pronoun）

准代词（Quasi-Pronoun）

二、代词的格、人称和数

◎ 人称代词、疑问代词和关系代词有主格、宾格和属格的区别，如I为主格，me为宾格，my为属格。又如who（主格），whom（宾格），whose（属格）。

◎ 人称代词有第一、第二和第三人称的区别，如I为第一人称，you为第二人称，he/she为第三人称。

◎ 第三人称代词有阳性、阴性、中性的区别，如he为阳性，she为阴性，it为中性。

◎ 人称代词、物主代词、不定代词和指示代词有单复数的不同形式。

三、人称代词

1. 人称代词的格的句法功能

人称代词的主格在句中用作主语及表语（或主语补语），宾格用作及物动词或介词的宾语，属格用作定语：

I told Toby the news.［主语］

Between you and me（咱俩私下说说）, the market conditions look bad.［宾语］

What would you do if you were he?［表语］

Mary is eating her dinner.［定语］

The cat has injured its foot.［定语］

人称代词的格是个极为基本的问题，在日常应用及应试中最为普遍。

例　“Do you see all your friends here?”“Everybody except_____.”

A. he

B. it

C. his

D. him

［分析］except系介词，后接人称代词时应用宾格，故选D。

例　In the early (A) morning, the first thing that both (B) my brother and me (C) did was to go out to see (D) our pony.

［分析］在that引导的定语从句中，both my brother and me作谓语动词did的主语，故应把C中的宾格me改为主格I。

例　 Only after (A) she had been served with (B) the subpoena did Mr. Arbor turn over (C) the confidential report to Mr. Harris, the head of the commission, and I, its treasurer (D).

［分析］D错，改为me, its treasurer，因Mr. Harris和me都作介词to的宾语。the head of the commission作Mr. Harris的同位语，its treasurer作me的同位语。only+副词（短语、从句）置于句首时，主谓须倒装，故C不错。

注解：subpoena［səb'pi:nə］n. 传票　treasurer［'treʒərə］n. 财务

2. 人称代词的格的灵活处理

1 　用作表语时人称代词格的处理。

人称代词作表语用时一般用主格。如：It is she, the one whom nobody likes. 但是，现代口语中也常出现用宾格的情况：If I were him, I would take the advice. 一般考试中，大家还是应以主格为准。

２ 　在than和as从句后人称代词格的处理。

在连词than和as引导的从句中，人称代词按正统英语也得用主格：

He is not as tall as she (=she is).

She is more thoughtful than he (=he is).

We enjoy surfing as much as they (=they do).［do表示enjoy surfing］

Sally has been to Europe as many times as he (he has).

He is no more a scholar than I (I am). 我不是学者，他也不是。

例　I know of no other person in the club who is as kindhearted as_____.

A. he

B. him

C. his

D. himself

［分析］上题中as用作连词，引导一个省略从句，即as he (is kindhearted)。故选A。

但在现代口语中，as和than从句中的人称代词主格都可用宾格代替；其理论依据是，than和as均可用作介词，而标准化考试的结构测试部分绝对要求用主格。但必须指出，在某些场合，即使在正式英语中than和as从句中人称代词的主、宾格都可用，只不过此时两者意义差别较大。比较：

Her brother has visited Isabel more than her (=more than he has visited her). 他哥哥拜访伊莎贝尔的次数比见她的次数多。［her不是指Isabel，而是指另外一个女性］

Her brother has visited Isabel more than she (=more than she has visited her). 她哥哥比她拜访伊莎贝尔的次数多。［最后一个“her”指Isabel，she则指另一个女性］

I like Hob as much as him (=as much as I like him). 我喜欢霍布和喜欢他一样多。［him指另一个人，不是Hob］

I like Hob as much as he (=as much as he likes Hob). 我同他一样喜欢霍布。［he不指Hob］

3. 人称代词在句中的词序

1 　两个以上人称代词并列时，出于礼貌的缘故，习惯上是第二、第三人称代词居前，第一人称居后。

You, Thompson and I are to clean the big classroom this afternoon.

They are going to see you, Thompson and me off.

2 　如果第一人称加上不定代词或带后置定语的并列成分时，第一人称放前面。

We and five others will go abroad.

I and the young lady living next door

3 　如果说话人在承担责任、检讨工作等时，一般第一人称放前面。

I and he are to blame.

We and the students made the mistake.

4. 人称代词的常见习用语和谚语

1 　I 的常见习用语和谚语

I can't help it. 我没有办法/我控制不住。

I can't help it. I'm bound to obey orders. 我没有办法。我非服从命令不可。

A: Crying won't help you. 你哭也没有用。

B: I can't help it./I can't help myself. 我控制不住/我管不住自己。

I can tell you. 实话告诉你。

It's a thankless job, I can tell you. 实话告诉你，这是个吃力不讨好的工作。

I can't tell you 我不知道怎样表达……［可以表达喜悦悲伤之情］

I have just heard of what happened to your family. I can't tell you how sorry I am. 刚听说你家里发生的事情，我真不知道该怎样表达我的悲伤之情。

I just can't tell you how glad I am to see you. 我简直无法形容见到你我有多高兴。

I can't begin+不定式：我无法……

I can't begin to tell you how much you mean to me. 我说不尽你对我有多重要

I can't begin to compete with Adam. 我根本无法同亚当竞争。

注：在上一习用语中主语通常用第一人称“I”，偶尔也可换用其他主语，can't 也可按时态改用do not/did not。如：

I do not begin to understand her. 我觉得我一点也不了解她。

That did not begin to explain why the woman had murdered her husband. 那根本无法解释该妇女为什么谋杀她的丈夫。

I don't care/mind if I do. 好吧；也好。

A：Would you have a drink? 喝杯酒好吗？

B：I don't care (mind) if I do. 行/好，来一杯吧。

I don't care what you say. 不管你怎么说。

I don't care what you say, you won't find a better girl than Ada. 不管你怎么说，你再也找不到比艾达更好的姑娘了。

I don't think. 我看不见得。

A: He is, indeed, an upright gentleman. 他可是位正人君子。

B: An upright gentleman？I don't think. 真人君子？我看不见得！

I don't know what the world's coming to. 我真不知道这世界会变成怎么个样子

What with rising prices and terrorist activities, I don't know what the world's coming to. 又是物价上涨，又是恐怖活动，我真不知道这世界会变成什么样子。［What with rising prices and terrorist activities系What with rising prices and what with terrorist activities 之省略式，作“一则因……，一则因……”解］

I don't suppose+从句［用否定式引出礼貌的请求使之更为婉转］

I don't suppose you could lend me 100,000 yuan to save me from going broke, could you? 你能不能借我10万元以解我燃眉之急？

I have it from very good hands. 我的消息很可靠。

You can believe my information. I have it from very good hands. 你可以相信，我的信息极可靠。

I like that! 亏你说得出口！

A：You should never have eaten at that restaurant; everyone knows that its kitchens are dirty. 你绝不该到那家餐馆吃饭的；大家都知道那家餐馆的厨房很脏。

B：I like that! It was you who advised me to go there. 亏你说得出口！是你建议我去那里的。

2 　he 的常见谚语

He is lifeless that is faultless. 只有死人才不犯错误。

注：① 这类谚语的结构原是“He that is faultless is lifeless.”但多半把定语从句和它所修饰的主语拆开并把定语从句置于句末，使之念起来朗朗上口，从而加强了语气；② 在这类谚语中关系代词多半用that，偶尔也可换用who。

He is rich that has few wants. 要求不多的人是富有的人/寡欲则富。

He that once deceives is forever suspected. 骗人一次，受疑一世。

［这一谚语的含义是“If you deceive people only for one time, you will never be trusted by others.”含有条件之意，故“that once deceives”用现在时deceives, 不用过去时deceived。］

... and he that (who) runs may read. 通俗易懂；谁都看得懂

The legislature has promulgated a new liquor law, and he that (who) runs may read. 立法机关颁布了一项新的酒业法，措词通俗易懂。

He that talks much errs much. 言多必失。

He laughs best that laughs last. (=He that laughs last laughs best.) 谁笑在最后，谁笑得最好。

He who makes no mistakes, makes nothing. 不犯错误的人必然一事无成。

He who would climb the ladder must begin at the bottom. 上梯无捷径/上梯须从底层开始。

He is the limit.

① 使人不能容忍或极其令人讨厌的人

As often as not, he leaves all the work to me. He is the limit.

他一贯把所有的工作全推给我，他这人极其讨厌。

［as often as not=usually；in a way that is typical of sb/sth，它的同义词组是more often than not］

② 给人带来极度高兴或最令人惊奇的人

He is well versed in three languages — English, French and Japanese. He is the limit.

他精通三国语言——英语、法语和日语。他真了不起！

［在上面这一习用语中，有时也可按实际情况换用其他主语，如：CHEN Peisi's antics are the limit. 陈佩斯的滑稽动作真是绝啦。］

3 　you 的常见习用语

you and yours 你和你的家人

Best regards to you and yours. 向你和你的家人问好！

You are a doll.=You are wonderful.

Thanks for helping me with my data collection. You are a doll. 谢谢你帮我收集材料，你真好。

You can't fool all the people all the time. 谁也不能总是愚弄所有的人。

［该习用语源出于美国总统林肯所说的一句名言，全句为“You can fool all the people some of the time, and some of the people all the time, but you can't fool all the people all the time.”在借用该句名言时，人们往往按实际情况把fool换用诸如cheat，deceive，please，satisfy或interest等动词。］

You don't know when you are well-off. 你是身在福中不知福。

You always think the grass is greener on the other side of the hill. 你总是这山望着那山高。

［上面两个习用语常会同时用在一起，如：You don't know when you are well-off; you always think the grass is greener on the other side of the hill. 你身在福中不知福，总是这山望着那山高。］

You could go further (farther) and fare worse. 你再往前走情况可能更糟。［此习用语往往用来善意劝告对方，含意是“我看你还是安于现状，适可而止吧”。］

You can't eat your cake and have it/You can't have your cake and eat it.

两者不可兼而有之/两者不可兼得。

My elder brother can't make up his mind whether to go to graduate school or get a full-time job.Indeed, you can't eat your cake and have it. 我哥哥拿不定主意，去上研究生院还是找个全日工作，真是两者不可兼得。

You can't win them all/You win some, you lose some.（用于勉慰对方）一个人不可能事事都成功；有所得就有所失。

You have (got) a point there.=What you've said is true.

You've (got) a point there, I think; I've not thought of that before. 我想你讲得有道理，我以前没有那么想过。

You haven't lived. 你白活了！

You have never been to Hawaii? You haven't lived! 你从未去过夏威夷？ 你白活了！

You may depend upon it. 你放心好了。

You may depend upon it that we will do what we can to help you out. 你放心好了，我们会竭尽全力帮你解脱困境。

You said it. 你说得对。

A: That sure was a superb symphony performance. 那次交响乐的演出非常精彩。

B：You said it! 对！［注意，须用过去时said，不能用say］

You must learn to creep before you can walk. 你须先学爬然后学走；做事须循序渐进。

You will be the death of me.（系夸张说法）你要我的命。

If you go on muddling along like this, you will be the death of me. 你要是继续这样混下去，你会把我气死的。

You'll know it. 你会知道后果的。

If you are so careless at your work again, you'll know it. 你如工作上再如此粗枝大叶，就有你好受的了。

to you 你应该叫……；照通常说法

Not Mark, if you don't mind — Mr. Mark to you.

对不起，不要叫他马克——你该叫他马克先生。

It is terylene — or dacron to you. 这料子叫涤纶——通常叫的确良。

四、单数第三人称代词it的用法

1. 代替人以外的第三人称单数名词

What is this? — It is a ballpoint pen（圆珠笔）.

What is that? — It is an electronic organ（电子琴）.

2. 表示天气、时间、距离、环境等情况

It is seven o'clock now.［表示时间］

It is spring/summer, etc.now.［表示季节］

It is warm/cold/rainy/foggy.［表示天气］

It is about five kilometers from here to the stadium（体育馆）.［表示距离］

It is very quiet here.［表示环境］

3. 用来指代一个未亲眼看到、面目不详的人

Who is it speaking?［电话用语，因不知道对方是谁，故用it，不能说“Who are you speaking?”在现代美国口语中则说“Who is this?”］

Who is singing in the next room? — It is Maria.［不能说She is Maria.］

▶▶ 一旦认清对方是谁时，便不能再用it，而要用he或she了：

Someone was moving stealthily about the room; it was a burglar. As we watched,

he went to the safe and tried to open it.

句中因不知道someone为谁，故用it；得知是burglar（夜贼）后便用he。最后的it指safe（保险箱）。

注意，it这样用时，有时也可以指物或指复数名词：

What's the sound? — It's the wind shaking the window.

Who is making such a noise? — It must be the children.

▶▶ it可用来指代婴孩，如：

Look at the baby. It is so cute（如此讨人喜爱）！

4. 用来代替整个句子或该句中谓语部分所表示的意思

You have saved my life; I shall never forget it.［it指you have saved my life］

Alan is trying to win a scholarship to Harvard University; he won't find it easy.［it指trying to win a scholarship to Harvard］

I should highly appreciate it if you would provide me with a teaching assistantship.［it指if从句中所表示的意思］

Mr. Priestley is well over fifty, but he doesn't look it.［it指well over fifty］

it的这种用法在听力测试和阅读理解测试中均会出现。

例　“When can we come to visit you?”“Any time you feel_____.”

A. one

B. like it

C. so

D. for it

［分析］应选B。Any time you feel like it.=Any time you feel like coming. C中句意不通；A不合语法；D不适用于这一场合。

5. 用于“It is (was)...that (who/whom)...”强调结构中

在“It is...that (who/whom)...”及“It was...that (who/whom)...”强调句型中，前者涉及现在或将来，后者涉及过去。具体应用时，把It is (was)放在需要强调的句子部分前面，然后再在强调部分与句子其他部分之间插入that或who; who只用于人，that用于人和物均可。试以Bill shot the tiger here yesterday为例：

It was Bill who（或that）shot the tiger here yesterday. 是比尔昨天在这里把老虎打死的。

It was the tiger that Bill shot here yesterday. 这就是昨天比尔在这里打死的那只老虎。

It was here that Bill shot the tiger yesterday. 比尔昨天就是在这里把那只老虎打死的。

It was yesterday that Bill shot the tiger here. 比尔是昨天在这里把老虎打死的。

以上例句中，画线部分即强调的部分。需要注意的是，it的这个强调结构并非可应用于句子中的每一部分。现把可以强调的部分和不可强调的部分分述如下：

1 　可以强调的部分。

A. 主语、宾语及状语。

He bought the book in a second-hand store yesterday.

It was he that（或who）bought the book in a second-hand store yesterday.［强调主语］

It was the book that he bought in a second-hand store yesterday.［强调宾语］

It was yesterday that he bought the book in a second-hand store.［强调状语］

B. 宾语补语。

We elected him chairman of the committee.

It was chairman of the committee that we elected him.

She has painted her room pink.

It is pink that she has painted her room.

C. 时间状语从句和原因状语从句。

When I was about to go to bed, the telephone rang.

It was when I was about to go to bed that the telephone rang.［强调时间状语从句］

My book took a long time to come out because it raised a good number of problems.

It was because it raised a good number of problems that my book took a long time to come out.［强调原因状语从句］

2 　不可以强调的部分。

A. 表语。

Jill is happy.

It is happy that Jill is.［×因happy在句中用作表语，表语不能强调］

有时上列的错误强调结构常会和it的正常结构混淆在一起，如：

It is true that Tom came out first in the examination.

It was Tom that came out first in the examination.

在上列第一个例句中，“It is...that...”不是强调表语true的强调结构；it用作形式主语，代替主语从句that Tom came out first in the examination。在第二例句中“It was...that...”是强调结构，强调主语Tom。

B. 谓语动词。

Alan teaches Spanish.

It is teaches that Alan Spanish.（×）

C. 让步从句和对比从句。

Though he is poor, he is very honest.

It is though he is poor that he is very honest.（×）

We are science students whereas（而）they are students of liberal arts（文科学生）.

It is whereas they are students of liberal arts that we are science students.（×）

关于代词it的强调结构还须注意以下三点：

① 在非正式英语中which可用来代替it强调结构中的that以强调事物。但在正规考试中则不可替换，故建议大家在使用时还是以that/who/whom为准。

② 用it强调句中的时间状语时，强调结构中不能以when换用that；同样，强调句中地点状语时也不能以where替代that，一般都须用that。

③ It强调结构中的that在现代口语中有时被省略，如It was a telegram (that) came this morning。在正式书面英语中则不宜省略。但如以it强调结构强调特殊疑问句中的疑问词时，that省略的情况居多：

What do you want? → What is it (that) you want?

Where did you see him? → Where was it (that) you saw him?

it这种强调结构在口语及书面语言中常会出现，故在阅读和理解文章中碰到It is (was)...而又找不出it所代表的先行词时，便应往后看；如见到that或who，则多半为强调结构。但在现代口语体中，it强调宾语时，that也往往省略。

在带有it强调结构的英语考试中，测试重点往往放在人称代词的格或动词的数上，最好的办法是先去掉外加的it is (was)...that (who)这个强调结构，然后便能发现问题所在。

例　It was (A) us (B) boys who cleaned up (C) after the brawl (D)（乱哄哄的争吵）.

［分析］去掉It was...who后，剩下的便是us boys cleaned up after the brawl，显然us应改为主格we，在we boys主语短语中的boys是we的同位语。故B错。

例　I think it (A) is you who (B) is (C) wrong (D).

［分析］去掉it is...who后，余下的句子结构为I think you is wrong。当然须把is改为are，故C错。

同样，我们该说：

I think it is I who am wrong.

I think it is he/she who is wrong.

I think it is we/they who are wrong.

但注意不要把it的强调结构同that is (was)...的结构混淆起来，后者不是强调结构。

例　That was me (A) whom (B) you saw (C) on (D) the train.

［分析］上列试题不带有强调结构。that是主语，人称代词me作表语，即主语补语，需用主格，故A错，应改为I。

同样在正式语体中我们应该说：

That was she whom you saw on the train.

3 　it强调结构在谚语中的应用。

it强调结构用在谚语中时往往带有隐约相反的含义。请看以下数例：

It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.

此谚语的字面意思是使人人遭殃的风才是恶风。隐约相反的含义则是指“天底下很少发生对人人都有害处的事”，也就是说，“不论发生什么不幸总有人从中获利。”

It is a long lane that has no turning.

没有转弯的路才是一条长路，含义是“这种没有拐弯的长路是不大有的”，故确切的译文应是“路必有弯。”这一谚语指人生中受挫、失败、不愉快等事终究会过去，必会出现转机。这一谚语常被用作安慰、鼓励之语。

It is a foolish bird that soils its own nest.

弄脏自己巢的鸟是只笨鸟。其隐约相反的含义是，“鸟是不会弄脏自己的巢的”，所以人就不应该做出有害于和同自己关系密切的人或事物的事情；如加以引申，便是“不要在家的附近干出不检点的事来。”这一谚语和汉语的口头习语“兔子不吃窝边草”极近似，但比喻形象则不同。

It is a good horse that never stumbles（绊倒）.

这一谚语的直译是“从不失蹄的马是一匹好马”，其正确的意思应从它隐约相反的含义中去获取，即“是马总要失蹄”，其中隐含的哲理便是，“无人没有过失”，或“天下没有无弊之利亦没有无利之弊”，相等于汉语的“人有失误，马有溜蹄。”

It is not every couple that is a pair.

这一带有it强调结构的谚语出现not和every连用的情况，具有“不都是”的部分否定含义，即“不是每对夫妇都能配对”，也就是说，“未必对对夫妻都情投意合”，极类似汉语的谚语“天下夫妇多，珠联璧合少”。

It's love that makes the world go round.

爱是推动世界的力量。但在当今的世界中，国内外不乏有人沉迷于拜金主义（money worship），只认金钱不认人；西方已有不少人从反面角度运用这一谚语来评论这些人，而说，“For those worshippers of Mammon（财神）, it's not love, but money that makes the world go round.”

It's the thought that counts.

情意（或：心意）更为重要。中国人经常说，“礼轻情义重”，英译时作者曾借用这一谚语：The gift is nothing much, but it's the thought that counts. 现摘录于此，就正于读者。

6. it用作形式主语或形式宾语

it用作形式主语或形式宾语以代表后面真正的主语或宾语，这种移往句子末尾的真正主语或宾语通常是由不定式、动名词或that从句来担任。为清晰起见，现分三点举例说明如下：

◎ 代替不定式作形式主语或形式宾语的为最多。

It needs hard work to master a foreign language.

It is advisable to inform him beforehand.

在以上两例中，it用作形式主语，代替置于句末，用作真正主语的不定式短语。

I consider it my duty to help him.

I find it quite pleasant to work with you.

上两例中的it用作形式宾语，代替置于句末，用作真正宾语的不定式短语。

◎ 代替动名词作形式主语或宾语的情况较少，主要用在以下几个词或词组后：

例如：

It is no good taking this medicine.

It is dangerous playing with fire.

My English level is not very high, so it is hard work keeping up with my American classmates.

It is a nuisance having to wait about an hour before my turn comes. 得等一小时左右才能轮到我，真烦人。

注意：以上句型及例句中，不宜用不定式。

注：在现代英语中，用作形式主语的it可预示后面否定的动名词短语，如It looks bad not going to your own brother's wedding. 连亲兄弟的婚礼都不参加，这太不像话了。It也可预示后面用作真正主语的名词短语，如：It is embarrassing the extremes he'll go to in order to please his boss.［the extremes he'll go to please his boss是真正的主语］他为了讨好上司不惜走极端，真令人脸红。

You will find it enjoyable staying here.［形式宾语］

◎ 代替名词从句作形式主语或形式宾语。

这类句式极为普遍，其中的名词从句可以用连词that、连接代词或连接副词来引导：

It is very likely that Team B will beat Team A this time.

I take it that you can supply information regarding this subject. (I take it that...=I suppose that...)

Amy has made it clear that she will have nothing to do with Bobby.

Has it been found out who stole the recorder?

It is a mystery what caused the industrial accident. 这次工伤事故是什么造成的仍是个谜。

It is strange how they finished the task so quickly.

It is not known when the project will be started. 这个项目何时开始还不得而知。

It is uncertain why he refused the offer.

不论在口语还是书面语中，it常用作形式主语或形式宾语来预示置于句末，用作真正主语或宾语的不定式短语、动名词短语或名词从句，这是个常见的语言现象。

例　_____easy to distinguish between lizards and snakes.

A. Comparatively

B. That it is comparatively

C. It is comparatively

D. Although it is comparatively

［分析］C是正确的选择，因it作形式主语，预示句子后部的真正主语不定式短语to distinguish...snakes。A，B及D皆不合语法。

例　They believe that (A) their (B) duty to look after the morals of those (C) who live below (D) the poverty line.

［分析］A错，因that不能用作形式宾语，该把它改为it；真正的宾语是不定式短语to look...poverty line，their duty为其宾补。

例　_____that the formation of the sun, the planets, and other stars began with the condensation of an interstellar gas cloud.

A. Believing

B. To believe

C. The belief

D. It is believed

［分析］选D，it作形式主语，预示后面的主语从句that the formation of...cloud。B，C及A皆不合语法。

例　A solar day is the length of time_____the Earth to revolve once around the Sun.

A. takes

B. takes it

C. it takes

D. he takes

［分析］正确的答案应是C，因length of time后省略了关系代词which或that。在which引导的从句中it代替后面不定式to revolve once arround the sun作形式主语，真正主语乃是不定式to revolve once around the Sun。句意是“一个太阳日就是地球围绕太阳一圈所需的时间长度。”

▶▶ 一般说，用it作形式主语的句子，在正式文体中可以把真正主语从句提前，从而转换成通常的主语从句，以强调主语从句的内容，如：

It seems likely that it was his deliberate fault.

看上去他是在明知故犯。［第一个it是形式主语，第二个it指具体一桩事情］

That it was his deliberate fault seems likely.［正式文体，主语从句也可提前］

It is not yet clear who sabotaged our plans. 谁破坏了我们的计划尚不清楚。

Who sabotaged our plans is not yet clear.［正式文体，主语从句提前］

It is a mystery how he did it. 他如何做到的是个谜。

How he did it is a mystery.［主语从句提前］

▶▶ 但在日常写作中，以下情况主语从句不可提前：

※ It doesn't matter+how/whether

It doesn't matter whether he will come or not.（√）

Whether he will come or not doesn't matter.（×）

※ It is said/reported that...

It is said that the subway will soon be extended to the suburb.（√）

That the subway will soon be extended to the suburb is said.（×）

※ It happens/occurs...

It occurred to him that he had failed to pass the exam.（√）

That he had failed to pass the exam occurred to him.（×）

※ 含主语从句的复合句是疑问句时

Is it likely that it is going to rain this evening?（√）

Is that it is going to rain this evening likely?（×）

7. 用来指代句子尾部的名词短语

it的这一结构较多地出现在现代英语中，运用这一结构时，在名词短语前通常伴有this，that或the等词语。如：

It is absolutely repugnant this bushido spirit. 这种日本武士道精神极其不得人心。

［也可去掉It，把this bushido spirit调至句首，即This bushido spirit is absolutely repugnant. 但人们通常都喜欢采用It开头的形式］

It was funny the way the short plump man came waddling towards me. 那个矮胖的男子摇摇摆摆向我走来的样子很滑稽。

It is strange the same number of mistakes he always makes. 很奇怪他总是犯同样数目的错误。

8. 用作无具体意义的主语

在下列结构中，it用作无具体意义的主语：

It seems（或appears，says，等）that...

It seems（或looks）as if...

如：

It seems that the plan is workable.

It appears that the report is only partly true.

It says in the newspaper that there will be an earthquake of magnitude 5（5级地震）in July.

It seems as if a storm will soon come.

It looks as if you are the first one here.

例　_____the drought in Kansas has become less serious.

A. It is apparently that

B. It appears that

C. It must have been that

D. There is appearance that

［分析］应选B。A项中的apparently需改为apparent。C不合语法。D句意不通。

9. 用作不定宾语

it用作某些特定动作的宾语，构成习惯用语，经常出现在口语里；书面语中有时也能见到。常见的如下：

* come it 成功地（做某事）；达到（自己的）目的

He had promised to let me have the reference book but couldn't come it（没有能做到这一点）.

* come/go it strong 过于夸大；做得过分

You are coming it strong when you say Ted is brilliant; in my opinion he is at best average. 你说特德才华横溢是言过其实了，依我看他最多中等水平。

I am afraid you were going it strong to give a flat no to his kind invitation. 断然拒绝他的友好邀请，恐怕你太过分了吧。

* call it a day 今天就这样算了；就干到这里为止

It's six already, so let's call it a day（今天就到这里吧）.

* catch/get it 挨骂；受罚

You'll surely catch it（或get it）if anything goes wrong on account of your carelessness.

* fight it out 一决雌雄；打个水落石出；争辩个明白

I can't see any point in fighting it out; why do you want to argue? 我不觉得争来争去有什么意思，你们为什么还要争论呢？

* foot/walk it 步行

As we missed the last bus, we had to foot it（或walk it）.

* go it 舍得花钱；疾驶；飞快地跑；加油干

You are certainly going it（真舍得花钱）, paying so much for a second-hand car.

Oh my! That car is going it! 哎呀，那辆车开得好快啊!

Go it, boys!（孩子们，加油干！）You're doing fine!

* go it alone 单干

He is going it alone now, so let's give him a hand.

* have it out with somebody 与某人［就某事］讲个明白或谈清楚

If you've got a complaint, the best thing is to see the person concerned and have it out with him. 你要是有什么抱怨，最好是见见当事人，当面同他把问题谈清楚。

* just for the hell of it 纯粹为了好玩

The boy said he had thrown the stones into the well just for the hell of it.

* lord it over somebody 对某人作威作福，逞威风或神气活现

The elder boy lorded it over the younger ones and set them all sorts of jobs to do.

* rough it 过艰苦的生活

For almost a year, these geologists lived in the mountains, roughing it in their tents.（以帐篷为家，过着艰苦的生活）.

* as luck would have it 碰巧地；幸运地；不凑巧；不幸地；倒霉

As luck would have it（真巧）, I just caught the train in time.

* hop it 快溜

Now then, hop it!

* brave it out 拼着干到底

It was a dangerous climb, but the mountaineers braved it out. 那次爬山很危险，但登山队员拼着命登了上去。

* face it out 把［某事］坚持到底；把［某事］硬挺到底

In spite of the difficulties he met with in the experiment, he faced it out（坚持搞下去）and made rapid progress.

His lecture was going badly, but he faced it out to the end（硬着头皮讲完）.

* make it 及时赶到；做成［某事］

The train won't leave for another ten minutes, so I think we can make it.

We thought he would be too old to get to the top of the mountain, but he made it at last（他最后还是爬上去了。）.

The scout made it to the other bank（侦察员游到了对岸）despite the turbulent waves（尽管波涛汹涌）.

▶▶ 在上列习语中，it不代表具体的事物，故称为不定宾语（indefinite object）。

10. it的若干实用写作句式及口头表达法

1 　与be动词或with连用，构成独立句式，成为习惯用法。

It is all gone（或：all over/all up）with him. 他一切都完了。

It is all over with it. 一切都过去了。

It is always so with the aged. 老人就是这样。

How is it with your mom? 你妈妈好吗？

2 　... has it that ...（据……说……）。

Legend has it that there is a monster in the lake. 据传说，湖里有个怪物。

Rumor has it that she will marry the prince. 据谣传，她要嫁给王子。

The newspaper has it that the governor will resign. 报纸上说，州长要辞职了。

3 　一般而言，take, hide, see to, insist on, depend on, count on, rely on等后面的宾语从句要求用it that来引导（it充当形式宾语）。

I take it that（猜想，认为）you are interested in the book.

He hid it that（隐瞒）he had made a big mistake.

The driver saw to it that（确保）we would reach there ahead of time.

The doctor insisted on it that（坚持）he（should省略）give up smoking.

4 　it 后面接不定式构成习语或谚语。

* it falls to sb./sb.'s lot to do sth.（某事）落到（某人）头上；（干某事）成为（某人）的义务

During Prof. David's illness, it fell to his assistants to carry out his research work. 戴维教授生病期间，他的研究工作由他的助手们承担。

It has fallen to his lot to form an administration. 组建一个行政管理机构的任务已落在他身上。

* It is better to do well than to say well.［谚］说得好不如做得好。

* It is better to be a has-been than a never-was.［美　谚］宁做过时的名人，不做默默无闻的人。

注：has-been作“全盛时期已过的人（或物）”解，如She is just a has-been actress.（她只是个一度走红的女演员。）never-was系美国俚语，指一生平庸的人。

* It is all well to... 这个固然很好，但［表示不赞成、不满意的反话］

It's all very well to suggest buying a car, but where are we to get the money? 建议买辆汽车的确很好，但我们到哪儿去弄这笔钱呢？

* It is easy to be wise after the event.［谚］事后聪明一点不难/事后诸葛亮人人都会当。

* It is easy to swim if another holds up your head.［谚］有人托着下巴，不会游泳也会游/有人提携容易成功。

* It takes two to make a quarrel.［谚］一人吵不成架。

类似汉语的“一个巴掌拍不响”或“一只碗不响，两只碗叮当”，英语中用it来表示类似的结构，如“It takes two to ...”便是个相应的句式，后面接负面或正面的意思都可以，如：It takes two to make a marital failure.（婚姻失败，夫妻双方都有责任。［负面］）It takes two to build up a happy marriage.（美满的婚姻，是靠夫妻双方努力建立起来的。［正面］）

* It takes all sorts to make a world.［谚］世上的人形形色色/大千世界；千奇百怪。

People have their own ideas. Some enjoy risks. Some prefer security. Some drown themselves in sensual pleasures and some are quietly immersed in hard work. It takes all sorts to make a world. 人们各有各的观点，有些人从风险中获得乐趣，有些人喜欢安定，有些人纵情声色犬马，有些人却埋头于苦干，世上的人真是五花八门，各式各样。

* It is just like sb. to be.../to do... 某人（按其性格或平常习惯）就是那个样子

It is just like him to put blame on others in case mistakes arise. 如发生差错，便把责任推给别人，他就是那个样子。

* It is just one's luck.（某人）真倒霉/运气真不好。［可单独使用，也可以后面接不定式或that从句］

It is just my luck to have gone all the way to find him away on holiday. 我一路赶去发现他外出度假，真倒霉！

* It is more than one's job is worth to do sth. 做某事会使某人丢掉饭碗。

Our company's strict regulations, Sir. It's more than my job is worth to let you in without a pass. 这是我们公司的严格规定，先生。不给通行证就让你进去会使我丢掉饭碗。

* It is not too much to say ... 这么说并非言过其实/并非夸大其词

It is not too much to say that this product is the best of its kind in Shanghai. 说这一产品在上海同类产品中属最好并非言过其实。

* It is (not) for sb. to do sth. 做（不做）某事是某人职责

It is not for me to sign this important contract. It's for the managing director to sign it. 不该由我来签这份重要的合同。该由总经理（或执行董事）来签署。

* It pays to do sth. 做……是有利的/是合算的/是划得来的

That lickspittle often says,“It pays to keep on the right side of your boss.”那个马屁精常说：“设法讨好老板是上算的。”

* It pays to be modest. 谦受益。

* It signifies much to do sth. 做……意义重大

It signifies much to secure this contract. 把这份合同拿到手意义很重大。

注：在这个习语中，much也可用little，nothing等词来表示相反的意思，如It signifies nothing to weep bitter tears over your broken love affair. 情爱已断，无可挽回，痛哭流涕毫无意思。

5 　it 后面接表语或名词构成短语或习语。

* it is now or never 要干就现在干，不干就没有机会了

If we don't buy this house now, we never will — it's now or never! 我们现在不买下这幢房子，就再没机会了——机不可失，时不再来！

注：上列习语中的“...—it's now or never!”也可换成“...—now for it!”

* It isn't done. 这样做可不好。

Don't put your legs on the desk. It isn't done. 别把两条腿搁在书桌上，那不像样。

* It is that.（肯定对方所说的话）是这样。

A: It is icy cold outside today. 今天外面冷极了。

B: It is that. 是的。

* It is anyone's/anybody's guess 这是谁都说不准的事

What the consequence of the merger will be is anybody's guess at present. 合并的后果将如何，眼下谁也说不准。

* It's a small world. 世界可真小！

A: Nice to see you! What are you doing here in New York City?

B: I'm here on business.

A: It's a small world, isn't it!

* It's been real. 真是开心；有意思极了。（作客告别时或与亲密朋友告别时用）

Good night, Mike. Thanks for having invited us. It's been real. 晚安，迈克。谢谢邀请。我们过得真开心。

* It's a game (at which) two can play. 这一套你会我也会。（指被攻击者可以照样报复）

In international affairs politics is a game at which two can play. 在国际事务中，政治花招人人会耍。

注：这一习语在生活中常可灵活处理，如：

A: I'll have you licked when I get out of school. 我走出校门定叫人揍你一顿。

B: Two can play at that game, mind you. 你给我听清楚，你叫人，我也会叫人。

* It was a close/near thing. ①（投票、选举、比赛等）勉强获胜；差点失败；②（指某一特定情况）很危险；险些失败

That table tennis match was a close thing. 那场乒乓球比赛勉强获胜。I ran all the way to catch the bus and it was a near thing. 我一路快跑去赶汽车，差一点没赶上。

That was a close thing! We nearly hit the other car. 那次情况好险啊！我们差点撞在另一辆汽车上。

6 　It says+介词短语构成习语。

* It says in... ……上说……

It says in the Bible that people must not steal.《圣经》上说不可偷窃。

* It says on... ……上面写着……

It says on the cough mixture bottle to take a spoonful every four hours. 咳嗽药水瓶上写着每四小时服一汤匙。

注：say作“［药物上］用法指示”时或“［口语］叫某人做……”解时，后接不定式。上面第二例“... says ... to take ...”也可译为“咳嗽药水瓶上的服法指示，每四小时服一汤匙。”以下一例是现代英语中用say接不定式来表示“叫某人做……”的意思：Mum said to tell you your lunch is in the kitchen.（妈妈叫我告诉你你的午饭在厨房里。注意，不说said me to tell you。）

7 　it后面接that从句构成习语。

* It falls out that... 发生，出现

How did it fall out that two men arrived to address the same meeting at the same time? 怎么会出现两人同时到同一会场发言的情况？

* It did not strike one that... 没有想到……

It did not strike us that things changed so soon. 我们没有料到事情会变化得这样快。

注：这一习语表示已发生的事情，故用过去时“It did not ...”，不用“It does not ...”。

* It strikes me that ... 我的印象是……；我觉得……

It strikes me that nobody is really in favor of the plan. 我觉得没人真正赞成这个计划。

* It is a thousand pities that ... 十分可惜；万分可惜

It is a thousand pities that you missed such a rare chance. 你错过了这样难得的机会真是太可惜了。

* It follows that ... 由此得出结论……；因而断定……

Because he is clever, it does not follow that he is good. 他人聪明，但不能因此断定他人好。

* It stands to reason that ... 合乎情理；理所当然

It stands to reason that they will go if you don't pay them enough. 你不给他们足够的报酬，他们就走人，这是明摆着的。

注：这一习语也可不接that从句，如What you said does not stand to reason.（你讲的话不合情理。）也可讲stand to logic（合乎逻辑），not stand to logic（不合逻辑）。

* It is a good job/thing (that) ... 幸亏……

It is a good job you brought your brolly; it's starting to rain. 幸亏你带了伞，开始下雨了。（brolly 系美语，=umbrella）

8 　it 在现代英语中的习惯用语。

* have it over 胜过，优于，比……好

A jeep has it over a regular car on rough mountain trails. 在崎岖的山路上行驶，吉普车胜过普通汽车。

* have it coming (to sb.)（某人）活该

When the habitual gambler was sent to prison, everyone said he had it coming (to him). 那个积习难改的赌徒进班房时，大家都说他活该。

* have it in sb. (to do sth.) 有能力；有能力（干某事）

Do you think my son has it in him to be a violinist? 你认为我儿子是块当小提琴家的料吗？

You were really great when you knocked that robust and strong hooligan down with one blow. I didn't know you had it in you. 你一拳把那个身强力壮的流氓打倒，真了不起。我不知道你有这能耐。

My daughter told me that you beat off three hooligans single-handed yesterday. I didn't know you had it in you. 我女儿告诉我说你昨天独自一人打退三个流氓。我不知道你有这能耐。

I wonder whether he has it in him to stand out in defiance of the public opinion. 我不知道他是否有能力顶住舆论的压力。

* have it in for sb. 总想意图惩罚某人；跟某人过不去

He has had it in for me since I criticized him in public. 自从我当众批评他以来，他一直同我过不去。

* have had it 无法修复；极度疲乏；受够了，忍无可忍了

Your bike has had it. You'll have to buy a new one. 你的自行车没法修了，你得买部新的了。

I have had it! I'm going to bed. 我太困了！我要去睡觉了。

I have been working hard like a coolie, but now I've had it.

我一直像个苦力似的苦干着，可现在我已受够了。

* let sb have it 让某人够受了

If the sinister gang members catch you, they will let you have it.

如果黑帮成员抓住你，你就够受了。

* be it 在某一方面了不起

Don't tell me you don't know his name! Among mathematicians, he is it! 你还不至于不知道他的名字吧！在数学家当中，他是非常杰出的一个！

For sheer cheek, he is it.

要说脸皮厚，谁也比不上他。

The seafood cooked at that widely patronized restaurant is really it.

那家顾客盈门的餐馆所烹调的海味确实棒极了。

注：“自以为了不起”也可以用“He thinks he is it.”来表达。

* You don't know the half of it! 你懂什么!

A: I know what you are arguing about. 我知道你们在为什么吵嘴。

B: No, you don't. You don't know the half of it! 你才不知道。你懂什么！

* Believe it or not. 信不信由你。

That's what happened just now. Believe it or not. 刚刚事情就是那样发生。信不信由你。

* Save it! 你省省吧！

A: I will make her the pop singer of the year. 我定会使她成为本年度最佳流行歌曲歌手。

B: Save it! 你省省吧！

注：Save it! 作“你省省吧！”解，相等于“你别白费力气了”，也可用“Save your breath!”

* Let it be. 听天由命吧！

Don't complain so bitterly. Those things happen all the time. Let it be. 别抱怨得这么厉害，这种事司空见惯，听天由命吧！

* Bring it on! 你出手吧！

Are you going to fight? Bring it on! 想打架吗？出手吧！

注：年轻人在发生争吵准备打架前用来挑衅对方的话，类似我国武侠小说中的江湖腔“你出招吧！”

9 　it在现代英语口语中的一些习惯用语。

The girl really thinks she is it. 那姑娘真的自以为了不起。

You wouldn't want to go into business, I take it. 你不想经商，我的看法对吗？

Daniel has asked for it and he is going to get it. 丹尼尔自找麻烦，现在要吃苦头了。

Look, Eugene, Vera doesn't like being photographed, so quit it. 哎，尤金，薇拉不喜欢让人照相，所以算了吧。

You really look it in your new suit. 你穿了一套新的衣服看上去真帅。

Gossip has it that she is going to marry a man of health. 谣传她打算嫁给一位富翁。

He is at it night and day, sooner or later, he will work himself to death. 他日夜忙得没完，迟早他会把自己累垮的。

If your parents get to know what you are doing, you will be for it. 要是你父母知道你在干这种事，你就有苦头吃了。

Now there is nothing for it but to give way. 现在已无法可想（无计可施），只好放弃了。

五、物主代词

1. 物主代词的分类

物主代词分形容词性的物主代词和名词性的物主代词两类。

在实际应用及应试时，有时its和it's会被人混淆；its是形容词性和名词性的物主代词，而it's则是it is或it has的缩略式。另一点是，its用于事物及动物，his用于人。

例　The kitten cut it's (A) paw on (B) the broken (C) glass of the (D) window.

［分析］A错，应改为its，作为形容词性物主代词修饰paw。

例　Do (A) you think its (B) going (C) to rain (D) tomorrow?

［分析］B错，应改为it's。it's是it is的缩略式。

例　When (A) the TV show is over (B), Tony knows its (C) time to (D) leave.

［分析］C错，应改为it's，相当于it is time to leave。

2. 物主代词用法上的区别

1 　形容词性的物主代词只能修饰名词而不能代替名词。

Mary is eating her dinner.

My soup is cold.

Hob and Olaf are doing their homework.

The dog has injured its foot.

需要注意的是，当两个不同性别的形容词性的代词同时修饰一个名词时，男性代词放在女性代词之前。

例　Whom do you know better, _____?

A. her or his friends

B. his or her friends

C. his friends or her

D. her or his

［分析］A (her or his friends)，合乎语法但不合习惯，因女性代词her放在男性代词his之前，故选B，即his (friends) or her friends。C和D均不合语法。

2 　名词性的物主代词用来代替名词词组。

即等同于形容词性的物主代词+前面提到的名词。如：

This is your book.That is mine (=my book).

Your car is the same as his (=his car).［括弧内的his是形容词性的物主代词］

His bike is black and hers (=her bike) is red.

Our children are very friendly with theirs (=their children).

Please return those tennis balls to us. They are ours (=our balls).

The cherry tree gives its share of colour to the garden, and the lilac tree gives its (=its share of colour).［括弧内的its是形容词性的物主代词，its用作名词性的物主代词极为少见］

名词性物主代词也可以用于句首，使句子显得庄重，带有文学性，如：

Ours (=Our country) is a large country abounding in natural wealth. 我们的国家地大物博。

例　“I need a black dress for the concert next week.”“I'm sure Emily will let you wear_____.”

A. one of her

B. her

C. hers

D. her one

［分析］选C，hers=her dress，A应改为one of hers=one of her dresses。

例　“Why should I try Larry and Kevin's pickles?”

“Because_____the best.”

A. his are

B. theirs is

C. theirs are

D. his is

［分析］选C，theirs are=their pickles are. pickles［'piklz］n. (pl.) 泡菜

3 　名词性物主代词的双重所有格的搭配。

名词性的物主代词（除its外）可与介词of连用，运用后置定语手段，构成双重所有格句型，其搭配如下：

a (an, some, any, no, another, each, such, several, which, what, this, these, that, those)+名词+of+名词性物主代词

Almer is a close friend of mine.

That remark of yours hurt his feeling.

This is nofault of hers.

We gave them some plants of ours in exchange for some of theirs.

▶▶ 在上列结构中需要注意：名词前的搭配不能用定冠词the。如可以说a friend of mine，this friend of mine，that friend of mine和any friend of mine，但不能说the friend of mine。

例　I don't take John's pen because I don't like_____.

A. that pen of his

B. the pen of his

C. the pen of him

D. his that pen

［分析］选A。B项的错误在于在这一名词性物主代词的双重所有格结构中，在名词pen前用了定冠词the，须把the改为that或this。C和D不合语法。

4 　of+形容词性的物主代词+own，即of one's own，也可用作后置定语短语。

I have nothing of my own. 我一无所有。

She wants to have a car of her own. 她想拥有一辆自己的汽车。

Young as he is, he always has views of his own. 他虽年纪轻轻，却有自己的见解。

It is not a form word; it has a meaning of its own. 这个字不是虚字，它有自己的意义。

▶▶ 形容词性的物主代词+own，即one's own可用作前置形容词或表语，以表示强调或对比的含义：

They treated the child as if she were their own.［表语］他们待这个孩子好像自己亲生一样。

The country has its own oil and does not buy any from abroad.［前置形容词］

He writes so illegibly（书写非常潦草）that he often can't read his own handwriting.［前置形容词］

5 　名词性物主代词yours和mine。

yours和mine可用于信末的祝愿语中，yours常用于书信的结尾。

My best wishes to you and yours (=your family) from me and mine (=my family).

Yours sincerely/truly/faithfully［英国式］

Sincerely/Truly/Faithfully yours［美国式］

6 　汉语和英语在形容词性物主代词上的差别。

汉语和英语在形容词性物主代词上的差别是，汉语中“我的”、“你的”、“他的”这类词往往省略，而英语中相应的物主代词一般是不省掉的。试比较下面的例句：

The teacher asked his students to hand in their homework on time. 老师要求学生们按时交作业。

He put on his raincoat and went out. 他穿上雨衣出去了。

Don't put your hands in your pockets. 别把手揣在口袋里。

▶▶ 这是两国语言习惯的问题，值得注意。但在下列的一个特殊结构中，则用the代替形容词性的物主代词，即：

Professor Smith touched him on the shoulder kindly. 史密斯教授亲切地拍了拍他的肩膀。

The ball hit him right on the nose. 球正打在他的鼻子上。

He clasped her by the hand. 他挽住她的手。

The stone struck the boy in the eye. 石块打中了孩子的眼睛。

The soldier was wounded in the leg. 战士的腿部受伤了。

She became very red in the face. 她的脸涨得通红。

例　The movie has an interesting ending; the grandfather_____.

A. gave him a punch at the nose

B. gave a punch to him by the nose

C. gave him a punch on the nose

D. gave him a punch on his nose

［分析］应选C。D项中的形容词性物主代词his须改为the。A及B两项中的介词用得不妥，“一拳打在鼻子上”，应用介词on。

7 　有些物主代词并非表示物主意义。

① my用于感叹句时，表示“欢迎、惊奇、痛苦”等含义，没有“我的”意思。例如：

Oh, my boy! 哦，好家伙！

My God! 天啊！

My Goodness! 天啊！

② His，Your，Her同Excellency，Majesty，Honour连用，表示尊敬，没有物主意义。

Your Majesty 陛下

His Excellency the mayor was invited to speak at the meeting. 市长先生受邀在会上发言。

Her Majesty (=The queen) will approve it. 女王陛下会同意。

六、反身代词

1. 反身代词的构成

大多数反身代词是由形容词性的物主代词加self或selves后缀构成的；单数物主代词加self，复数物主代词加selves。有三个反身代词的构成则不一样，它们由人称代词宾语加self（单数）或selves（复数）构成。现把反身代词列表如下：

2. 反身代词的用法

1 　用作宾语。

反身代词用作宾语时，表示动作由主语及于宾语，再返回至主语，换言之，主语既是动作的执行者，同时又是动作的承受者。如：

I teach myself mathematics. 我自学数学。［I和myself系同一人，teach的动作由宾语myself再返回至主语I］

She is looking at herself in the mirror（她在照镜子。）.［说明同上］

The cat hurt itself jumping from the high branch.［说明同上］

▶▶ 由此可见，反身代词和人称代词宾格用作宾语时的不同点在于前者和句中的主语是同一人，而后者则不然。试比较：

Jessica bought her a new dress.［her指另一个人］

Jessica bought herself a new dress.［herself指Jessica本人］

▶▶ 如果主语和宾语不属同一个人而用了反身代词作宾语，这便成了病句。同时也须注意，反身代词用于主、宾属同一个人时，反身代词同它所代表的先行词在数及人称上需保持一致。

例　Plants rid them (A) of excess water through (B) transpiration, the evaporation of extra (C) moisture from their (D) leaves.

［分析］动词rid常接反身代词，故把A改为rid themselves；plants和themselves指同一事物，意指“植物通过蒸发除去自身叶子中过多的水分”。

例　The barnacle's ability to glue themselves (A) tenaciously (B) to a solid surface has aroused (C) the interest of scientists working on (D) dental adhesives.

［分析］动词glue也常接反身代词，作“把自己附着于……”解，但句中反身代词themselves指的是单数主语barnacle，在数上不一致，需把A改为itself。barnacle［'bɑ:nəkl］ n. 附着于岩、码头、船底的甲壳动物。

例　When visiting (A) New York City, the tourist should take (B) a boat ride around Manhattan to familiarize (C) yourself (D) with the city.

［分析］familiarize oneself with作“使自己熟悉……”解，句中反身代词yourself系第二人称，而它所指的先行词tourist属第三人称，在人称上不一致，故须把D改为himself。

2 　用作介词宾语。

反身代词用作介词宾语时，反身代词和主语仍必须属同一个人或事物，其含义及用法如下：

A. 表示“对比”或“自己”这个含义。

She loves me for myself, not for my money. 她爱的是我这人，而不是我的钱。［表对比］

Freddy is a self-employed person（私营业主）.He works for himself, not for an employer.［表对比］

Richard thinks too much of himself.［理查德自视太高，含有看低别人的对比意味］

Amy has a heart of gold.She thinks much more of others than of herself. 埃米心地极好。（或：她有颗金子般的心。）她想到别人的比想到自己的多得多。［表对比］

Take good care of yourself. 好好保重自己。

Alice is still too young to look after herself. 艾丽斯还是年纪太轻，不能照管自己。

B. 介词+反身代词这一结构的常见习语。

（a）to+反身代词　单独所用；单独所有

I have the room to myself. 这间房子归我独用。

In this grammar book Pronouns get a long chapter to themselves. 在这本语法书中代词专门有很长的一章来加以论述。

Jerry is a man of introverted nature. He dips himself to himself. 杰里性格内向，不与人来往。

要注意的是，“to+反身代词”通常是和have，get，keep等动词连用才具有它独特的含义。

（b）for+反身代词　自己（亲自），为（替）自己

If you don't believe me, you can go and see for yourself. 要是你不相信我，可以自己亲自去看看。

I'm afraid you will have to judge for yourself. 恐怕你得自己来判断了。

I have a right to decide for myself. 我有权自己决定。

He has a right to make a choice for himself. 他有权自己作出选择。

（c）between ourselves=between you and me 只是我们俩人私下谈谈（不可告诉别人）

All this is between ourselves（或between you and me）.［用作表语］

This is something between ourselves（或between you and me）, so don't let anyone else know about it.［用作定语，修饰something］

（d）of+反身代词　自动地

Unless we deal head-on blows to the invaders, they will not retreat of themselves. 除非给侵略者以迎头痛击，否则他们不会自动撤退。

The accident did not happen of itself. 这起事故不会自动发生。

（e）in+反身代词　本身，本性

Yours is not a bad idea in itself. 你的主意本身是不错的。

They are good young men in themselves. 他们本身都是好青年。

（f）by+反身代词　独自；孤立无援；自动地

I am by myself today. 我今天独自在家（或在办公室）。

Julie conducted the experiment by herself（=alone或without help from others）. 朱莉独自一人搞该实验。

This is a machine that works by itself (=automatically).［这是台自动运作的机器］

▶▶ by+反身代词这一结构前可加上all，使其意义得到进一步的强调：

I am all by myself (=completely alone) today.

Julie conducted the experiment all by herself.

Don't you feel lonely all by yourself?

This is a machine that works all by itself (=completely automatically).

注：by+反身代词和for+反身代词两者的意义有时颇难区别；by oneself着重“没有人帮助的单枪匹马的情况”，for oneself则强调“不依靠他人的帮助而靠自己的努力”。如：

“Did you feed the baby milk?”“No, he can_____”

A. eat by himself

B. feed for himself

C. eat for himself

D. feed by himself

［分析］题句的意思是“他（不需要再依赖父母喂养）已能自己动手吃了。”故C比A更为贴切，应选C。feed用作及物动词时作“give food to”解，其句型为feed (a child, a sick person, an animal) on (sth.)，如feed a baby on milk; 用作非及物动词时后接on，作“靠吃……生活”，如feed on grass。故B和D两项中须把for及by去掉，feed himself=eat for himself。

（g）be beside+反身代词+with... 因……而发狂

When he learned of the good news, he was beside himself with joy（欣喜若狂；高兴得不得了）.

必须着重指出，按正式英语的要求，反身代词用作介词宾语时，它和句中的主语属同一人；如不属同一人，则应用人称代词宾格，而不能用反身代词。如：

That argument is repugnant to me. 我对那一论点很反感。［不能用to myself］

Educated people like us should keep an open mind（虚心）.［like的宾语us和主语educated people虽属同一范畴，但不是同一人，故不能用ourselves］

3 　用作表语。

be+反身代词系一习语结构，作“身心健康”解：

Laura is not quite herself today. 劳拉今天不大对头。

If he has a holiday at the seaside, he will soon be himself（就会好起来）.

I am glad that you are yourself again.

▶▶ 但是当用作表语的反身代词和句中主语不是同一人时，这一结构就失去了其习惯用语的性质。如：

The other man was myself. 那另外的一个人就是我自己。

４ 　用作同位语。

反身代词在句中作主语或宾语的同位语时，起强调作用，故作“自己”、“亲自”或“本人”解：

You yourself（=you and not anyone else你本人）told me the story.

Never leave to others what you ought to do yourself. 不要把你自己该做的事情留给别人。

You had better ask the Dean himself about it（向教务长本人）.

▶▶ 这样用时，反身代词的位置可紧跟在与之同位的名词后面，也可放在句末。

You yourself did it.（或You did it yourself.)

They themselves are to blame.（或They are to blame themselves.）

3. 和反身代词连用的一些常见动词

A good teacher never divorces himself from（脱离）his students.

There was an excellent football match yesterday. All the students absented themselves from the class.

Jaimet prides himself on his ability to speak several languages.

I avail myself of this opportunity（借此机会）to thank you for the solicitude（关怀）you showed me during my illness.

If Joel had applied himself to his work（全力以赴地工作），he could have finished it in time.

Please help yourself to some fish. 请吃些鱼。

I hope you will enjoy yourself（玩得开心）at the party.

The boy pledged himself（保证）to do it.

Pull yourself together（振作起来）! The future is bright.

She often contradicts herself（自相矛盾）.

I reproached myself（自责）for my behavior last night.

He can not make great achievement as he never exerts himself（从不肯努力）.

We got out of the river and dried ourselves（擦干身体）.

I can read French, but I can't express myself in that language.

Miss Bold told herself there was nothing to be afraid of. 博尔德小姐暗自叮嘱自己，没有什么好怕的。［tell oneself作“暗暗叮嘱自己”解］

Take care!Don't cut yourself.

If you can see yourself as others see you, you will improve greatly. 你如能像别人看待你那样看待自己，你会进步很大。

在现代英语中，有些动词后面的反身代词常被省略。如：

The little child hid (himself) under a table.

The children behaved (themselves) very well.

Carol dressed (herself) quickly and went outside.

I feel (myself) overwhelmed with sadness（感到郁闷不堪）.

4. 关于self的用法

1 　self可以单独使用，意为“本人，自己，本性，私心”等，充当表语、宾语或主语。

An actor's instrument is the self. 演员的工具是自己。

She always thinks of others and never of self. 她总是为他人着想，从不考虑自己。

His true self was revealed. 他的本来面目被揭露出来了。

He looked just like his old self. 他看上去和过去一模一样。

2 　self可以加在名词、形容词、分词前面，构成新词。

self-abandoned 自暴自弃的；self-adjusting 自我调节的；self-affirmation 自我肯定；self-defense 自卫；self-control 自控；salf-sufficient 自给自足的；self-generated 发自内心的；self-centered 自我中心的；self-made 自力更生的。

七、相互代词

1. 相互代词用法上的区别

相互代词只有each other和one another两个词组。

按传统的语法概念，each other用于两者之间的相互关系；one another 用于两者以上之间的相互关系。如：

Henry Burson has two children. They love each other.

Henry Burson has three children. They love one another.

▶▶ 但在实际生活中，人们已打破这一框框，不再讲究这种区别，两者往往可以交替使用：

Joan and Cathy are fond of each other（或 one another）.

At Christmas time we young people give presents to each other（或 one another）.

The people of the village helped each other（或 one another）in their struggle against the natural calamity.

2. 相互代词的所有格在应用上需注意的问题

相互代词的所有格（即属格）在应用上需注意的一个问题：one another和each other的属格符号（'）必须放在s之前，不能置于s之后，即应是one another's，不是one anothers'；应是each other's，不是each others'。它们后面接不可数名词或复数可数名词，不能接单数可数名词：

While studying each other's strong points（长处；系复数可数名词），you should also point out each other's shortcomings.［复数可数名词］

Ted and Bill often exchange each other's (one another's) work experience.［作“经验”解，是不可数名词］

3. 相互代词不能用作主语

这是一个在日常英语中较为常见的错误，如：

We know what one another (each other) wants.（×）

应改为：We each know (know each) what the other wants.

或：Each of us knows what the other wants.

这里需注意，不管other是单数还是复数，其前面的冠词the必不可少，如：

Each of us knows what the others want.

We two correspond with each other regularly, so we each know (each of us knows) how the other is getting along.［主语系二者，故other用单数］

We three correspond with one another regularly, so we each know (each of us knows) how the others are getting along.［主语系三者，故other用复数］

4. 汉译英时相互代词的灵活处理

和形容词性的物主代词一样，在某些情况下，汉语里没有“相互”、“彼此”等词，译成英语时却要补上相互代词，不然行文便不通：

你们经常通信吗？Do you often write to each other (one another)?

你们什么时候认识的？When did you get to know each other (one another)?

八、指示代词

指示代词用来指明某一或某些特定的人或物。指示代词有this（单数），these（复数），that（单数），those（复数），same，such等词。指示代词各自有不同的用法。

1. this/these和that/those在时空上的差别

指示代词既可用作主语、宾语，又可用作定语和表语；this/these表示较近的空间或时间，that/those表示较远的空间或时间。

There is this（定语）seat here, near me, or there is that（定语）one in the fourth row. Which will you have, this or that（用作宾语which之同位语）？［this均表示较近距离；that均表示较远距离］

These（定语）machines were turned out last year, and those（主语）were made years ago.［these表示较近时间；those表示较远时间］

We should all keep this/these（宾语）in mind.

What book is this（主语）/What books are these（主语）？［均表示较近距离］

What book is that（主语）/What books are those（主语）？［均表示较远距离］

2. this和that在行文叙述上的差别

除了在空间或时间上的远近差别外，that用来指上文叙述过的事情，this用来指下文行将叙述的事情：

How to get the best result within the shortest time possible — that is the question.

This is the question: how to get the best result within the shortest time possible.

He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend. What do you think of that?

他背后捅你一刀，然后又声称是你的朋友。你怎么看待此事？

What do you think of this? He stabs you in the back and then professes to be your friend.

在上面两组例句中，每组里第一句中的that也可改用this，但不及that正规；每组里第二句中的this则绝对不能改用that。指示代词this和that用作副词时相当于副词so，在用法上与用作代词时相同。例如：

He isn't that clever.

The river is that wide. 河有那么宽。

Her son is about this tall.［about这里用作副词，作“大约”解］

It's about this high. 大约有这么高。

例　“We walked twenty miles today.”

“I never guessed you could have walked_____far.”

A. as

B. this

C. that

D. such

［分析］this和that都可作副词修饰far，但从题意看，第二句是指上文叙述过的事情，故用that比用this更为正规，应选C。

3. this/that和these/those用于表示种类、类型时的结构

this (that) sort (kind or type) of接单数可数名词或不可数名词；

these (those) sorts (kinds or types) of接复数可数名词：

Alice has this kind of plant（不能用plants）in her home.

Alice has these (those) kinds of plants（不能用单数plant）in her home.

上列结构常见于日常英语测试中，它们的变体是：this kind of plant（单数）也可用plants（复数）of this kind或plants like this来代替；these (those) kinds of plants也可用plants like these (those)或such plants来代替。sort和type用法同kind。

例　Plants of these (A) type grow (B) best in places where (C) there (D) is a great deal of shade.

［分析］题中type为单数，不能用复数形式these来修饰，需把A改为this。

4. that和those用于表示比较结构

指示代词that和它的复数形式those往往用于比较结构来代表前面提到的东西，以避免重复该名词：

The position of a grandparent is easier than that of (=the position of) a parent.

I prefer the paintings of Matisse to those of (=the paintings of) Renoir.

The weather in California is warmer than that (=the weather) in New York.

These machine tools（工作母机）are better than those (=the machine tools) we produced last year.

但需注意，在这一结构中比较的两者必须属同一类东西，否则便成错句。如：

The cost of wheat is less than rice.（×）

［分析］因cost of wheat（小麦的价钱）和rice不属于同一类事物，不能进行比较；应改为：The cost of wheat is less than that of rice.

I think the brakes（刹车）in your car are better than my car.（×）

［分析］理由同上。应改为：I think the brakes in your car are better than those in my car.

例　The life expectancy（寿命）of Blacks in 1850 was shorter than White (A) Ameri-cans, yet it was (B) much longer than (C) the expectancy of United States city dwellers (D).

［分析］题目中表示的是美国黑人和白人之间寿命长短的比较，故A错，应改为that of White Americans，即相当于the life expectancy of White Americans。

例　Unlike many other industrial countries (A), the inflation rate in the United States has (B) for some time (C) been less than (D) 12 per cent a year.

［分析］这一题表示的是就美国通货膨胀率和许多其他工业国家的通货膨胀率之间进行比较，故应把A改为Unlike the inflation rate in many other industrial countries，构成同类之间的比较。

从以上所列例子来看，that所代表的名词前面都被定冠词the所限定。如果它所要代表的名词前面如果是不定冠词a(n)，则不能用that，必须用不定代词one。试比较：

I prefer the climate of San Francisco to that of Michigan.（√）［因that所代表的名词climate前面有the］

This is a point of logic rather than that of grammar.（×）［因that所代表的名词point前面是a，不是the，故应把that改为one，即This is a point of logic rather than one of grammar.］

The cost of a videorecorder is much higher than that of a TV set.（√）［因that=the cost］

A desk made of wood costs less than that of steel.（×）［因that代表a desk，故应改为:A desk made of wood costs less than one of steel.］

5. those和they，them用法上的区别

指示代词those后面可跟定语短语或定语从句；人称代词they及them则不可，否则便犯结构上的错误：

For them interested in learning,（定语短语）the university offers a good program.（×）

［分析］them后面不能跟定语短语，应把them改为those，即For those interested in learning, the university offers a good program.

They who arrive early（定语从句）will get the best selection of seats.（×）

［分析］把They改为Those，即Those who arrive early will get the best selection of seats.

6. Those who...的数的含义

Those who...=People who...，相应的汉语是“凡……的人”，如：

Those who wish to visit the exhibition may sign up here.

Those who are interested in the Fulbright Program may apply.［the Fulbright Program指由富布赖特奖学金提供的课题。Jamer William Fulbright系美国民主党人，反对越南战争和美国对外军事卷入，该奖学金由他设立］

从数的角度看，those who明显表示两者以上的含义。

例　Best (A) work is not always done (B) by (C) those who work the faster (D).

［分析］题中的those who表示两者以上的不定人数，需用最高级副词，故D错，应改为the fastest或fastest。

those who接定语从句，who因在定语从句中用作主语不能省略；those whom也接定语从句，由于whom在定语从句中作宾语，故往往省略。

例　Since the job was going to be (A) difficult, he asked only (B) them (C) he trusted to assist him (D).

［分析］C错，人称代词them后不能跟定语从句，应把C改为those，即those (whom) he trusted to assist him，whom在定语从句中处于宾语地位，故被省略。those单独使用时也可紧接定语短语，实际上它后面的who are被省掉了，但人称代词they及them则不可。

例　For them (A) interested in nature, the club offers (B) hikes（徒步旅行）and overnight camping (C) each week during (D) the summer.

［分析］A错，改为those。即those interested in nature=those (who are) interested in nature。

those是指示代词或指示形容词，可直接代替名词，故在正式英语里不能说those ones。

例　These televisions are quite (A) popular in (B) Europe, but those ones (C) are (D) not.

［分析］C错，把ones删掉即可。但必须指出，在习惯用法中，those后紧跟形容词时即可和ones连用。如：Those green ones are too small; I want those black ones.

7. and that构成的习惯用法

and that用在一起，有时构成习惯用法，用来代表前面的整个句子或该句的主谓部分：

Christine studied literature for several years, and that under a famous professor. (and that=and she studied literature for several years)

Bobby has lost a gold watch, and that the one given him by his father-in-law. (and that=and he has lost)

and that的这种用法能加强句子后面部分的语气，相当于“而且……”的意思。上两例应译为“克里斯蒂娜学了好几年文学，而且是跟一位著名的教授学的。”“博比丢了一只金表，而且是一只他丈人送给他的那只金表。”

8. and...at that

and...at that是和and that类似的一种强调结构，也相当于“而且……”的意思，如：

Jeff has a car, and a very good one at that. 杰夫有辆车，而且是辆非常好的车。

The girl knows nothing except cooking, and very little at that. 那姑娘除了烹调什么都不懂，而且烹调也懂得极少。

注：“and that...”和“and...at that”常可通用，不同的是，and that后面须再接一些词语，而用and...at that时，则须把词语插在and和at that之间，使at that置于句末。上述句子可用and that 改写为：

Jeff has a car, and that a very good one.

The girl knows nothing except cooking, and that very little.

9. 指示代词such的用法

1 　用作主语。

Such is my impression of England.

Please send us your latest samples if such are available.［这里such代表the latest samples，故它后面的谓语动词用复数are］

2 　用作宾语。

Since you are a scholar, you should show yourself as such.（such=one，即a scholar，用作as的宾语）你既然是个学者，就得有个学者的样子。

Their criticism of me, if it was intended for such（such=one，即=a criticism）, was offered in a gentle and mild way. 他们对我的批评，若确有此意，也是以和风细雨的方式提出来的。

3 　用作表语。

A. such往往倒置于句首，有时也用于句中。

Such are the viewpoints of my friends on life.［系倒装结构，主语viewpoint是复数，故such后接复数are］

Such being the case, I have to postpone my departure till next month.［such being the case系常用的独立结构，主语是case，作“情况既然如此”解］

B. 和that或as引导的从句一起用（从句在后）。

The issue is not such as can be easily mediated. 这一争端并非如此，以致可以较易调解。［这里as系代词，用作主词，不能省］）

Such was the force of the explosion (=The force of the explosion was such) that all the windows were broken. 爆炸力真大，致使所有窗子都震破了。［注意such置于句首，采用倒装语序，that是连词，需接主谓完整的结构］

The progress was such (=so great) that it surprised her teacher（或Such was Amelia's progress that it surprised her teacher）. 进步非常大，使她的老师也感意外。［连词that后面的it用作主语指代progress，绝不能省略，如that换用代词as，则需去掉it，as充当主语，即：The progress was such as surprised her teacher.］

C. such也可以和as引导的不定式短语连用。

Our first view of Honolulu was such as to stamp it forever on the memories of all of us. 檀香山给我们的第一印象是如此深刻，以致将永远留在我们所有人的记忆中。

I hope his illness is not such as to cause anxiety. 我希望他的病还不至于那样让人担忧。

She is not such a bad woman as to ill-treat the boy. 她这女人还不至于坏到会虐待孩子。

It was such strong wind as to blow the roof off. 风这么大，以致把房顶都掀掉了。

注意：在上列四句中，as不能省略。

注：下面两种结构也均正确：

两句意思相同，即“塔楼如此高，我们往下看顿感头晕目眩。”

The height of the pagoda was such as to make us dizzy.

Such was the height of the pagoda that it made us dizzy.

4 　such用作定语。

such a(n)接单数可数名词；such（无a）接不可数名词或复数可数名词。

注：可以说such a fool（a film，a story，a thing等），但不能说no such a fool（a film，a story，a thing等），因no等同于not a或not any，已包括不定冠词a，故在no such a fool等这一结构中，a乃多余，需删掉。如：

Until recently, land in large areas of Stockholm belonged either to the crown or to the city; there was_____thing as private ownership of land.

A. no such a

B. no such

C. not such

D. not any

［答案：B］

5 　such和so用法上的区别。

用作定语的such和用作副词的so在用法上极易混淆搞错。大家如能掌握下列两者的句型便不会出差错：

such句型

① such a(n)+形容词+单数可数名词［此句型中，形容词位于不定冠词a (n)之后］

② such+形容词+复数可数名词

③ such+形容词+不可数名词

在以上三个句型中，形容词也可省略。

① such a gentle person 这样一位儒雅的人/such a person 这样的一个人

② such gentle smiles 如此温柔的微笑/such smiles 如此的微笑［smiles这里是复数名词］

③ such useful information 这样有用的资料　such hot weather 这样热的天气［information和weather都变不可数名词］

so句型

① so+形容词+a(n)+单数可数名词

注意：◎ 形容词必须放在不定冠词a(n)之前。

◎ 形容词不能省略。

◎ 这一句型中只能用单数可数名词，不能用复数可数名词，也不可用不可数名词。

so gentle a person（√）

so gentle persons（×）

so useful information（×）

so hot a weather［×，虽合乎句型，但weather是不可数名词，前面不能有a］

② such a+单数可数名词+as从句

such+复数可数名词+as从句

such+不可数名词+as从句

在上列句型中，指示代词such用作定语，as用作代词；as在其引导的从句中作主语、宾语或表语：

在此句型中，such...as...是分开的，也可并在一起，写成such as...，即：

⇒ a man such as he［不能用as him，因he 后省略了is］

such as you mentioned

such as was mentioned by you

⇒ languages such as Spanish

such as you study

such as are studied by you

⇒ information such as yours

such as you provide

such as is provided by you

▶▶ such...as...或such as...是常用的搭配，也时常出现在各类英语测试中。

例　Since (A) the Industrial Revolution, the primary sources (B) of energy, other than (C) human muscle and manual labor, have been such fossil fuels like (D) oil, coal, and gas.

［分析］D错，such后面该用as，不能用like，应改为such fossil fuels as oil, coal, and gas。

例　Area (A) is the linear measurement (B) of a surface (C), such (D) a floor or a cornfield.（linear measurement：线性测度，直线丈量）

［分析］D错，应改为such as，作“诸如”解。

10. such的一些常用习惯表达法

1 　such is life=that's what life is like 生活就是如此［该习用语常用于表达自己或劝说别人接受生活中的失意］

He failed to get the job he was ardently hoping for; but such is life, I suppose. 他未能得到他热切希望得到的那份工作，但我想，生活就是如此。

2 　such as it is/such as they are 虽说不多；尽管不好

The cake, such as it is, is the best I can make.

蛋糕只能做成这样了，我已尽了最大的努力。

The pies, such as they are, are served promptly. 馅饼做得虽然不好，但上得很快。

3 　not as such 不完全是那样

A: Well, did they offer the job to you?

那么，他们把该工作给你了吗？

B: No, not as such, but they said I had a good chance.

不，不完全是那样，可是他们说我很有希望。

4 　such and such+名词（或such and such 用作名词）某某

If the interviewer asks you to come on such and such a day, do agree by all means.

如果进行面试的人要你某天某日来，无论如何就该同意去

A letter arrives from the factory pointing out that such and such is not covered by the contract.

厂家来了一封信指出某某、某某没有包含在合同里。

5 　such as+不定式……以至于……

His illness is not such as to cause anxiety.

他的病并非严重到令人担心的程度；他的病并不重，不必担心。

11. 指示代词former和latter的用法

1 　用于指两者。

former指“两者中的前者”，latter指“两者中的后者”，故这两个指示代词只用于两个人或物，不能用于三者。如：

I have three friends in New Jersey, Henry Burson, John Smith, and Edward Coke; the former is an archaeologist.［×，the former不能用于三者。把the former改为the first或the first-mentioned或the first-named］

I have three friends in New Jersey, Henry Burson, John Smith, and Edward Coke; the latter is a choreographer（舞蹈设计家）.［×，the latter也不能用于三者，把the latter改为the last或the last mentioned或the last named］

有时候，latter也可单独使用，表示两者中的后者：

Of the two, the latter is the better. 两者中后者比较好。［在of用作比较的句子中，比较级形容词之前须用定冠词the，如The former is the more useful of the two.］

例　Joan decided that (A) she did not like the girl eating (B) an ice-cream cone on the bus after she (C) yelled (D) at her little brother.

［分析］上句中的she指Joan还是the girl?不明确，按句意看应指the girl，宜把句中C项之she改为the latter（后者），指the girl。

2 　用作主语、宾语或定语时必须注意的问题。

former和latter可用作主语、宾语或定语。不论充当其中的哪一个语法动能，former和latter前面都必须有the。

Of the two, the latter is not half so good as（远远不如）the former.［用作主语］

He knows English and French; the former language he speaks very well, but the latter one (he speaks) only imperfectly.［用作形容词］

I have studied both economics and mathematics, but my knowledge of the latter remains very defective（但我对后者的知识仍是很差的）.［用作名词］

12. 指示代词same的用法

1 　same前的冠词问题。

不论用作主语、宾语、定语或表语，same前面应有定冠词the：

All enjoy the same rights.［用作定语］

Rain or shine, it is all the same to me.［用作表语］下雨也好，天晴也好，对我来说没区别。

The same may be said of my family.［用作主语］我家里也有这种情况。

We must all say the same. 我们大家讲话的口径必须一致。

2 　same的常用结构。

A. the same...as（接从句，从句中的谓语常省略，有时主谓一起省略）

I work in the same corporation as he (works in).

My room is of the same size as yours (is).

You have made the same mistake as (you made) last time.

B. the same...that（接从句，从句中的谓语通常不省略）

You have made the same mistake that you made last time.

C. the same...with（接宾语）

I work in the same corporation with him (=as he).

One should speak clearly and it is the same with writing.讲话要清楚，写文章也是一样。

注：在现代英语中，运用the same...as和the same...that时已逐渐显示一种倾向，即：

that same... as指（性质、种类、意义、程度等相同的）同样的

that same...that指（同一个人或物的）同一个

例如：This is the same book that I bought. 这就是我买的那本书。［同一本书］

This is the same book as I bought. 这本书和我买的那本一样。［不是同一本］

以下三句意思一样：他和约翰住在同一个房间。

He lives in the same room that John lives in.

He lives in the same room where John lives.

He lives in the same room with John.

如果写成He lives in the same room as John.句意就发生变化了，意指“他住的房间和约翰住的一模一样”，含意是，两人不住在同一房间。但如果先行词表示的是抽象概念，则没有这种区别。

She told me the same story as/that she had told you.

D. in the same way that（接从句）

We must not deal with children in the same way that we deal with adults.

E. at the same time that（接从句）

I shall send a cable to my company at the same time that I do this.

［注：in the same way that和at the same time that用于现代英语中时that通常被省略］

F. in the same+（地点）+where（接从句）

I live in the same apartment house where he lives.

例　“What of Michael?”

“After tonight, he would never be the same man_____he was before.”

A. what

B. who

C. as

D. but

［分析］What of Michael?=What has happened to Michael?

掌握了same结构后，一眼便能看出应选C，as后面的主谓he was也可省略，即the same man as before。句中的as也可用that代替，但换用that后主谓便不能省去，即the same man as before。

13. same的习用语

1 　 same again 照样再来一份

Your dark beer tastes good. Same again. 你们的黑啤酒味道不错，再来一杯。［same again前也可以用the但通常省去。］

2 　 same here

a.=and it is the same with me. 我也一样

A: I think I drank too much. 我想我喝得太多了。

B: Same here. I did too. 彼此彼此，我也喝得太多了。

b.=and the same for me 我也要一样的

Michael said he wanted a dark beer and I said same here.

马克尔说他要一杯黑啤，我说我也一样。［注：黑啤的另一种叫法是black beer，在习用语same here之前不用the］

3 　 the same old story 老一套，老花样

It's the same old story — he invites us all to the pub for a drink, and then finds that he's forgotten to bring his money with him. 又是老花样——他请我们大家上酒店喝酒，最后又说身上忘了带钱。［注：the same old story 也可以说the old story］

4 　 same to you=I wish you the same

A: Happy new year! 新年快乐！

B: (The) same to you. 也祝你新年快乐。

［注：same to you之前可用the，但通常省略为多。］

九、关系代词

1. 关系代词who，whom，whose，that和which的基本用法

1 　关系代词的格、先行词、句法功能和应用对象。

关系代词有who（主格），whom（宾格），whose（属格），that和which。它们用来引导定语从句以修饰它们所代表的名词或代词，该词称为先行词（antecedent）。关系代词在其所引导的定语从句中充当主语、宾语、表语或定语。who用于人，which用于物，that则两者皆可。例如：

I saw the man who is famous for his fine acting.［用作主语］

The guest whom you mentioned has not come yet.［用作宾语］

The company did not want to hire a man whose experience was so limited.［用作定语］

I like novels which（或that）deal with philosophical questions.［代表物］

People that（或who）have not been properly trained cannot do this kind of work.［代表人］

Amy is no longer the girl that she was.［用作表语］艾米已经不再是过去的她了。

2 　which和whom在定语从句中作状语或定语时的处理。

如果关系代词which和whom在它们所引导的定语从句中不是作主语或宾语而是起状语或定语作用时，需在它们之前加上介词。如：

A. 用作定语。

The factory has 3,000 workers, of whom about 1,000 are women.［of whom修饰3,000 workers，作“其中”解］

China has hundreds of islands, the largest of which is Taiwan.［of which修饰the largest，即the largest island］

▶▶ which在其引导的定语从句中可单独使用，起定语作用：

Ten years of hard work changed her greatly, for which reason he could hardly recognize her at first sight. 十年的艰辛工作已使她大为变样；为此，他初见之下几乎认不出她来。

Water freezes at 0℃, at which temperature it changes to ice. 水在摄氏0度冻结，在该温度水便结成冰。

George spent five years in college, during which time he studied medicine. 乔治念了五年大学，在那段时间他攻读医学。

B. 用作状语。

Here is the book about which I told you the other day.［about which修饰told］

The room in which Daniel works is kept in good order.［in which修饰works］

The factory is known for its high-quality products and good management, for which it is honored with the title of State Grade-2 Enterprise（荣获国家二级企业称号）.［for which 修饰is honored with the title of...］

It is a good base from which we can explore Arizona's Grand Canyon.［from which修饰explore］

Everyone here knows the method by which the computer works.［by which修饰works］

These are the facts on which my argument is based.［on which修饰is based］

I was scared by the fantastic speed at which the car ran.［at which修饰ran］

介词+关系代词偶尔也在定语从句中起表语作用，如：

Present at the banquet were many VIPs (=very important persons), among whom was the Prime Minster.［among whom was the Prime Minister系倒装语序的定语从句，主语是Prime Minister，among whom起表语作用］

▶▶ 关于介词+关系代词这一结构需注意的两点。

① 在介词+关系代词引导的从句中，谓语动词应是不及物动词。如：

The room in which Daniel works is kept in good order.［works是不及物动词，故在which前加上介词in。如果谓语动词是及物动词，则需补上它的宾语］

It is a good base from which we can explore Arizona's Grand Canyon.［谓语动词explore是及物动词，后紧接其宾语Grand Canyons］

故验证这一结构是否正确，方法之一是看定语从句中的谓语动词。

例　Despite the disappearance (A) of the Mayan empire, there are still (B) Mayans in the region in which (C) they once inhabited (D).［Mayan/'mɑ:jən/玛雅人　中美洲的印第安人，在美洲被西方发现前已有高度文化］

［分析］上题的定语从句in which they once inhabited中，谓语动词inhabited是及物动词，它后面无介词，故which前的介词in需删掉，这样which便成为inhabited的宾语，结构便属正常。inhabit a place=live in a place，如把题中的inhabited改为不及物动词lived，介词in便不能删去。

② 从以上列示的许多关于介词+关系代词的实例不难看出，关系代词前介词的选用需按词的搭配关系而定，不能随心所欲。如：

Here is the book about which I told you the other day.［which前用about，由tell sb. about sth.这一句型所决定］

Is this the address to which you sent the telegram?［which前用to，由send sth. to sb.所决定］

Everyone here knows the method by which the computer works.［which前用by，由work by a certain method所定］

These are the facts on which my argument is based.［which前用on，根据be based on sth.这一搭配而定］

I was scared by the fantastic speed at which the car ran.［which前用at，由go (move, run) at a certain speed这一搭配而定］

例　Xenon（氙）has a number of applications, _____may be mentioned its use in flash lamps for high-speed photography.

A. among which

B. which

C. and which

D. each of which

［分析］应选A。among which may be mentioned its use in flash lamps for high-speed photography这一定语从句系采用倒装语序，主语是its use（its指Xenon），may be mentioned系谓语，among which起状语作用，修饰mentioned。这一定语从句的主谓结构已完整，不能单用一个关系代词来引导，故不能选B。

例　The science of medicine, _____progress has been very rapid lately, is perhaps the most important of all the sciences.

A. to which

B. in which

C. which

D. with which

［分析］应选B。关系代词前介词的选用由搭配关系而定，in which progress has been very rapid lately=progress has been very rapid lately in the science of medicine，故不能选A或D。

3 　在带有插入语的定语从句中who和whom的选用。

关系代词who/whom在其引导的定语从句中担任主语成分时用主格who，担任宾语成分时用宾格whom，这点很简单，但有时它们引导的定语从句带有插入语，而该插入语的前后也不用逗号隔开，因此不易区分它是定语从句中的插入语还是定语从句中的主谓结构；这时就产生用主格who还是用宾格whom这一困难。试比较：

Jason is a man who I believe is honest.

［分析］在定语从句who I believe is honest中，I believe是插入语，去掉该插入语剩下的便是Jason is a man who is honest，在语法及句意上都能成立，who是定语从句中动词is的主语，故用主格，不能用whom。

Jason is a man whom I believe (to be) honest.

［分析］在定语从句whom I believe (to be) honest中，如把I believe当作插入语而予以删掉的话，剩下的句子结构便成为Jason is a man whom (to be) honest，显然不合语法，因而I believe不是插入语，而是定语从句中的主谓结构，whom作believe的宾语，故不能用主格形式who；显然，(to be) honest是whom的宾语补语。

The girl who we supposed had run away from home came back.

［分析］we supposed是插入语，因去掉后，The girl who had run away from home came back仍成立，who是谓语had run away from home的主语，故不能用宾语形式whom。

The girl whom we supposed to have run away from home came back.

［分析］如把we supposed当作插入语予以删掉，剩下的句子结构The girl whom to have run away from home came back在语法上不能成立，故在这句中we supposed不是插入语而是定语从句的主谓成分，whom作supposed的宾语，因而不能用主格形式who，to have run away from home作whom的宾语补语。

例　Standing (A) by a fine model of Fujiyama was the boy whom (B) everyone thought (C) would be chosen the winner by (D) the judges.

［分析］B错，改为who，因定语从句中everyone thought是插入语，去掉后定语从句语法上仍然成立，who作would be chosen的主语。

4 　whose在使用上必须注意的两点。

A. whose在它所引导的定语从句中起定语作用，它既可代表人又可代表物。

This is the house whose windows (=the windows of which或of which the windows) are all broken.

I know of a chemical compound（化合物）whose structure (=the structure of which) is the same as this.

B. whose在它所引导的定语从句中常和it连用，it起形式主语作用。

试比较下面两个例句：

A writer is a person whose duty is to write.［whose引导定语从句，主语duty为whose所修饰，不定式to write为表语］A writer is a person whose duty it is to write.［whose也是引导定语从句，it是形式主语，真正主语是不定式to write］

两个例句意思完全相同，只是结构不同而已，在实际应用中第二式比第一式更为常见。

例　“Did the audience participate in the play?”

“Yes, the actors_____to involve the audience were successful.”

A. whom it was the function

B. of which the function was

C. whose function it was

D. whose were the function

［分析］掌握了上述whose在其引导的定语从句中和it连用的这一结构后，便能轻易地选择了C这个正确答案。

例　It is uncommon to find an excellent researcher_____.

A. which is as well a very good teacher

B. what is a competent teacher as well

C. who is also a competent teacher

D. who teaches also very well

［分析］先行词researcher（研究员）是人，它的关系代词应是who或that，故选C。不选D的理由是，在句子中副词also的正常位置应在be的后面或实义动词之前，这里需把also放在实义动词teaches之前才对。

例　“Who is it?”

“This is the actress_____his father claims has seduced（勾引了）his son!”

A. who

B. whom

C. that

D. which

［分析］先行词actress（女演员）后面的关系代词可用who或that，但句中his father claims是插入语；在引导带有插入语的定语从句中，其先行词是人时，通常用who而不用that，故选A。

例　There are (A) many organizations which (B) sole purpose is (C) to help (D) mentally retarded children.

［分析］B错。在上题的定语从句中，主语是purpose，故关系代词应起定语作用，把which改为whose（whose也可用来指事物）。另一种改法则是of which the sole purpose或the sole purpose of which。

2. 关系代词who，whom，which和that的主要用法

1 　which的先行词可以是一个句子。

which的先行词通常是一个名词，但有时候它的先行词可以是一个句子，即which有时候可以用来代表前面一个句子所表示的意思，这种用法很普遍，如：

George failed in the TOEFL examination, which shows he had not worked hard enough.［which指failed in the TOEFL examination］

Olaf lost his way, which delayed him considerably.［which指lost his way］

在上列两个例句中，which可用两个字来代替，即and that，也就是说，当which代表一个句子时，它所引导的定语从句可以变成一个独立的分句；以上两例可以改写如下：

⇒ George failed in the TOEFL examination, and that shows he had not worked hard enough.

⇒ Olaf lost his way, and that delayed him considerably.

2 　先行词是一个集体名词时，which和who的选用。

当先行词是一个指人的集体名词时，如果着眼于该集体的整体，关系代词用which；如若要表示该集体中的各个成员，则用who。

The football team, which is playing very well, will most probably place first（得第一名）in the league matches（联赛）.

The football team, who are having baths, will be back here for tea.

3 　先行词前有最高级形容词、only、any或no时，关系代词的选用。

当先行词前有最高级形容词、only，any或no时关系代词用that，不用which。如：

Professor Smith is the best（最高级）mathematician that has ever visited our university.

Linda is the only person that understands me.

No sample that we have received is satisfactory.

Please send me any information that you have about the subject matter（题材）.

4 　在little，much，all，none，everything等词后面关系代词的选用。

在用作名词的little，much和代词all，everything，something，anything，nothing，none后面也宜用that：

All that glitters is not gold. 闪光发亮的并不都是金子。（莎翁名句）

［注：这一莎翁名句的原式是All is not gold that glitters.］

5 　在everybody，somebody等词后面that和who/whom的选用。

在everybody，everyone，anybody，anyone，somebody，someone等词后面宜用who/whom：

When I entered, they were talking about somebody whom I didn't know.

Is there anyone here who knows Spanish?

如果先行词是who，便只能用that作为其关系代词，如：

Who that you have seen can do better? 你曾见过谁能做得更好？

6 　前面有两个性质不同的先行词时，that和who/whom的选用。

遇到有两个先行词，一个指人，一个指物时，这时应用that：

Larry spoke highly of the actor and his performance that he saw at the theater.［that代表the actor and his performance］

The scholar and his achievement that the newspaper covered（报道）are greatly admired by the teachers and students alike.［that代表the scholar and his achievement］

7 　关系代词that前面不能有介词，必须把介词移至句子末尾才正确。

Here is the book about that I told you.（×）

Here is the book that I told you about.（√）

Have you seen the film on that the newspaper comments?（×）

Have you seen the film that the newspaper comments on?（√）

▶▶ 但which和whom前面则可带有介词：

Here is the book about which I told you.

He is the man to whom the newspaper gave coverage（报道）.

例　The seventeenth century was one in that (A) many significant advances (B) were made in (C) both (D) science and philosophy.

［分析］显然A错。that作为关系代词时前面不能有介词，把A改为in which (=in the seventeenth century）。

注：in that连用时变成一个连词，相当于for the reason that；because（因为；由于；在于）；如：Men differ from brutes in that they can think and speak. 人不同于禽兽，在于人会思考、会说话。

8 　whom和which与不定式及介词连用的结构。

关系代词whom和which还可和不定式连用，但前面需加介词，或省掉关系代词把介词移至句末，即“介词+whom/which+不定式”或“（whom/which省掉）不定式+介词”。如：

Hob is a pleasant young man with whom to work.

Hob is a pleasant young man to work with.［省掉whom，较口语化］

I have no money with which to buy a car.

I have no money to buy a car with.［省掉which，较口语化］

把上面每组例句进行比较即会发现，把介词移至句末需省去关系代词，不然就不合英语习惯，试再比较：

Bob has no money with which to buy books.［正式的书面英语］

Bob has no money which to buy books with.［×因介词移至句末时必须省去关系代词］

Bob has no money to buy books with.［√系口语化，在正式英语里也能成立］

What is the proper age at which to marry?［正式书面英语］

What is the proper age which to marry at?［×］

What is the proper age to marry at?［√口语］

例　That (A) is one of the many (B) tools which (C) I find it hard to work with (D).

［分析］在which I find it hard to work with的定语从句中，it是形式宾语，真正的宾语是不定式短语to work with，介词with置于句末应把关系代词which省略，故C错，删去即可。另一种改法是，把with移至which前，即with which I find it hard to work，但这种改法需牵动D和C两个部分，既不符合试题要求，语言也显得生硬、不自然。

3. 关系代词的省略

1 　关系代词在其所引导的从句中作宾语时，可省略。

The man (whom) you saw there is head of our department.

Alan is a man who is strict with himself in everything (that) he does.

The tickets (which) you spoke of were sold out.

例　“What game is popular with them?”“The_____most is tennis.”

A. game they like it

B. best game they like

C. best game they like it

D. game they like

［分析］应选D。在The game (which) they like most is tennis这一题句中，which作like的宾语可省略。A中it系重复宾语，B中best和题句中的most字义重叠，也须删去。

2 　关系代词在从句中作表语（又称主语补语）时，通常省略。

Isabel's (=Isabel has) changed.She is no longer the girl (that) she was.

3 　关系代词引导的从句修饰宾语补语并在其引导的从句中作表语时，通常省略。

Bill's changed a lot. I wonder what has made him the man (that) he is.

4 　关系代词在它引导的从句中作主语时则不能省略，但如果该从句带有there is这一结构时，作主语的关系代词宜省略。

注意，在这一结构中先行词前都须有the+最高级形容词来修饰。

Please show me the latest reference book (that) there is on this subject.

This is the fastest train (that) there is to Michigan.

4. 用于限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的关系代词

1 　用于限制性定语从句的关系代词。

限制性定语从句与它所修饰的先行词在意义上有着不可分割的联系，它对先行词起着限制、确定的作用，因此限制性定语从句和先行词之间没有逗号，讲话时两者之间没有停顿，应一气呵成。能引导限制性定语从句的关系代词通常是who，whom，whose，that和which：

William Douglas is a man whose word is as good as his bond（一诺千金）.

Johnny is one of the men whom I feel I can trust.

The student who fell sick yesterday is now well.

The novel which you lent me was very interesting.

Lu Xun was one of the greatest writers that China has ever had.

2 　关系代词引导限制性定语从句时需注意的两个问题。

A. 一个句子含有两个不同层次的限制性定语从句时的处理。

在实际应用中，有时一个句子会含有两个不同层次的限制性定语从句。在这种情况下，引导第一个限制性定语从句的关系代词通常被省去，引导第二个限制性定语从句的关系代词，即使处于宾语地位，也不予省略，这两个限制性定语从句之间也不用连词and：

Is there anything（that被省略）you want that you have not?

［分析］第一个that被省略，其先行词是anything，第二个that虽在从句中作动词have的宾语，则不能省略。其先行词不是anything，而是anything (that) you want；这两个限制性定语从句不在同一层次上，故不用and连接。

Mr. Burson is the only dealer（that被省略）we know who gives good prices.

［分析］第一个被省略的that的先行词是dealer，第二个关系代词who的先行词则是the only dealer (that) we know；这两个限制性定语从句也不在同一层次上，故也不用and连接。

这种结构在书面及口头上都会碰到。据说基辛格博士初任美国国务卿职务时，曾派人到驻华盛顿的各国使馆征求意见，当时一位苏联使馆官员曾说“Dr.Kissinger is the only person（that被省略）we know who can eat caviar with chopsticks.”caviar（鱼子酱）指苏联，chopsticks（筷子）指中国，这句话的含义是，基辛格博士是唯一能妥善处理中、苏两国关系的人。这句英语原文也是带有两个不同层次的限制性定语从句。第一个关系代词that被省略，其先行词为person，第二个关系代词who的先行词为the only person (that) we know。两个从句之间，由于层次不同，也不用连词and。

B. 同一个先行词跟有两个并列的限制性定语从句时的处理。

同一个先行词，其后跟有两个并列的限制性定语从句时，引导它们的关系代词通常不能省略，两个从句必须用and连接：

This practice book is intended for foreign students of arts who have mastered the elements of English and who now want to use their knowledge of the language to read books on their own subjects.

3 　用于非限制性定语从句的关系代词。

非限制性定语从句和它所修饰的先行词关系比较松散，它只是对先行词进行补充说明；因此，非限制性定语从句和先行词之间通常用逗号分开。除that只能引导限制性定语从句外，其余关系代词都能引导非限制性定语从句：

I told the secret to Freddy, who（不能用that）later told it to his girl friend.

That scientist, whose work is very important to the welfare of mankind, has been awarded a Nobel Prize.

Miss Smith, whom（不能用that）you met at our house, is going to marry Mr. Abbott.

The current, which（不能用that）is very rapid, makes the river dangerous.

从上述例句来看，非限制性定语从句前后均被逗号分开，故就其意义来说，非限制性定语从句往往相当于一个并列或独立的句子，因而以上四例也可这么写：

⇒ I told the secret to Freddy, and he later told it to his girl friend.

⇒ That scientist's work is very important to the welfare of mankind. He has been awarded a Nobel Prize.

⇒ Miss Smith is going to marry Mr. Abbott. You met her at our house.

⇒ The current is very rapid. It makes the river dangerous.

例　Great Salt Lake is fed by freshwater streams, _____is about four to five times as salty as the ocean.

A. yet

B. which

C. there

D. that

［分析］应选B，which指Great Salt Lake，用来引导非限制性定语从句，前面有逗号隔开，which is about...=and it is about...，it也指Great Salt Lake。D不妥，因that不能引导非限制性定语从句。A项中yet后应补充it，充当主语。C不合语法。

which引导非限制性定语从句时，也可以指前面一个短语或从句所包括的意思，这时which和先行词之间只有意义上的联系而没有句法上的联系。如：

The decision was postponed, which was exactly what he wanted. 决议延期作出，这正是他所要求的。［which指The decision was postponed, which=and that］

Audrey said she had lost her watch, which was not true. 奥蕾说她的手表丢了，那不是真的。［which指she had lost her watch, which=and that］

例　Our friends are expected to assume the burden of their own defense, _____they are competent to do.

A. which we are certain

B. that we are certain of

C. of which we are sure

D. for which we are sure

［分析］应选A。which的先行词不是burden，而是不定式短语to assume the burden of their own defense，在它所引导的非限制性定语从句中which作不定式to do的宾语。that不能引导非限制性定语从句，be certain (sure)后面接从句时，不能再用介词，故B，C和D都错。

4 　关系代词所引导的限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的比较。

这两种定语从句首先是意义不同，从而也造成结构上的不同。限制性定语从句是把主句和从句作为一个表意整体来考虑的，因而关系紧密，不用逗号分开，从句去掉则会造成原句句意的不完整。非限制定语从句是把主句和从句作为分开的表意单位来考虑的，因而关系松弛，通常用逗号隔开，从句去掉后，主句也能单独成立。关系代词引导的这两种定语从句在含义上也有差别。试比较：

Romola who has six children has never gone to college.［限制性定语从句］

生有六个儿女的萝莫拉从未上过大学。潜台词是：还有其他名叫萝莫拉的妇女，她或她们可能上过大学。

Romola, who has six children, has never gone to college.［非限制性定语从句］

萝莫拉有六个孩子，她从来未上过大学。潜台词是：只有一个名叫萝莫拉的妇女。

I have a sister who is in Taiwan.［限制性定语从句］

我有一个住在台湾的姐姐。潜台词是：我还有其他姐姐，她或她们住在别的地方。

I have a sister, who is in Taiwan.［非限制性定语从句］

我有一个姐姐，她住在台湾。潜台词是：我只有一个姐姐。

There were very few passengers that（或who）had escaped without serious injury.［限制性定语从句］

没有受重伤而逃出来的旅客很少。潜台词是：逃出来的旅客绝大多数都受重伤。

There were very few passengers, who（不能用that）had escaped without serious injury.［非限制性定语从句］

旅客很少，他们都逃出来了，没有受重伤。潜台词是：旅客的人数极少，没有其他旅客受到什么重伤。

▶▶ 有时候，定语从句的逗号用与不用会使句意大相径庭。例如：

His mother, who is a teacher, is 50 years old this year.［非限制性定语从句］

他的妈妈是个老师，今年50岁。

His mother who is a teacher is 50 years old this year.［限制性定语从句］

他那个做老师的妈妈今年50岁。（言外之意他还有做其他工作的妈妈。）

据说，好几十年前，一位英国的牧师忠于职守，与其教民关系甚为融洽；记者采访他时，为显示要与教民打成一片，该牧师表态平时不喜欢穿牧师服，并说，“I will wear no clothes which will distinguish me from my fellow-men.”（限制性定语从句），意为“我不愿意穿那种使我有别于我的同胞的衣服”，含意是他要与他的教民打成一片。

但当该牧师的话在报纸上转述时，在关系代词which前误加了一个逗号“，”。这样一来，原本的限制性定语从句顿时变成非限制性定语从句，即：“I will wear no clothes, which will distinguish me form my fellow-man.”一下子句意大相径庭，变成“我不喜欢穿衣服，宁愿赤身裸体，这样就可使我显得与我的同胞不同了。”

据传，见报当天，一片哗然，读者笑倒，牧师昏倒。

5 　关系代词引导的限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的其他语法功能。

限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句有时在一定的上下文中可起到状语从句作用，表示原因、目的、结果、条件、让步等：

The manager gave interviews to a few candidates, from among whom he wanted to choose one.［from among whom...相当于because he wanted to choose one...的意思，表示原因］

Solomon was diligent, responsible, and intelligent, for which he was promoted from a clerk to a manager.［for which...相当于so that he was promoted...的意思，表示结果］

He would be a bad businessman who merely did buying and selling without investigating market potentialities.［主句中的would be加上who merely did，再结合句意来看，可说相当于if he merely did buying and selling without...的意思，表示条件］

Many people who had few advantages in their youth have done great things for their country.［主句，对从句来说，在意思上是个转折，意同Many people, though they had few advantages in their youth, ...表让步］

I wish to write to the newspaper a letter of complaint that will attract public attention to the matter.［that will attract public attention...相当于so that（或that）it may attract public attention to the matter，表示结果］

上述关系代词引导的定语从句所显示的状语功能需视特定的语言环境而定。了解和掌握定语从句的这一特殊功能将有助于我们正确理解原文的含义。

6 　关系代词和关系副词在用法上的区别。

除关系代词外，还有三个关系副词可用来引导定语从句。它们是when (=in/at/on which)，表示时间；where (=in/at/on which)，表示地点；why (=for which)，表示原因。when和where可引导限制性及非限制性定语从句；why只能引导限制性定语从句：

I still remember the day when (=on which) you wore that beautiful pink dress.［限制性］

We shall put off the picnic till next week, when (=at which time) the weather may be fine.［非限制性］

This is the place where (=in which) a large dormitory will be built for the families of our teachers.［限制性］

We went to the Grand Theater, where we saw Ibsen's A Doll's Family（《玩偶之家》）.［非限制性］

There is no reason why (=for which) I should not accept the offer.［限制性］

▶▶ 关系副词在其所引导的定语从句中只能起状语作用，即它引导的从句主谓结构必须完整，如果谓语是及物动词的话，后面需有宾语。掌握这一点对实际应用和应试都很重要。以下是一些常见的病句及对各句的剖析：

例　Caruso came from a place where nobody knew.

［分析］where引导的定语从句中，动词knew系及物动词，缺宾语，where只能起副词作用，不能充当knew的宾语，故须把where改为关系代词which。

例　Let's go to the office in where he works.

［分析］where不能用作介词in的宾语，须把where改为which，即in which he works，或去掉in，成为where he works，where在此句里相当于in which。

例　That is the period in when Clifton lived here.

［分析］when也不能用作介词in的宾语，把when改为which，即in which Clifton lived或去掉in，when Clifton lived here等同于in which Clifton lived here。但when作为关系副词，有一个例外，即它有时可变作代词，通常可作介词since和until/till的宾语，如：I saw her a few months ago, since when (=since that time) I have not heard anything of her。

例　I never understood the reason why he did it for.

［分析］why这里也用作关系副词，不能作for的宾语，改为for which he did it或删掉for，成为why he did it。

例　Constructed (A) in Chicago in 1883, the Home Insurance Building was the first building in the world that (B) the floors and the exterior (C) masonry walls were supported (D) by a skeleton framework of metal.

［分析］B错。在关系代词that引导的定语从句“that the floors and the exterior masonry walls were supported by a skeleton framework of metal”中，主谓结构已完整，故该定语从句不能用that来引导，应改用关系副词where或in which。

例　There comes a time in every man's life_____.

A. then he has to think

B. which he needs

C. when he has to think

D. therefore he has to work hard

［分析］应选C，when系关系副词，在这里同at which，定语从句when he has to think修饰time，不是修饰life，该定语从句主谓结构已完整，故用关系副词when引导。

5. 关系代词as的用法

1 　用于the same...as...，same as ...，such as ...，such...as...，so...as...和as...as...的结构中。

During our visit to Honolulu, we saw so great a Thanksgiving Day parade as nobody had ever dreamt of in our own city. 在我们访问檀香山期间，我们见到了在我们城市谁都不曾梦想过的一次盛大的感恩节游行。

You can buy as many copies of this book as you want. 这本书你要多少本就能买多少本。［第一个as是副词，第二个as是关系代词］

He is as great a calligrapher as ever lived.

=He is one of the greatest calligraphers that ever lived. 他是有史以来最伟大的书法家之一。

These apple are not such asI bought yesterday. 这些苹果不是我昨天买的那一种。

Such people as know Irene like her. 认识艾琳的人都喜欢她。

例　Jacques Yves Cousteau has estimated (A) that only (B) one third to one half as many fish and other forms of marine life live in (C) the oceans now that (D) lived there twenty years ago.

［分析］D错。关系代词that的先行词是fish and other forms of marine life。当先行词前面有as时，引导定语从句的关系代词应用as，即上面所说的as...as结构，故把D改为as。题意是“雅克·伊夫·库斯托已作出估计，20年前生活在海洋中的许多鱼类和其他海洋生物如今只有其中的三分之一到二分之一还存活着。”

2 　用来代表主句所表达的意思。

as作为关系代词还可用来指代它前面或后面的主句所表达的意思。as可置于句首或句子后部，在它所引导的定语从句中必须承担一定的语法成分，即不是作主语就是作宾语：

As you will find out, I will never let you down（决不抛弃你/决不使你失望）.

［分析］as指代I will never let you down，在它引导的定语从句中作find out的宾语。

As is announced in today's newspapers, there will be an earthquake of magnitude 4（4级地震）in the next few days.

［分析］as 代表there will be an earthquake of magnitude 4，在它引导的定语从句中作主语，故as后面不能再加上it。在“As is announced in...”中，is也可省略。

I usually take forty winks（小睡一会儿）after lunch, as is my habit.

［分析］as置于句子后部，在其引导的定语从句中作主语，as后面不能加上it。

Louisa is a bit out of her mind（有点神智失常）, as all her acquaintances can see.

［分析］as代表Louisa is a bit out of her mind，在它所引导的定语从句中作动词see的宾语，故在see后不可再加上it。

His was a Japanese, as we perceived by his accent.（他是日本人，这是我们从他的口音中听出来的。）

［分析］perceived是及物动词，as充当其宾语，故perceived后不能加it。

▶▶ 注意，不要把用作关系代词的as和用作连词的as混淆起来。as用作关系代词时，只能代表一个句子，绝不能代表一个单词。如：

English as spoken in Australia is slightly different from British English.

［分析］as前面只有English一个单词，故as便不是关系代词而是连词，as spoken in Australia=as (it is) spoken in Australia，it指English。

又如Oxford as I see it（我所见到的牛津大学），as之前只有一个单词Oxford，故是连词，在它引导的从句中see是及物动词，后面的it代表Oxford作其宾语，不能省掉。

例　The telephone_____was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell.

A. as is known by us

B. as do we know it

C. as we know it

D. as we know

［分析］as前只有单词telephone，不能用作关系代词，而应作连词用，故正确的选择应是C。如果把上题中的as从句置于句首或句末，这时as便指主句所表达的意思，变成代词，作know的宾语，我们就该选D，即：As we know, the telephone was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell。（或：The telephone was the invention of Alexander Graham Bell, as we know.）

3 　as和which用来指代主句所表达的内容时用法上的区别。

as和which作为关系代词，都能代替主句所表达的意思，区别是：which通常指前面提到的情况或内容，即which引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句后面。as既可指前面已经提到的，也可指后面将提到的内容，有“为人所熟知，显然”的含义；as后面出现be+过去分词结构时，be也可省略。比较：

As（不用which）is known to us all, Cambridge University is one of the most famous institutions of higher learning in the world. 众所周知，剑桥大学是世界最著名的高等学府之一。

More American troops are being sent to the Middle East, as/which I have learnt from the newspaper. 更多的美国部队在被派往中东地区，这是我从报纸上获悉的。

The structure is very complicated, as（不用which，is省略）shown in the figure. 如图所示，这个结构非常复杂。

As（不用which）a poet points out, life is but a dream. 正如一位诗人指出的那样，生活只不过是一场梦。［but用作副词，=only］

4 　as作为代词引导的一些常见结构。

as is well known/as is known to all 众所周知

as is often the case 情况常常如此

as may be imagined 可以想象

as often happens 这种情况常常发生

as has been said before 如前所述

as is usual with sb. 某人经常如此

as is natural 很自然

as is supposed/expected/anticipated 恰如所料

as will be shown in... 将在……中指出

6. 关系代词but的用法

1 　but用作关系代词时，作“who/that...not...”或“which...not...”解，用在否定结构后面。

There is no rule（否定）but has exceptions. 没有一条规则没有例外。（即条条规则都有例外。）

=There is no rule that does not have exceptions.（即同：Every rule has exceptions.）

There is no one here（否定）but has applied for a scholarship. 这里人人申请过奖学金。

=There is no one here who has not applied for a scholarship.（即同：Everyone here has applied for a scholarship.）

▶▶ but这一结构通过双重否定以达到强烈肯定的修辞效果。我们就可用这一结构来英译这一汉语句子“没有人不同情这么多海啸受难者。”⇒“There is no man but feels pity for the numerous tsunami victims.”

2 　but前的否定结构往往采用省略形式。

No rule but has exceptions.

No one here but has applied for a scholarship.

例　There is (A) no work (B) whatever what (C) he can (D) criticize.

［分析］句中whatever作副词，作“一点……也（at all）”解，用在疑问句或否定句里。题句中第一部分=There is no work at all，系否定结构，故C错，应改为but。There is no work whatever but he can criticize.=There is no work whatever (=There is no work at all) that he can not criticize.双重否定表示强烈肯定。

例　There are very few rules of grammar_____.

A. that are not with exceptions

B. but have exceptions

C. not having exception to them

D. not with exception to them

［分析］选B，句子前部属否定结构，but这里作“that/which...not...”解；but have exceptions等同于that do not have exceptions。

十、连接代词

关系代词who，whom，whose和which也可用作连接代词；除这些词外，还有what这一连接代词。

1. 连接代词和关系代词的异同

1 　表现在先行词上。

关系代词前面必须有一个先行词，关系代词引导的定语从句是用来修饰它的先行词的：

Bobby is the pleasantest colleague that I have ever worked with.

［分析］关系代词that引导的定语从句修饰其先行词colleague，如果删去该先行词，例句的结构便不完整，成为病句。

▶▶ 连接代词则没有先行词，如：

We don't know whom we should turn to for help.

［分析］这里的whom用作连接代词，作“the person whom”解，字义中已含有先行词“person”，故whom前不能再有先行词。

2 　表现在语法功能上。

关系代词只能引导定语从句，在定语从句中作句子中某一成分。连接代词引导的不是定语从句，而是主语从句、宾语从句和表语从句，在从句中也是作某一成分，即主语、宾语、定语或表语。如：

A. 引导主语从句。

Who will preside over the meeting is still unknown. 谁主持会议仍不得而知。［在从句中作主语］

What my future will be like is still uncertain. 我的前途如何仍是个未知数。［What充当介词like的宾语在从句中与like一起用作表语］

Which is cause and which is effect（何者为因，何者为果）need not be argued（不需辩论，即不辩自明）.［在从句中作主语］

B. 引导宾语从句。

I went to him for help, and he gave me what money he had（把仅有的钱都给了我）.［在从句中作定语，what money he had=all the money that he had］

You know who he is and what he is（他是干什么的）.［在从句中都作表语］

This brings us to（使我们面临）the problem of what is to be done（该怎么办）.［在从句中作主语］

C. 引导表语从句。

The important thing is what a man does, not what he says.［在从句中作宾语］

Joesphine is not who she seemed to be（现在不像她本来的样子）.［在从句中也作表语］

从上面例句中可以看出，连接代词具有双重语法功能：① 引导从句（主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句），② 在所引导的从句中作句子成分（主语、宾语、定语或表语）。在实际应用中，连接代词who的格则取决于它的第二语法功能，即看它在所引导的从句中作什么成分而决定用who，whom，whose。如：

Do you know who broke the glass?

［分析］动词know的宾语不是who，而是宾语从句who broke the glass，who在其引导的从句中作主语成分，故用who，不能用whom。

Whom you choose as your tutor（导师）matters a lot to you（对你关系很大）.

［分析］whom引导主语从句，但在其引导的主语从句中作choose的宾语，故用whom。

Do you know whose dictionary it is?

［分析］连接代词whose引导一个宾语从句，在从句中whose作定语修饰dictionary，故用属格whose。

例　Because they usually receive the same score on standardized examinations, there is often disagreement as to_____is the better student, Bob or Helen.

A. who

B. which

C. whom

D. whose

［分析］题中介词as to的宾语是who引导的宾语从句（who is the better student, Bob or Helen），在该从句中who起主语作用，故应选A。

例　If you had told us earlier_____he was, we could have introduced him at the meeting.

A. who

B. which

C. whom

D. whoever

［分析］也应选A (who)，因在who引导的宾语从句中，主语是he，who作表语，即主语补语，需用主格。

2. 连接代词和疑问代词的转化

1 　连接代词转化为疑问代词时的语序问题。

连接代词用在直接的特殊疑问句中便称为疑问代词（Interrogative Pronoun），通常采用主谓倒装的疑问句形式，但当疑问代词用作主语或用作定语修饰主语时，主谓便不倒置。

A. 用作主语（主谓不倒置）。

Who is to take up the job? 谁来承担这一项工作？

Whose is more practical? 谁的更实用些？

What happened next? 后来怎么样？

Which is yours? 哪个是你的？

B. 用作宾语（主谓倒置）。

What do you mean? 你这是什么意思？

Which do you want? 你要哪一个？

Whose are you going to borrow? 你准备借谁的？

With whom did you go? 你和谁一起去的？

▶▶ 注意，whom用作介词宾语时，如果介词移至句末，whom则改用主格，在口语体中尤其如此。如：

To whom do you wish to speak?

Who do you wish to speak to?

About whom are you talking?

Who are you talking about?

C. 用作表语（主谓倒置）。

Who are those men? 那些人是谁？

What is your mother? 你妈妈是干什么的？

Mary and Susan are twins（双胞胎）and which is which（谁是谁）, can you tell me?［第二个which用作主语，但第一个which用作表语，故主谓仍需倒装］

Whose is it? 这是谁的？

D. 用作定语（修饰表语或宾语，主谓倒置）。

Whose parasol is this? 这是谁的阳伞？

At which station should I change trains? 我应在哪个火车站换车？

What harm does it do after all? 这究竟有什么害处呢？

E. 用作定语（修饰主语，主谓不倒置）。

What books are in your bag? 你书包里有什么书？

Which train will leave for Beijing? 哪趟火车是开往北京的？

Whose bicycle was stolen last night? 昨晚谁的自行车被偷了？

▶▶ 注意what和which在应用时含义上的区别。what指不定数目或范围中的“什么”，which指一定数目或范围中的“什么”。如：

What fruit do you like best? 你最喜欢什么水果？

Which do you like better, pears or apples? 梨和苹果你更喜欢哪一个？

What book is he reading? 他在读什么书？

Which book is he reading?（这几本书中间）他在读哪一本书？

例　One important aspect of the controversy of abortion (A) is whether a woman (B) should be permitted by law to have an (C) abortion and, if so, under which (D) circumstances.

［分析］乍看之下，我们会认为不是A错便是C错，但实际上A和C都对，因abortion（人工流产）可用作不可数名词和可数名词。

这句话意为“关于人工流产争论的一个重要方面是，法律是否该允许妇女进行人工流产；如果允许的话，该在什么样的情况下进行人工流产。”显然，题句并未说明在一定的或限定的情况下允许妇女进行人工流产，即无范围限制，因而不能用which，故D错，需改为what。

▶▶ 但当特殊疑问句中含有do (did) you think (suppose, say, suggest, know)等插入语时，疑问代词或疑问副词不论在句中作什么成分主谓一概不倒置，即：

What do you think I ought to see first? 你认为我应该先看什么？

How long did she say she would stay here? 她说她要在这里待多久？

When do you know they will be back? 你知道他们什么时候回来？

Where do you suggest we should go during the summer holidays? 你建议我们暑假去哪里？

例　There's a police car in front of our neighbor's house. What do you suppose_____?

A. is happened

B. has happened

C. would happen

D. did happen

［分析］题中do you suppose是插入语，应选B。A错，因happen是不及物动词，不能用于被动语态。C和D不合时态。

2 　疑问代词转化为连接代词时的语序问题。

然而，当特殊疑问句充当另一句中的主语、宾语或表语时，该特殊疑问句就成为间接疑问句。在间接疑问句中，一律采用主谓不倒置的陈述句语序，这时疑问代词也就转化为连接代词。这儿也顺便说明一下，疑问副词when，where，how，why在它们引导的间接疑问句中也转化为连接副词，语序也由主谓倒置的疑问句形式改为主谓不倒置的陈述句模式。试比较：

What are they after? 他们追求的是什么？［what是直接疑问句中的疑问词，主谓倒置］

What they are after is profit.［what在其中的疑问句中引导主语从句，变成间接疑问句，主谓不倒置，what充当主语，也由疑问词变成连接代词］

At which station should I change trains?［直接疑问句，主谓倒置］

Could you tell me at which station I should change trains?［充当宾语从句，主谓不倒置］

Whose parasol is it?［主谓倒置］

Do you know whose parasol it is?［主谓不倒置，因充当宾语从句，成为间接疑问句］

Where is the booking office（售票处）?［主谓倒置］

Could you tell me where the booking office is?［间接疑问句，主谓不倒置］

How can we raise our efficiency?［主谓倒置］

Let's see how we can raise our efficiency.［间接疑问句，主谓不倒置］

由连接代词或连接副词所引导的间接疑问句的语序是一个在讲、写和测试中经常碰到的问题，需牢牢掌握。

例　Botanists are not sure where the first plant was grown or even_____.

A. what plant was

B. it was what plant

C. what plant was it

D. what plant it was

［分析］应选D，在上题中what plant it was系间接疑问句，须用主谓不倒置的陈述句语序。

例　It is not known exactly when (A) the first immigrants arrived (B) in the New World, but where did that event occur (C) is certain (D).

［分析］C错。在but引导的并列句中，连接副词where引导的疑问句充当主语从句，成为间接疑问句，也须用陈述句语序，主谓不能倒置，故把C改为where that event occurred。

3. 连接代词的合成词

1 　连接代词的合成。

who，whom，what，which同-ever构成合成连接代词，相当于anyone who或anything that等。它们所指的对象是不确定的，在现代英语中用得很普遍。这些合成代词可以引导主语从句和宾语从句，并在所引导的从句中作主语、宾语或定语，也就是说，它们具双重语法功能。如：

A. whoever，whomever

Whoever breaks the law (=Anyone who breaks the law) shall be punished.［引导主语从句，在从句中作主语］

Women should enjoy complete freedom to marry whomever they might desire (=anyone whom they might desire).［引导宾语从句，在从句中作desire的宾语］

B. whichever

All the samples are here. You can take whichever you like (=any sample you like).［引导宾语从句，在从句中作like的宾语］

I'll buy whichever (=anything that) is cheapest.［引导宾语从句，在从句中作主语］

C. whatever

We give the decorator a free hand in doing our apartment over（让装潢的人放手重新装修我们的公寓）. He may do whatever he likes (=anything that he likes).［引导宾语从句，在从句中作likes的宾语］

Rick is outspoken（心直口快）. He'll just say whatever comes into his head（想到什么就说什么）.［引导宾语从句，在从句中作主语］

例　Free theater tickets will be sent to_____phones us first.

A. whomever

B. whosoever

C. whoever

D. forever

［分析］根据上文所说，合成代词的第一功能是引导从句，第二功能是在其所引导的从句中必须起到一个句子成分的作用，不是作主语就是作宾语或定语。此题中介词to的宾语是一个从句，该从句已具备动宾结构（phones us），而缺主语，故应选C whoever。

从上题中也可看出，合成代词whoever/whomever同连接代词who/whom一样，应视该合成代词在它引导的从句中所作的句子成分而决定用主格形式whoever还是宾格形式whomever。

2 　whatever，whichever，who(m)ever含义上的区别。

whatever和whichever在含义上的区别犹如what和which的区别。whatever指不定数目中的不论什么（用于物），who(m)ever指不定数目中的不论谁（用于人），两词均用于不限定的范围；whichever指一定数目中的不论什么（用于人、物均可），用于限定的范围内。试比较：

Whoever comes will be welcome. 谁来都会受到欢迎。［用于不限定的范围，指人］

Ask whomever you like. 问一下你喜欢的任何人。［用于不限定的范围，指人］

Whatever he does he does well. 不论干什么，他总是干得很好。［表示不限定的范围，指事物］

One should stick to whatever one has begun. 不论着手做什么，都应锲而不舍。［表示不限定的范围，指事物］

Whichever of you comes in first in the hundred-meter dash（在百米赛跑中得第一名）will receive a prize.［指of you中的不论谁，范围限定，用于人］

All the magazines are here. You can borrow whichever you want. 所有的杂志都在这里。你想借哪一本就借哪一本。［指这里所有杂志中的随便哪一本，范围限定，用于物］

例　“Is there any particular dessert you would like to have?”

“_____you select is all right with me.”

A. Whatever

B. One

C. Why

D. Whichever

［分析］题句的含义是表示一个在一定范围内的选择，故应选D (Whichever)，而不能选A (Whatever）。

4. 连接代词what的用法

what在应用及应试中出现率很高，用法也较复杂，故专列一项加以说明。

1 　what既可用于物，又可用于人。

用于物时同the thing(s) which/that，用于人时同the person that。如：

Thank you for the gift. This is exactly what I want.［用于物］

I like Durkin. He never pretends to be what he isn't. 我喜欢德金。他从不装模作样。［用于人］

上列的定义和例子说明what的含义已包括先行词，它前面已不能再带有先行词，因而不能说This is the book what I want，但可以说This is the book that（或which）I want或This is what I want，换句话说，前面有先行词时，则按情况用that, which或who;无先行词时，必须用what。

例　Any meat what (A) has been preserved (B) by drying (C) is called (D)“jerky”.

［分析］A错。因前面已有先行词meat，需把what改为that。注意，先行词meat为any所修饰，先行词前有only，any或no时，不管指人或事物一律用that而不用which或who。

例　Gail Sheehy's“Passage,”what (A) discusses (B) the continuing (C) psychological development of normal adults, is a most (D) profound and important book.

［分析］A错，改为which，但不能用that，因所引导的是一个非限制性的定语从句。

2 　what在其引导的从句中还可用作定语。

代词what在它所引导的主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句中除作主语、宾语或表语外，还可作定语。如：

My uncle deposits what money (=all the money that) he saves in a bank. 我叔父把他所积攒的钱全存入银行中了。

Don't worry. I will give you what help (=any help that或as much help as) I can. 别担心，我会尽我所能帮助你。

例　The main facts in human life are five: birth, food, sleep, love and death. One could increase the number — breathing for instance — but these five are the most obvious. Let us briefly ask ourselves_____our lives.

A. they play in what part

B. they play what part in

C. what part they play in

D. in what part they play

［分析］应选C。注意上题中，One could increase the number后面省略了of the main facts。在what part they play in our lives这一宾语从句中，what作定语，what part置于从句句首，in our lives作状语修饰play。D中介词in的位置不当。B中what part应置于they play之前。A不合语法。

▶▶ what在从句中作定语用时，还可以和few，little连用，修饰名词，有时也可省去few，little，表示“尽管不多但已是全部……”的意思：

I will lend you what few reference books (=all the few reference books that) I can spare. 我愿把我现在不用的为数不多的参考书全部借给你。

We contributed what little money (=all the little money that) we had towards the earthquake-stricken area. 我们把仅有的为数不多的钱全捐献给了地震灾区。

▶▶ 有时介词可以放what前，也可以放在句末。如：

What did you do it for?=For what did you do it? (For what=Why)

但在以下短语中，介词放what之前，属固定搭配：

By what means did they get there?（凭什么方法）

In what circumstances will they give up?（在什么情况下）

In what respect are their measures better?（在哪方面）

At what time did he buy such a large house?（在什么时候）

In what way will you solve the problem?（用什么方式）

3 　what作连接代词时的两个特殊结构。

A. what作连接代词用时可用来表示比喻，即A is to B what X is to Y。

其中A、B是主体，X、Y是喻体，相当于汉语的“A对于B犹如（就如，正如）X对于Y一样”。例如：

Intellect is to the mind what sight is to the body. 智力对于思想，犹如视力对于身体一样。

Parks are to the city what lungs are to the body. 公园对于都市正如肺对于人的身体一样。

在上列结构中what也可换用as，意思不变：

⇒ Intellect is to the mind as sight is to the body.

⇒ Parks are to the city as lungs are to the body.

例　Reading is to the mind_____food is to the body.

A. what

B. that

C. which

D. of which

［分析］显然应选A，句意是“读书对于思想犹如食物对于身体一样。”

B. what is called, what we call, what they call 等表示“所谓的”。

This is what is called“market economy”. 这就是所谓的市场经济。

It is what you call a“new fashion”. 这就是你所谓的“新潮”。

Some of what we call great books are written in blood and tears. 有些我们所称的巨著都是用血泪写成的。

C. what作为连接代词通常用于引导插入语结构。

其句型是：what is (was)+比较级形容词。在这一结构中what泛指下文所讲的话，作“而且；更……；更有甚者”解：

Tom participated and, what is more surprising（尤其使人惊讶的是），won first prize.

I have the document and, what is more（而且），I mean to keep it.

Eddie is clever and, what is better still（而且），very diligent.

What was worse（更糟的是）, my father lost all his money in the business.

4 　what的合成词whatever作副词用时的搭配。

what的合成词whatever常和no，not，any，anything，nothing等并用在疑问句或否定句里，起副词作用，作“一点也……（at all）”解：

There is no doubt whatever. 毫无疑问。

Is there any hope whatever? 有点希望吗？

I know nothing of her whatever. 关于她我一点也不知道。

▶▶ 需要注意的是，whatsoever也可这么用，但太正式，在现代英语里已极少用。故两词如同时出现在同一选择题时，应选whatever。

例　“What do you think about Larry?”

“He has no sense_____.”他一点头脑也没有。

A. what

B. nevertheless

C. whatsoever

D. whatever

［分析］如果选择中没有whatever，可选C，但现在须选D，因whatsoever已远远不如whatever那么常用。

5 　what的常用习语。

and what not 其他；等等

Mr. Parker sends me regularly some books, magazines, newspapers, pictorials and what not. 派克先生定期给我送来一些书籍、杂志、报纸、画报等等。

give sb. what for 严斥（某人）；痛打（某人）

My father got angry with my little brother for playing truant and gave him what for. 我父亲对我弟弟逃学动了肝火，把他打了一顿。

guess what 告诉你一个消息

Guess what! The boss is getting married! 告诉你一个好消息！老板快结婚了！

I'll tell you what 我有一个主意；我告诉你怎么办

I'll tell you what: let's hide the money! 我有个主意：咱们把钱藏起来吧。

know what's what 内行；有判断力

When it comes to statistics, he knows what's what. 谈到统计学，他是内行。

Our manager will make a sensible decision; he knows what's what. 我们经理将作出一个明智的决定，他很有判断力。

know what one's about 有头脑；会处理困难局面

There's no need to worry about your son. He knows what he's about. 不必为你儿子担心，他很有头脑。

It's a difficult task, but he knows what he's about. 这是个艰巨的任务，但他能处理。

or what 还是别的什么

Mr. Clinton is angry with me. I don't know whether I've offended him or what. 克林顿先生在生我的气，我不知道哪里得罪了他还是别的什么。

so what 那又怎么样

A: He doesn't like you. 他可不喜欢你。

B: So what?（不喜欢我）那又怎么样？

what about=how about ……怎么样？

What about staying here till Sunday and leaving for San Jose next Monday? 我们在这里待到星期天，下星期一再去圣何塞，你看怎么样？

what...do with... 处置；度过（时间等）

What shall we do with the back numbers of those magazines? 我们怎样处理那些过期的杂志？

What did you do with yourself during the winter holidays? 你寒假是怎样度过的？

what for或what...for 干吗；做什么用

“I'm going to Moscow.”“What for（干什么）?”

What did you do that for? 干吗干那事？

What's this for? 这做什么用？

what have you=and what not等等

If you want pencils, paper, reference books or what have you, please let me know. 如需要铅笔、纸张、参考书或其他什么东西，请告诉我好了。

what if... 如果……怎么办；要是……如何？

What if he finds out that you have lost his thesis? 如果他发现你弄丢了他的论文，那怎么办？

what's what 具体情况；真相

It won't take you long to learn what's what in this job. 要不了多久，你就能了解这项工作中的具体情况。

He'll show you what's what in time. 他会及时把事情的真相告诉你的。

what of it 那又有什么关系；那又怎么样？

A: I'm afraid you have offended him（冒犯了他）.

B: Well, what of it（那又怎么样呢）?

what with...and (what with) ……一则因……，一则因……；由于……种种原因

What with its inferior equipment and what with its outdated technique, the factory eventually closed down. 一方面由于设备差，一方面由于技术落后，该工厂终于倒闭了。

What with one thing and another, I can't come to you this Sunday. 由于种种原因，这个星期天我不能来你这儿了。

十一、不定代词

不定代词有all, both, each, every (-thing, -body, -one), nothing, nobody, no one, none, either, neither, other, another, one, many, much, some, no, enough等，其中一部分拟在一致性中讲述。

多数不定代词都能作主语、宾语、表语或定语，但none以及some, any, no, every的合成代词（如someone, nobody等）只能作主语、宾语或表语，而every和no只能作定语。这里就实际应用中较为常见的不定代词加以论述。

1. both，all

1 　both和all用法上的区别。

both用于两者，all用于三者及三者以上。故后面均跟复数名词，动词也采用复数形式：

A. 用作主语。

Both of us are fond of music.

All of us are fond of music.

B. 用作宾语。

I'll take both of the books with me.

I'll take all of the books with me.

C. 用作定语［注意the只可用在both和all后面，不能用在它们前面］。

Both (the) girls are out.

All (the) girls are out.

D. 用作同位语［位置在verb to be之后或实义动词之前］。

在be后面

Juan and Adams are both to blame.

Juan, Mike and Adams are all to blame.

在实义动词之前

Juan and Adams both agreed to cooperate.

Juan, Mike and Adams all agreed to cooperate.

2 　在实际应用和应对考试时需注意的问题。

A. both和alike连用的问题。

both和alike一起用，这是个常见的错误，因alike等同于like one another，已含有“相互（both）”的意思：

（×）Bill and Freddy are both very much alike.

（√）Bill and Freddy are very much alike.［删去both］

B. both和as well as连用的问题。

both可和and连用构成关联连词，但不能和as well as一起用：

（×）Eleanor knows both French as well as Spanish.

（√）Eleanor knows French as well as Spanish.

（√）Eleanor knows both French and Spanish.

C. both不能和two，together或each other连用。

（×）The two girls are both equally intelligent.［删去both］

（×）They both appeared together.［删去both］

（×）Both of them point a finger at each other. 他们俩相互指责。［删去both，改为They point a finger at each other.］

D. both...and...后所接的单词或短语在语法结构上须一致，即须采用平行或排比结构。

Both his hands and feet were hurt.（×，不平行）

Both his hands and his feet were hurt.（√，平行）

Both in Beijing and Shanghai.（×，不平行）

Both in Beijing and in Shanghai.（√，平行）

In both Beijing and Shanghai.（√，平行）

He enjoys a high reputation both at home and abroad.［√，at home是介词短语，abroad是副词，结构上看似不平行，但两者都用作状语，语法功能相同，也作为平行结构来处理］

E. both的几个习语。

both of a hair 彼此一样

The two guys are scoundrels, both of a hair. 这两个家伙都是坏东西，是一路货色。

both sides of the medal 问题的两方面；事情的正反两面

The person on the spot often has less chance of seeing both sides of the medal than the person at a distance. 当事人看问题往往不如旁观者看得全面。

It is sensible to take both sides of the medal into account. 看问题要同时考虑正反两面才是明智的。

good for both sides 两全其美

I think his suggestion is, indeed, good for both sides. 我认为他的建议是两全其美的。

F. both和all都强调整体，如要说明其中每一个，按习惯用法，应用each。

I sent a letter to both (or: all) of them. 意为：写了一封信给他们两个人（或所有的人）。

I sent a letter to each of them. 意为：给他们每一个人写了一封信。

3 　代词all的用法。

A. all用作形容词表示总括性的意思时接复数名词。

表示“包括全体中的每一个或每一类”即“一切的；所有的”这一具有总括性的意思时，all接复数名词。

All dogs are faithful animals.

All men are equal. 凡人皆平等。

We must defend our country at all costs. 我们必须不惜一切代价保卫我们的国家。

Rescue ships looked for the missing boat in all directions. 救生船四处寻找那条失踪的船。

B. all作形容词，表示整体或集体概念时后接单数名词。

all Europe 整个欧洲

all day 整天

all the world 全世界

all night 整夜

all one's life 整个一生；一辈子

all week 整个星期

all morning 整个上午

例　All (A) village tribe of the North American Indian confederacy（联盟）had its annual (B) green corn dance, a festival (C) in which socialties (D) were renewed.

［分析］句意表示的是“北美印第安人联盟中的每一个村庄部落”，着重的不是总括性而是个体性，而且句中出现单数物主代词its，可见all是错的，应把A改为every。

C. all作形容词表示“any”或“the greatest possible”时，all通常接单数名词。

As the task was urgent, we worked with all speed (=with the greatest possible speed). 因任务紧急，我们以尽可能快的速度工作。

We welcome all criticism (=any criticism) of our work. 欢迎对我们的工作提出任何批评。

D. all作形容词用在否定句里，表示“一点也没有”时，接单数名词。

The authenticity of the news is beyond all doubt. 这则消息的可靠性是不容怀疑的。［beyond all doubt=beyond any doubt］

That his conclusion is correct is past all dispute. 他的结论是正确的，这一点无可争辩。［past all dispute=past any dispute］

E. all用作形容词时三个常见的搭配。

• of all+复数名词

系习惯表达法，相当于汉语“偏偏”的意思：

He disappeared on his wedding day of all days. 他偏偏在他结婚的那天失踪。

Why ask him, of all people? 干吗偏偏问他？

Well, of all things! 唔，万万想不到！

• almost+all

almost和all常搭配使用，但most和all则不能连用，这是一个较为常见的错。

例　Buying (A) the textbooks for his course, paying his tuition, and renting a locker took most (B) all the money he had (C) saved from (D) his summer job.

［分析］B错，把most改为almost，便可和all连用。

注：tuition［tju'i∫n］ n. 学费　locker［'lɔkə］ n. 寄物柜

例　I like eating in the cafeteria. I like_____food.

A. almost all the

B. the most of

C. nearly all of

D. almost of the

［分析］应选A。C需在of后另加the，即nearly all of the food，但不及almost all of the food普通。B和D均不合语法。

• for（或with）+all+one's表示“尽管……”

For all their opposition, I will go my own way. 不管他们怎么反对，我仍走自己的路。

With all his wealth, he is not happy. 尽管他十分富有，他并不幸福。

F. all作代词意指“the whole number, quantity or amount (of)”时，可用于单复数场合。

a. 复数场合。

All of the people are in favor of the plan.［代词all用作主语］

They all went together.［all用作复数主语they的同位语］

b. 单数场合。

All of the information is outdated.

All of the wine is spilt（泼翻了）.

The child ate all of the cake.

注意：上面五例中单数及复数名词前的定冠词the不能省去，all of后面宾语的数决定谓语动词的数。

c. 代词all单独使用时后面动词数的问题。

① 作“all people”解时，接复数动词：

All are agreed. 大家一致同意。

All are silent. 大家都不吭声。

All were saved except a sick old man. 除一个生病的老人外，所有的人都被救出来了。

All that live must die. 生者必有死。

② 作“everything”解时，接单数动词：

All was silent. 万籁俱寂。

All is over. 一切都过去了。

All is well. 一切都好/一切顺利。

G. 代词all在句中的正确位置。

all的正常位置应放在be动词后面或放在实义动词前面。如要强化all的意思，可用all of us代替all，句中的位置同all。

All were covered with flakes of snow（雪片，雪花）.

All of us were covered with flakes of snow.

We were all covered with flakes of snow.

We were all of us covered with flakes of snow.

试比较下列的all结构：

all dictionaries（√）［泛指一切辞典］

all such dictionaries（√）［指所有这样的辞典］

all these dictionaries（√）［英式英语］

all those dictionaries（√）［英式英语］

all his/my dictionaries（√）［英式英语］

all of dictionaries（×）［无此结构，应在dictionaries前加上the］

all of such dictionaries（×）［应去掉of（such代替of时便需去掉of）］

all of these dictionaries（√）［美式英语］

all of those dictionaries（√）［美式英语］

all of his/my dictionaries（√）［美式英语］

注：all有时后面可跟两个同位语，例如：

All we students like music.

H. 代词all与物主代词的连用。

代词all可用于物主代词后面，起名词作用，意指“所有的一切”：

Professor Maxwell gave his all to the university where he taught. 麦斯威尔教授把一切都献给了他执教的那所大学。

Mr. Block lost his all in the fire. 布拉克先生在那场火灾中失去了一切。

表示这一意义时，all和单数动词连用：

This is my little all. 这是我的全部所有。

I. all用作副词时数的问题。

all也可作副词，这时可用于单数主语后面：

I am all (=completely) in favor of your suggestion.

Michael is all (=entirely) wrong in his conjecture（猜测）.

4 　both，all，every和not连用时所表示的否定意义。

both，all，every和not连用时所表示的是部分否定（partial negation），不是全部否定（whole negation）：

Both brothers are not here.

Both of the brothers are not here.

The brothers are both not here.

▶▶ 上列三例意指部分否定，作“两兄弟不都在这里”解，即“一个在，一个不在”。如要全部否定，则用neither，neither表示对两者都否定：

Neither brother（或Neither of the brothers）is here.

Life is not all cakes and ales. 人生并不就是吃喝玩乐。

All my friends do not smoke. 我的朋友并不个个都吸烟。

All men can not be artists. 不是所有的人都能成为艺术家的。

Everything he said was not correct. 他所说的话不是每句都正确的。

▶▶ 以上三个例句通常是用下列的方式来表达的；这样，部分否定的意思就很明显：

Not all my friends smoke.

Not all men can be artists.

Not everything he said was correct.

▶▶ 如果改成全部否定，则用none，none表示三者或三者以上的全部否定：

None of my friends smoke.

None can be artists.

None of what he said was correct.

掌握上述表示部分否定的结构不仅有助于我们正确理解句意，而且在对外交往中还可避免不必要的误解。据说多年前某外贸公司的一位外销员收到英国一家公司的来信，要求推销他们的产品，那时恰逢该外贸公司无进口额度，故该外销员把来信往抽屉一放了事。不久，英国公司来信催复，该外销员原来的复文是：We regret we are not interested in your products. 但为了强调起见，原来的复文中再加上all一字，即We are not interested in all your products。这样一来，反而弄巧成拙，因not和all连用构成部分否定的含义，复文的意思便变成“很抱歉，我们对你们的产品不是都感兴趣的。”英国公司立即抓住这一语言上的漏洞来信说“Then how about those products you are interested in?”使该外销员陷入尴尬的局面。莎士比亚也曾运用这一部分否定结构讲了一句富于哲理性的名言：All is not gold that glitters. 这句话是“All that glitters is not gold”的强势式，句子表示了一个部分否定含义，即“闪光发亮的不都是金子。”

J. all的惯用语

all over

① 全部结束，完蛋

When will the league football matches be all over? 足球联赛将何时结束？

If the old patient suffers another relapse of the heart ailment, we are afraid it will be all over with him. 该老年病人的心脏病如再发作一次，恐怕他就要完了。

② 典型地

Michael arrived late and very untidy again — that's Michael all over. 迈克尔又衣衫不整地姗姗来迟——他就是这个样子（或：这种本性）。

all over but the shouting 大功告成，大局已定，胜负已定

After three rounds of competition, the volleyball match was all over but the shouting. 三轮赛程过后，排球比赛结果已成定局。

Tom worked hard in college and graduated with honors last month. When he got his diploma, he said,“It's all over but the shouting.”汤姆念大学时刻苦用功，上个月作为优等生毕业。他拿到毕业文凭时说，“大功告成了。”

all round 全面地，在各方面

Things look much better all round. 看来各方面情况有很多好转。

not all that+形容词 不那么……

I don't agree with you. He is not all that bad. 我不同意你的想法。他不是那么坏。

I never knew he was all that good at playing the violin. 我从不知道他小提琴竟拉得那么出色。

all round the clock 日夜，24小时

The shop does business all round the clock. 该商店日夜（或：24小时）营业。

Our factory operates all round the clock on three shifts. 我们工厂日夜三班倒。

注：在现代英语中也往往用round the clock来替代all round the clock

be all over sb 向某人献殷勤

He wallows in money. That's why those flatterers are all over him. 他富有得在钱里打滚（或：他腰缠万贯）。所以那帮马屁精老是围着他献殷勤。

注：“富有得在钱里打滚”也可用“He is rolling in money.”来表达。“马屁精”flatterer一词有很多同义词，较为常见的有sycophant，creeper，spaniel，subservient，lickspittle，toady等。作者列举这些同义词也客观上说明外国人中庸俗的人也为数不少。顺便一提，“马屁拍到马脚上”可用“flatter a person the wrong way”来表达。

be all in all to sb 是某人最爱的人或物

His son is all in all to him in the world. 在这个世界上他的儿子是他最爱的人。

be all in all to each other 相依为命；亲密无间

Mr. Tyler passed away two years ago. Since then, the mother and the daughter have been all in all to each other. 泰勒先生两年前逝世，自那以后，母女俩相依为命。

The two of them found so much in common that they regretted not having met earlier. Soon they were all in all to each other. 他们俩说得情投意合，只恨相见之晚。不久他们便亲密无间了

all in all 总的说来，从各方面来说

All in all, our research project is a big success. 总的来说，我们的研究计划非常成功。

all the best（告别用语或书信结语）祝一切顺利，万事如意

注：all the best是May all the best things happen to you的简便说法。

when all is said and done 说到底

When all is said and done, Hilary is a most remarkable woman with a strong and sterling character.

说到底，希拉里是个非常出色的妇女，性格坚强而纯正。

all talk and no action 只说不做

Don't take any notice of David, he is all talk and no action. 别理戴维，他只会夸夸其谈。

be all thumbs 手指不灵巧；笨手笨脚

Poor Bob can't play the piano at all. He is all thumbs. 可怜的鲍勃根本弹不来钢琴，他手指一点也不灵巧。

Speaking of doing household chores, my husband is indeed all thumbs. 说起做家务来，我先生实在是笨手笨脚。

go all out 竭尽全力

The weather is bound to change soon. We must go all out to get the harvest in quickly. 天气很快会变，我们得竭尽全力赶快抢收。

all sorts and conditions of men 各种各样的人；各阶层的人

You will meet with all sorts and conditions of men during your trip. 在旅途中，你会遇到各种各样的人。

all the cry 流行；时尚，时髦

Clothes of simple style are now all the cry. 简单款式的衣服现在很流行。

注：“很时髦，很流行”也可用“all the go，all the fashion，all the rage或all the vogue”来表达。

go all the way to do sth 尽最大努力做某事

The writer went all the way to complete his novel in time. 该作者尽最大努力按期完成了他的长篇小说。

go all the way with sb 同某人意见完全一致

I agree with much of what you do, but I can not go all the way with you. 在许多方面我都同意你所做的，但不是什么都同意。

all the way from.. to...=between... and... 在……和……之间

The damage made by the earthquake and tsunami in Japan is estimated all the way from 2.5 to 3 billion US dollars. 日本地震和海啸造成的损失估计在25到30亿美元之间。

all very fine 听起来或看起来很好（而实际不然）

What you said is all very fine, but how to put it into practice? 你所说的听起来不错，但怎么把它付诸实施呢？

all yours 拿去吧！全送你！

These books and novels are all yours. 这些书和小说全送给你了。

be at an all-time high/low ……空前地高涨/……处于历来最低点

Prices are at an all-time high. 物价空前高涨。

Relations between the two countries are at an all-time low. 这两国关系比以往任何时候更糟糕。

注：在上例这个all-time习用语中，record可用来替代all-time，意思不变，如be at a record high/a record low。此外，还可用动词reach, hit, rise, ascend, fall, drop等来替换be。如Prices reach (hit) an all-time high./Output falls (drops) to an all-time low./Stock prices dropped (fell) to an all-time low. 股票价格跌入历史低谷。

2. either，neither，any，each，none，every，some

1 　either的用法及句型。

either用于两者，作“两者中任何一个都……”解，可作名词及形容词用，其句型是：

either（名词）of the+复数名词+单数动词

either（形容词）+单数名词+单数动词

如：Either of these words is correct. 这两个字哪一个都正确。［句中these words只能指两个字，因either含有“两者中任何一个”之意］

Either word (=Either of these words) is correct.

2 　either和each的区别。

either指“两者中每一个”，但只限于两者，两者以上需用each（each也可用于两者）。

There are two books. Either of you can take one.（√）

There happen to be（碰巧有）three books. Either of you three can take one.（×）［应把Either改为Each］

3 　neither的用法。

neither意指“两者中任何一个都不……”，用法和either完全相同：

这两个字哪一个都不正确。

Neither of these words is correct.

Neither word is correct.

例　Having studied your report carefully, we are convinced (A) that neither (B) of your suggestions (C) are (D) workable.

［分析］D错。neither of跟复数名词，但接单数动词，故把are改为is。

4 　either和both在含义上的差别。

either和both可互换使用，意义不变。either着重两者中的每一个，both则着重两者的整体。

The street is lined with trees on both sides.［指街道的两边树木成行］

The street is lined with trees on either side.［指街道的每一边］

Both of them are good enough for me.［指两者整体］

Either of them is good enough for me.［指两者中每一个］

例　The relationship (A) of Latin American music to Black music in the United States is clearly evident (B) in the unaccented beats that are (C) common to either (D).

［分析］句意是“拉丁美洲音乐同美国黑人音乐的关系明显地表现在这两种音乐各自存在着无重音节拍这一共同点上。”故D中的either用作名词，后面省略了（of them），them指Latin American music及Black music。在此句中either换用both也可。either表示“两种音乐中的任何一种”，着重个体，both则表示“两种音乐都……”，强调的是整体。试题中错的是B，形容词evident已包含clear之意，因而clearly evident犯了修辞上被称为重叠（redundancy）的毛病，需把clearly删掉。

上面讲述了either和both的可换性，但需注意，在个别情况下这两字就不能换用。如：

You may go either way. 两条路走哪条都可以。

You may go both ways. 两条路都可以走，变成“同时可以走两条不同的道路”，不合逻辑。

5 　any的用法。

any指“三者或三者以上中的任何一个”，动词也采用单数形式：

Any (one) of these three words is correct.

Any of my friends（指三个或三个以上）is able to do it.

▶▶ 比较either和any

Do you know any of the teachers?［至少有三个老师］

Do you know either of the teachers?［只有两个老师］

I don't like any of them. (=I like none of them.)

I don't like either of them. (=I like neither of them.)

6 　none的用法。

none指“三者或三者以上中的任何一个都不”，是三者或三者以上的否定词。如：

None of these three words are (is) correct.

None of my friends are (is) able to do it.

关于none of后面的动词的数的问题，“一致性”一章会详细叙述。具体情况请大家参阅相关说明。

7 　any修饰主语或any的复合词作主语时需注意的问题。

any修饰主语或any的复合词用作主语时，后面不能跟否定谓语动词。如：

Any book cannot solve this problem.（×）

Any man cannot lift this mahogany（红木）chair with one hand.（×）

Anything does not attract his attention.（×）

Anybody cannot read so fast as he does.（×）

上面列举的四个句子都是汉语思维的中式英语，不合英语习惯表达法，应改为：

⇒ No book can solve this problem.

⇒ No man（或None）can lift this mahogany chair with one hand.

⇒ Nothing attracts his attention.

⇒ Nobody can read so fast as he does.

8 　any和some用法上的区别。

any和some作代词时的用法和作形容词用时一样，any用于否定句、条件句或疑问句；some则用于肯定句。

I want a few envelopes. If you have any, give me some.［any用于条件从句，some用于肯定主句］

I am looking for some matches.［some作形容词用于肯定句中］

Have you any matches?［any作形容词用于疑问句］

I haven't any matches.［any作形容词用于否定句］

▶▶ 如果期待对方的肯定答复时，问句则用some，而不用any。试看下面两个疑问句用some所表示的含义：

Is someone coming this evening?［含义是：对方正在忙着作准备，估计今晚肯定有人来］

Have you lost something?［含义是：你看来在找东西，估计丢了什么东西］

▶▶ 如果以问句的形式向对方提出要求或邀请时，也用some：

Could you let me have some money, mother?［问句的实质是一个请求，故用some］

Won't you try some of this cake?［这是个邀请，以疑问句形式出现，也用some］

9 　any和some的复合词用法上的区别。

any(-thing, -body, -one)和some(-thing, -body, -one)用法上的区别犹如any与some：

There is something I want to ask you.［用于肯定句］

Is there anything you want me to do?［用于疑问句］

There is someone who wants to see you.［用于肯定句］

There is something I want to ask you.［用于肯定句］

Is there anyone here?［用于疑问句］

Is there anything you want me to do?［用于疑问句］

There isn't anything in that room.［用于否定句］

There isn't anything I want to ask you.［用于否定句］

If anything happens, let me know at once.［用于条件句］

例　Some ingenious literary detectives suggest (A) that Shakespeare's plays were, in fact, written by Bacon or Oxford or Derby or anyone else (B) who preferred (C) to remain unknown as a playwright (D).

［分析］B错。anyone用于否定、条件、疑问句，而someone则用于肯定句。题句表示的是一个肯定的意思，故把B改为someone else。

例　He had the look (A) of a man who (B) sees a ghost or something (C) worse, if something (D) can be.

［分析］D错。一般说，something不用于条件句，故把something改为anything。if anything can be系省略句，完整句为if anything can be worse than seeing a ghost。

▶▶ 但anyone有时在句中可具有汉语“无论是谁”的意思，这时可用于肯定句中。如：

Anyone can apply for the scholarship. 谁都可以申请那项奖学金。

Anyone who does that is wasting his time and money. 不论谁做那样的事，都是在浪费时间和金钱。

例　“Do you mind if Edward rides in your car?”

“Yes, I do. I'll be glad to take_____Edward.”

A. somebody else than

B. anybody but

C. some other person but

D. anyone else than

［分析］应选B。anybody but Edward的意思是“除爱德华外，无论是谁都可以”。else than作“除……外还”解，故A和D均不合句意。C错，因but作except解时前面不用other。

注：在口语中somebody，anybody可表示“大人物，重要人物”，反义词nobody“小人物”，例如：

They think themselves somebodies, but in fact they are nobodies. 他们以为自己了不起，但事实上他们什么也不是。

Everybody who was anybody attended the meeting. 重要人物都参加了会议。

10 　修饰复合代词的定语位置及习惯用法。

A. 复合代词anything，something，nothing和everything的定语位置。

通常定语都置于所修饰的名词之前，但这四个代词例外，它们的定语要放在它们后面：

Has anything special happened?

I have something very particular to ask you.

It is wrong to worship and have blind faith in everything foreign（崇洋媚外）.

There is nothing wrong here.

例　Although (A) I expected something differently (B), I was still surprised (C) by what (D) he said.

［分析］乍看之下B不错，副词differently修饰动词expected顺理成章，不成问题，但却忽略两点：① 在此句中differently用来修饰expected会使句意不通。② differently前有代词something，故应把B项中副词differently改为形容词different作后置定语修饰something。C不错，still可和although或though连用，起到强调作用。

注：① 作者对复合代词中的something再补充一些说明，它的定语的位置也需置于其后，如：something special, something queer，不能说special something, queer something；但在它前面的形容词前加上不定冠词a便可以成立，如：a special something, a queer something；something前无形容词只有a也可以，如A something made him sad.（有件事情让他难过。）

② nothing后接含有复数名词的短语时，其谓语动词仍用单数。如：Nothing but two English books and an English-Chinese dictionary is in the satchel.（书包里除了两本英语书和一本英汉词典外别无他物。）

Nothing except lies, excuses and evasions has been heard since the rumors were first published.（自种种谣传公布以来，听到的尽是一片谎言、推诿和辩解之声。）顺便一提，nothing也可用复数形式，如：They are nameless nothings.（他们都是无名之辈。）

③ 在上述四个复合代词中，其中两个有时会用在一起构成哲理性的谚语或表示精辟的见解。如：

To know everything is to know nothing.［谚］样样皆通，样样稀松。

An allround scholar knows something of everything and everything of something. 一位全面的学者通百艺而专一长。

B. anything，something，nothing和everything常见的习惯用法。

→ anything

•be anything of a(n)+单数可数名词［用于疑问句、条件句］=a little of；a bit like 有点……的味道或气质

Is he anything of a scholar? 他有点学者的气质吗？

［用于否定句］=little of 一点儿（也不）；(not) at all根本（不）

I have not seen anything of Tom lately. 我近来根本没有见到过汤姆。

•be anything but=not...at all（后接形容词或单数可数名词）

The bridge is anything but safe. 这桥一点也不安全。

That man is anything but a hero. 他根本不是英雄。

A: Did you enjoy the game? 游戏玩得高兴吗？

B: Anything but. 一点也不过瘾。［anything but是省略形式，在口语中时常出现］

• be as...as anything（用于口语体中）……不得了

The job is as easy as anything. 这项工作容易得不得了。

• for anything（通常用于否定句）说什么也

I won't do it for anything. 说什么我也不干此事。

I won't sell it for anything. 这东西出什么样的代价我也不卖。

• for anything sb. knows 就某人所知

He is a trustworthy person for anything I know. 就我所知，他是个值得信赖的人。

• like anything 拼命地

That night she cried like anything. 那晚她大哭了一场。

Gordon works like anything when he is interested in what he is doing. 高登对自己做的事情感兴趣时，就拼死拼活地干。

• if anything 要说有什么两样的话；甚至还

If anything, my new job is worse than my old one. 要说有什么两样的话，我的新工作还不如老的。

Your coming could only make things worse, if anything. 你来甚至还会使事情变得更糟。

• or anything或是其他别的事

If Bernard wants to call me or anything（如果伯纳德要打电话给我或是其他别的什么事找我）, I'll be here all day.

• anything like

①（用于疑问句）多少有点像；几乎，将近

Is your brother anything like you? 你兄弟多少有点像你吗？

Do you think this jade necklace is worth anything like RMB 50,000? 你认为这条翡翠项链差不多值5万人民币吗？

②（用于否定句）全然不，压根儿不

Since she went abroad for further study, he has not remained anything like faithful to her. 自从她出国深造后，他对她根本谈不上忠贞不渝。

• anything of the kind=anything like that; any such thing 这一类；此类事物

Anything of the kind will suit the taste of my husband. 像那一类的东西会合我先生的口味。

• anything from...to... 至少……至多……

My daughter practises the piano anything from two to four hours a day. 我女儿每天练钢琴至少两小时至多四小时。

• Anything doing?=Is it possible? 有门儿吗？办得到吗？

I'd like a lift home in your car this afternoon. Anything doing? 我想今天下午搭乘你的汽车回家，行吗？

• Anything you say. 你说了算。

You are the boss. Anything you say. 你是头儿，你说了算。［Anything you say=Anything you say goes.］

Don't you have anything better to do? 你没有别的事好做吗？

Stop bothering me! Don't you have anything better to do? 别烦我！你难道没别的事好做了吗？

• Just pretend I didn't say anything. 就当我什么也没说过。

A: You're not really going to cheat at the exam, are you? 你不是真的要在考试中作弊吧？

B: Just pretend I didn't say anything. 就当我什么也没说过。

→ something

• be something of a(n)+单数可数名词（用于肯定句）有点……的味道或气质

He is something of an artist. 他有点艺术家的气质。

• be something of the kind 某些类似的东西

This may not be exactly what you want to buy, but I think it's something of the kind. 这也许并不是你要买的东西，不过我看差不离。

• have something going for one（美通俗英语）有某种好条件

Kathy has got something going for her. (=She has ability, talent or good looks to help her to be successful.)

• have something on sb.（美国通俗英语）可以要挟某人，因某人在他手里有把柄

Though Linda is not a good secretary, the boss dare not fire her because she has something on him（因老板有把柄捏在她手里）.

• make something of 利用（某事）从中得到好处；以（某事）为借口而吵架

It's a good part（好角色）; Stephen is sure to make something of it（扮演这一角色定能成名）.

She tried to make something of what I said about her.（她想抓住我说她的那些话寻衅吵架。）

• or something=something like this or that 表示不能十分肯定时用

Stephen is a technician or something. 斯蒂芬是个科技人员或那一类的工作者。

Ann has got a cold or something. 安着了凉或生了类似伤风感冒的病。

• something like 大约；（可用作表语）好极了

I'm not quite sure of the exact price, but it's something like sixty dollars.

That's something like! 了不起/好极了！［用作表语］

• something or other 一样什么东西；一件什么事情

Something or other must have delayed him; it's not like him to be late. 肯定有什么事把他耽搁了，他可不是个喜欢迟到的人。

He must be an expert in something or other, otherwise he will not be treated as such. 他一定是某个方面的权威，不然不会享受专家待遇的。

• something to go on with 目前足以应付（暗示随后还有）

I can't lend you so much now, but I can give you something to go on with. Will $1,000 do? 目前我无法借给你这么多，但可以给你一些应付着用。1000美元够了吗？

• something to write home about=remarkable, unusual or praiseworthy thing 非同寻常的事情；值得大书特书的事情

The art of your violin playing is out of the ordinary, really something to write home about. 你的小提琴演奏艺术不同凡响，确实了不起啊。

• something awful 脏话，难听的话

这是个常用短语，其中something作强调成分，起副词作用来修饰awful，如：

He swore something awful on hearing the news. 他听到那消息破口大骂脏话。

He said something awful. 他讲了句难听的话。

→ nothing

• be nothing but 只是；只有

Don't have him for a friend:he is nothing but a swindler. 别拿他当朋友，他只是一个骗子。

We have nothing but a few eggs for supper. 我们只有几个鸡蛋当晚饭吃。

• be nothing if not（后接形容词）非常

Ian is nothing if not optimistic. 易安非常乐观。

Charles is nothing if not clever. 查尔斯非常聪明。

• be nothing less than=be nothing short of 简直是

The building of this high-rise in a little more than two months is nothing less than（或is nothing short of）a miracle. 两个月多一点就建成这座高层建筑，简直是个奇迹。

• be nothing like（后接as/so...as）绝不如

Henry's work is nothing like as good as Oscar's. 亨利的工作绝不如奥斯卡的好。

It is nothing like so cold today as it was yesterday. 今天一点儿也不像昨天那么冷。

• be nothing to 不能与……相比

My achievement is nothing to yours. 我的成绩同你的不能比。

• come to nothing 失败；没有结果

All their schemes came to nothing. 他们所有的计谋都没实现。

• for nothing

① 免费；不花代价

The lawyer will take the cases of the poor for nothing. 这位律师愿意免费为穷人打官司。

② 白白地；白费；白花

We took all that trouble for nothing. 我们这么多工夫都白花了。

He didn't study statistics for nothing. He is now turning his knowledge to effect. 他的统计学不是白念的，现在把他的知识派上用场了。

③ 无缘无故地

They quarrelled for nothing. 他们无缘无故地吵了一架。

• go for nothing 白费

What I said went for nothing because my son did not pay attention. 我的话白讲了，因为我儿子一点儿也没在意。

• have nothing in（后接人称代词宾格）毫无优点

Ted has nothing in him. 泰德这个人无可取之处。

• have nothing on sb. 不比某人强；没有关于某人的罪证

Even though she is older, Susan has nothing on Cindy in school. 尽管年龄大些，苏珊念书不比辛迪强。

The police have nothing on them; they hid the body very well. 警方没有掌握他们的罪证，他们把尸体藏得非常隐蔽。

• make nothing of

① 不把……当一回事

He makes nothing of committing errors. 他不把犯错误当一回事。

② 不懂或不理解（某事）

The poem is so obscure that I can make nothing of it. 这首诗非常晦涩，我不知道讲的是什么。

③ 未能利用

Richard made nothing of his opportunities. 理查德坐失良机/未能把握住机会。

• next to nothing 几乎没有，几乎什么也不

I bought this ancient coin for next to nothing. 我几乎没花什么钱就买下了这枚古币。

I know next to nothing about higher mathematics. 我对高等数学几乎一无所知。

• nothing doing（用于拒绝别人请求时）不行

A: Will you lend me 100 bucks（100美元）?

B: Nothing doing!

• nothing for it 没有别的办法

With the last bus gone, there is nothing for it; we'll have to walk home. 末班公交车开走了，我们别无他法，只得步行回家。

• nothing like

① 没有什么（东西）能比得上……

There is nothing like practising qigong as a means of keeping fit. 没有比练气功更好的锻炼身体的方式了。

② 不到，不要

Reading this essay should take nothing like half an hour. 这篇散文不要半小时就可读完。

• nothing of the kind

① 哪里的话

A: I'm sorry to cause you trouble. 对不起给你们添麻烦了。

B: Nothing of the kind. 哪里的话。

② 毫不相似的事物

We had expected Professor Harvey to discuss the differences between British English and American English, but he did nothing of the kind. 我们本指望哈维教授讲讲英国英语和美国英语的差别，可他讲的完全不是那么一回事。

• nothing succeeds like success 一事成功什么都顺利；有本事就有人缘

The girls all like Bob because he is football captain. Nothing succeeds like success. 所有的女孩子都喜欢鲍勃，因为他是足球队长。有本事就有人缘。

• think nothing of 认为……没什么

Though nearly sixty, he thinks nothing of playing table tennis for two hours on end. 虽年纪近60，他接连打两个小时乒乓球一点也不觉得什么。

“Thank you for letting me use your typewriter.”“Think nothing of it（没关系）.”

• to say nothing of（=not to mention或let alone）更不用说……

Brenton can't even swim across a river, to say nothing of the English Channel. 布雷顿连一条河也游不过，更不用说英吉利海峡了。

• There is nothing to（to是介词，接动名词或名词）……不难/很容易

There is nothing to driving a car; you just need practice. 开车并不难，你多练练就行了。

• There is nothing like... 没有什么比……更好

There is nothing like home. 金窝银窝，不如自己的草窝。

In summer there is nothing like swimming as a means of keeping fit. 在夏天再没有比游泳更好的锻炼方式了。

• nothing daunted 毫不灰心；绝不气馁

The big fire had almost completely destroyed the village, but, nothing daunted, the people began building again at once. 大火几乎把全村夷为平地，但是村民毫不气馁，立即开始重建家园。

• Nothing is impossible to a willing heart/mind. 有志者，事竟成。/世上无难事，只怕有心人。

If you are resolved to do something, you will eventually find a way no matter what difficulties you have to face. You know, nothing is impossible to a willing mind. 如果你打算做什么事，不管遇到什么困难你最终总能找到解决办法。要知道，有志者，事竟成。

• Nothing seek, nothing find 无所求则无所获；求则得之，舍则失之

If you want a good job, you will have to go out and find one yourself. No one is going to offer you one on a gold plate. Nothing seek, nothing find. 如果你想要一个称心的工作，你就得自己出门去找。没有人会主动把工作给你送上门来。天上不会掉下个金苹果。

• Nothing to be got without pains. 不劳则无所获；劳而后获。

How can you expect to be a violinist when you do not practice hard. Nothing to be got without pains. 你不刻苦练琴，怎么可能成为一个小提琴家！不劳则无获。

• nothing loath（loath是形容词，这一短语可用作表语或状语）很乐意的（地）

She consented at once, nothing loath. 她非常乐意，立即同意了。

11 　each的用法。

A. each的数和词性。

each可用于两个或两个以上中的每一个，可作代词、形容词和副词：

Each of them came at a different time. 他们各人来的时间都不同。［作代词，them可指两个或两个以上］

Each country has its own traditions. 每个国家都有其自己的传统。

They were given 10 dollars each. 他们各得到10美元。［用作副词］

B. 在正式英语里，each用作代词和形容词时，其动词和物主代词（即属格代词）一概用单数。

Each of us has his likes and dislikes.［用作代词］

Each pupil has his own desk.［用作形容词］动词用单数形式has，物主代词也用单数形式his，但不能用her。

但有些人认为each代表的性别可能是男性或是女性，因而为了求其明确起见，物主代词便采用“his or her”这一拖沓的形式。如：

Each one of us has his or her duty. 我们每人都有自己的职责。

Each brings his or her own lunch. 每人都自带午饭。

▶▶ 作者认为这是套用公文或法律条文的表达方式，一般性的正式语体及日常写作中均不宜模仿。

注：越来越多的欧美人士认为，each和every包括男女两性，用his来指代他们对女方不公平，宜用their来指代，这样可包括男女在内，权威性词典已把一用法收录其中，如：Each student has their own e-mail address.（《牛津高阶第六版》）/Everyone has their own ideas about it.（COLLINS《COBUILD英汉双解词典》）作者完全赞同，但标准化考试目前仍认定以his为准。

C. “each+单数名词+and+单数名词”及“each+单数名词+and+each+单数名词”后面均需接单数动词，有关的物主代词亦应用单数形式。

Each hour and minute has its value.

Each hour and each minute has its value.［注意：用has和its，不能用have和their］

例　Each (A) man and woman must sign (B) their (C) full name before entering (D) the examination room.

［分析］C错。Each man and woman或Each man and each woman须跟单数动词及单数物主代词，故把their改为his或his or her，但his or her远远不及his普通。

D. each of后面不可直接跟复数名词，应在复数名词前加上定冠词the。

Each of boys has his own private teacher.（×）

Each of the boys has his own private teacher.（√）

Each boy has his own private teacher.（√）

12 　every和each用法上的区别。

A. each可作代词和形容词，而every只能用作形容词。

如可以说 each of these dictionaries或each one of these dictionaries，但不能说every of these dictionaries，该用every one of these dictionaries。

B. each可指两个或两个以上中的每一个，而every则指三个或三个以上中的每一个。

可以说each of my eyes，不可说every one of my eyes。

但可说every one of my toes（脚趾）。

C. each通常用来指若干固定数目中的每一个，而every则指“任何一个”。

Each girl sitting over there is my student.“坐在那里的每个女孩子”指若干固定数目中的每一个，故用each。Every man must do his best.“人人都须尽最大的努力”指任何一个人，因而用every。

但有时every也可用来指固定的若干中的每一人，着重在全体而不在个别的各个。试比较：

I know every member of the club.［着重在认识全体俱乐部的人。即“我”能认出谁是俱乐部的人，但与其本人并不相识］

I know each member of the club.［着重在认识俱乐部里的每一个人。即“我”与俱乐部每个人都相识］

D. every和not连用，构成部分否定，表示“并非每一个”的意思，each则无此结构。

Every man can not be a mathematician=Not every man can be a mathematician. 并非每个人都能成为数学家。

Each man can not be a mathematician.［无此结构，故错］

E. every+基数词+复数名词=every+序数词+单数名词，作“每（多少）”解，但each不能用于这一结构中。

每三天或每隔两天

every three days

every third day

每五棵树或每隔四棵树

every five trees

every fifth tree

每11里或每隔10英里

every eleven miles

every eleventh mile

上述例子译成汉语用“隔”这一字时应从数词中减一，其中every不能用each代替，这也是一个容易疏忽的问题。

例　He was stopped each (A) dozen yards (B) by friends who wanted to (C) congratulate him (D).

［分析］A错，应改为every。every dozen yards=every twelfth yard，作“每12码”或“每隔11码”解。关于这一结构再作两点补充：

① every two days, every second day都作“每隔一天”解，但在实际应用中人们都用every other day来表示这一意思，every two days也有人讲，而every second day则可以说是不用的。

② 也可以说every few days，相当于汉语的“隔些日子”。如：

Our daughter comes round to see us every few days. 我们的女儿隔些日子就过来看看我们。

F. “every+单数名词+and+单数名词”及“every+单数名词+and+every+单数名词”后面均接单数动词，有关的物主代词也用单数，在这一用法上every和each相同：

Every man and woman is admitted free of charge.

Every man and every woman is admitted free of charge.

G. 另外一些常见的区别：every可与almost等强调副词连用。但each不可；each可作副词，every不可；each可作同位语，every不可。

Tom has read almost every book in the library.［不能用almost each］

They bought three books each.［作副词，不能用every］

They each had two cars.［作同位语，不能用every］

13 　every one和everyone的区别。

every one作“每个”解，后面通常跟of短语以对其在范围上加以限制。everyone作“每人；人人”解，着重每个人都包括在内，故后面不能再接限制性的of短语。如：

作“我们/你们/他们中的每一个人”解，every one（两字分开）不能换用everyone。

every one of us

every one of youe

very one of them

Everyone says so. 人人都这么说。［着重总括性，不能改用Every one］

但在较大的范围上加以限制则可用everyone，如：

Everyone in our school learns a foreign language.

In a small village everyone knows everyone else.

由此可见，如果限定的范围小，以of 引导，of 前用every one（分开）；如限定范围较大，则用in引导，in前便应用everyone（不分开）：

Winning this game depends on every one of the players in the team. 打赢这场球得依靠球队中每一个人的努力。

14 　everyone和everybody的区别。

A. everyone和everybody相同。

稍有不同的是，everybody较为通俗，在口语中用得较多，另一点是everybody不能分开写成every body。

B. everyone和everybody都接单数动词，在正式语体中，物主代词采用单数形式his。

Everyone took his purchases home. 每个人都把他所买的东西带回家去了。

Everybody is trying to do his best now. 现在大家都在努力。

C. everyone和everybody同not连用表示部分否定。

Everyone (Everybody) cannot do this kind of work.

上列例句的正确意思是“不是每个人都能做这种工作的”或“这种工作并不是每个人都能做的。”有时为避免造成误解起见，人们往往把not置于句首：

Not everybody (everyone) can do this kind of work.

如欲表示“每个人（即：谁也）干不了这个工作”这一意思时，不能用“Everybody (Everyone) cannot do this kind of work”；该用none，并去掉not：

None can do this kind of work.

3. one，other，another

这三个代词都可以作主语、宾语或定语。它们的用法分别列述如下：

1 　one的用法。

A. one用作主语时的相应代词。

用作主语时，其相应物主代词是one's（或his)，反身代词是oneself（或himself）：

One should love one's country.［可用his代替one's，但不能用her］

One must know oneself.人要有自知之明。

但应注意，当one用作主语在句中再度出现时，只能重复one或以he代之，不能用you。

例　If one reads a great many (A) articles in Elementary English, you (B) will become familiar with (C) the problems of the beginning (D) teacher of reading.

［分析］B错，应改为one或he。［注：beginning teacher作“启蒙老师”解］

B. one和it用来指物时的区别。

one和it都可用来代表事物，它们的区别是：it用于名称相同的同一事物，one则用于名称相同的另一事物。试比较下面两组例句：

A: Are you still using your old car?

B: No, I sold it the other day.［it指old car，即同一辆旧汽车］

A: I've just bought a new car.

B: I'm going to buy one next week.［one指new car，但指另一辆新汽车］

例　The vanilla vine sends out (A) tiny (B) roots by which the vine attaches (C) oneself (D) to the tree.

［分析］D错，oneself在句中指vanilla vine（香草藤），即指名称相同的同一事物，故应把oneself改为itself。

例　I have no (A) book-shelf in my room, so (B) I'm going to make (C) it (D) myself.

［分析］D错。A项中no book-shelf=not a book-shelf，句子后半部意为“我打算自己做一个书架”，是指名称相同的另一事物，故不能用it，应把D改为one。

C. one和that用来代表前面部分中名词时的区别。

that和one都可用来代表一个句子前面部分中的名词以避免重复，但要注意两者用法上的区别。如：

I prefer the climate of Los Angles to that (=the climate) of Michigan.I prefer a small house in a small town to one (=a small house) in a large city.

The price of a steel desk is much higher than that (=the price) of a wooden desk.A desk made of steel costs much higher than one (=a desk) of wood.

从上面两组实例中可以看出，that代表的名词前面用定冠词the, one代表的名词前面用不定冠词a。两者用法上的区别，不可混淆。

例　Martha tried to find (A) a good book on astronomy, but (B) the bookstore she went to (C) did not have none (D).

［分析］肯定是D错，因none系否定代词不能与否定谓语连用，应把none改为one，one=a good book on astronomy，也可把none改为any，any相当于any good book on astronomy。

D. one作代词时它前面可用的修饰词。

one作代词时，前面可用形容词。the, this, that, which, any, some, each, every等代词也可用作为其修饰语，但不能用序数词来修饰它。如：

A: Which boy is Erik Kenneth?

B: The one in the blue jacket.

Your old bicycle is a good one; it's much better than my new one.

Now that we have completed the first part, we will consider how to do the second/the second part（不能说the second one）.

▶▶ 按习惯用法可以说this one及that one，但却不能说these ones及those ones。如不可说：These ones are too small. I want those ones.应删去ones，改为：These are too small. I want those.但如在ones前加上形容词，便可以使用，如：

These black ones are too small. I want those red ones.

例　These televisions are quite (A) popular in (B) Europe, but those ones (C) are (D) not.

［分析］显然C错，把ones删掉即可。

例　These are not good enough. Show me some better_____.

A. ones

B. those

C. one

D. them

［分析］选A，ones前面有形容词better，便属正常结构。

E. one or two后接复数名词和复数动词。

There are one or two points I have to draw your attention to.

F. more than one接单数名词。

从数的角度来看，“一个以上”自然应该接复数名词，但从靠近原则来考虑，后面的名词就近one，则应采取单数形式。

例　Many flatworms（扁形虫）have_____of eyes.

A. more pairs than one

B. more than the pair

C. more than one pairs

D. more than one pair

［分析］按习惯用法及标准化考试要求，more than one...采取就近原则，即后接单数名词，如需用动词时，也应用单数形式。故应选D，而不选C。

G. one of the接复数名词，用单数动词。

One of the ways to build up a large vocabulary is through wide reading.

例　One of our (A) employees have (B) not yet (C) shown up (D) for work.

［分析］B错，应改为has，主语是one。show up是动词短语，作“出现”解，其同义词组是turn up。

2 　one, other及another三词用于数的表达法。

A. 两者中的另一个是the other，不定数目中的另一个是another。

Here are two stamp albums. One is for you and the other is for Arnold.

He held a violin in one hand and a bow（弓）in the other.［在此句中other用作形容词，后面省略one］

This TV set seems to be out of order. Get me another, please. 这个电视机似乎有毛病。请给我另拿一个。

▶▶ 用于两者时“一个”用one来表示，“另一个”用the other，即“one...and the other...”，不能用another来替换the other。

例　Though (A) Art Tatum was totally blind in one eye and had only slight (B) vision in another (C), he became (D) an internationally renowned jazz musician.

［分析］C错。人的眼睛只有两只，指两者中的另一个必须用the other。把C改为the other，后面的eye被省略。

例　“What do you think about these cakes?”“I'd like to have_____.”

A. some other

B. another

C. the other

D. other

［分析］题中的these cakes系不定数目，不定数目中的另一个应用another来表示，不能用the other，故选B。

▶▶ “one...and the other”同“the one...and the other”在用法上的微细差别。后者（one前有定冠词the）用于指明具体名字或名称的两者。如：

I have two good friends, Tom and John. The one（指Tom）is fourteen and the other（指John）is fifteen.

My father has two name-brand（名牌）cars, Cadilac and Fiat. The one（指Cadilac）is made in the United States and the other（指Fiat）in Italy.

如把上两例中的具体名字Tom和John及具体名称Cadilac和Fiat删掉的话，代词one前的定冠词the也必须去掉，即：

⇒ I have two good friends. One is fourteen and the other is fifteen.

⇒ My father has two name-brand cars. One is made in the United States and the other in Italy.

B. 表示对比的两件事情时，用“...one ...another”，作“……是一回事，……又是一回事”解，此时不能用the other 代替another。

此结构中不能以theother来代替another。

To say is one thing; to do is another. 讲是一回事，做又是一回事。

His voice says one thing, but his heart thinks another. 他嘴上一套，心里一套。

C. 表示全体所分成的两个部分时，用“some...the others”。

注意，others用复数形式，前有定冠词the：

Some of the students are absent; the others are present.

D. 表示三者并对三者各加以说明时的表达。

one...another...and the other

one...a second...and the third

例如：

I have three sisters: One is Clara, another is Claudia, and the other is Cordelia.

I have three sisters: One is Clara, a second is Claudia, and the third is Cordelia.

在第二式中人们往往会用the second而不用a second，这是个常易犯的错误。

例　One of the three strangers commenced to complain (A) of the railway, the second (B) declared that he saw nothing but starving (C) people everywhere, and the third (D) said that most of the people he had met were illiterate.

［分析］乍看之下，这是道难题，不易发现问题的症结所在，但如能掌握上列表示三者的两种结构后便能立即断定B是错的，应把the second改为a second或another。

E. 表示四者并对四者各加以说明时用“one...another...a third...and the fourth”（或the other）。

There are four cars here: one is red, another is green, a third is black and the fourth（或the other）is grey.［third前用a，fourth前用the］

F. 表示四者及四者以上还可用“one...another...and the others...”。

There are four（或five）cars here: one is red, another is green, and the others are black.［others前之the不能省略］

G. 表示四者以上任取其一时，作为开头用one，任取其二时用two，依此类推，其余则用the others。

There are four students. One is a boy and the others are girls.

The committee is made up of ten members. Three are women and the others are men.

3 　another的用法。

A. another用作形容词时不能跟复数名词。

another由an和other合成，故只可接单数名词，不能接复数名词。other可接复数名词。

例　The Hocanes appear (A) friendly and peaceful (B), but (C) they are deeply suspicious of another (D) tribes.

［分析］D是个明显的错误，因它后面跟的是复数名词tribes，故把another改为other。

B. another作形容词时前不能用any。

由于another已包含不定冠词an，故该词前面不能再用any，即不能说any another...，但可说any other，这也是个容易犯的错误。

例　O'Hare Airport in Chicago handles (A) more freight (B) and mail than (C) any another (D) airport in the United States.

［分析］显然D错，因any不能与another连用。题句使用比较级，应把本身除外。故把D改为any other。

▶▶ 另需注意，another可接单数名词，但不能接不可数名词，other则可。

例　“I don't like this ink. Do you like it?”

“No. I like_____ink.”

A. the other

B. some other

C. another

D. some others

［分析］选B。A项的the other指两者中的另一个，不合句意。C项之another不能接不可数物质名词ink。D项之others系复数形式，不能用作形容词来修饰ink。

C. another作形容词时的不同词义及其用法。

① 另一个，又一个（one more）：

Have another (=one more) try. 再试一试。

He may come in another moment. 他可能要过一会儿再来。

Here comes another double-deck bus. 又来了一辆双层公共汽车。

例　It is twelve o'clock. All the bells in the village church were pealing. _____year has come.

A. Another

B. The other

C. Other

D. Other's

［分析］选A。Another year=One more year，相当于汉语的“又一年”。表示这一词义时，another后面有时紧接一个数字，这时就须跟复数名词，作“再……”解：

I want another two copies. 我想再要两本。

We are going to stay for another three weeks. 我们打算再住三星期。

在上列两例句中，another two copies也可换用two more copies或two copies more, another three weeks也可以改说three more weeks或three weeks more，意思相同；但应注意more的位置：放在基数词和名词之间或置于名词后面，不可放在数词之前。

例　Lee contributed fifty dollars, but he wishes he could contribute_____.

A. one other fifty dollars

B. the same amount also

C. another fifty

D. more fifty dollars

［分析］应选C，another fifty后面省略了dollars。D不正确在于more的位置不当，可改为fifty more dollars或fifty dollars more。

② 另外的，别的（some other）：

I'm in a hurry; I'll see you another time（另找时间看你）.

Shall we visit the exhibition another day（改日，改天）?

③ 另外一……，不同的（a different）：

That's another matter.那完全是另外一回事。

After his disappointment in love, Albert seems quite another person than what he was. 失恋后，艾伯特似乎成了另外一个人了。

注意上列第二个例句的结构，another虽作“different”解，但后面用than，不能用from。“be quite another person than what one was”是固定结构，相当于汉语的“（某人）跟以前相比，判若两人。”

④ 类似的（a similar，a second）：

He is another Lei Feng of our time. 他是我们时代的又一个雷锋式人物。

Alex is very clever; he may be another Edison. 亚历克斯非常聪明，他有可能成为另一个爱迪生。

D. another用作代词的不同词义及其用法。

① 另一个人或物（one more person or thing）：

Mr. Calloway already has two watches, and now he has bought another.（=one more watch又买了一只）

② 另一回事（a different thing）：

His voice says one thing, but his heart thinks another. 他嘴上讲的是一套，心里想的又是一套。

Peace is one thing, but peace with dishonor is another. 和平是一回事，而屈辱的和平则是另一回事。

③ 另一个那样的人物，也是一个（a second，one also）：

If he is a gossip（背后说三道四的人）, you are another. (=you are a gossip, too.)

You will never see such another. 那样的人你恐怕再也看不到第二个了。

It is just such another. 这真是无独有偶。

E. another用作代词的常见习语。

• one after another 一个一个地；挨次地

The brave young man plunged into the swift current and rescued one child after another. 那个勇敢的年轻人跳入急流中，把孩童一个个地救上来。

• one...another 一个……又一个；一个……另一个

The boards are piled one above another. 木板一块一块地堆起来。

We went from one shop to another. 我们逛了一个又一个的商店。

• one...or another 这样（种）或那样（种）……

Mr. Campbell is always busy with one thing or another. 坎佩尔先生总是忙这忙那。

I must have met him at one time or another. 我肯定在某个时候碰见过他。

We will get the work done one way or another. 我们将想方设法完成这项工作。

one...or another是个较为常用的结构，往往用来强化讲话者或书写者的意思。

• You are another. 你也是/你也不例外。

A: you're a big liar. 你是个吹牛大王。

B: you're another. 你也是。

例　“How was he in the city?”

“In the city, he was always being annoyed by noise of one sort or_____.”

A. all

B. others

C. another

D. kind

［分析］显然应选C。noise of one sort or another指这样或那样的噪声，即某种噪声。

4 　other的用法。

A. other作代词的用法。

① the other指两者中的另一个。

the other作“the second of two”解，故用于指两者中的另一个，两者中的第一个用one来表示。实例及进一步说明请参照代词one的用法。

② the others用于两者以上。

the others用于两者以上，作“所有其余的人”解，同the rest，因而具有限定范围的含义。如：

We'll go by bicycle, but the others will go by bus.

We six took the driving test; only two passed and the others failed.

③ others泛指旁人、旁物。

others（前无定冠词the）相当于other people (things)，泛指旁人（物），即“其他人（事物）；别人（别的东西）”的意思，不带有限定范围的含义。如：

Donna is always considerate towards others. 唐纳总是很体谅别人。

Show me some others, please. 请拿些别的什么给我看看。

▶▶ 由于others不具有确定的范围，故常和some一起对照使用，即“some..., and（或while）others...”或“Some...others...”，相当于汉语的“有人……，有人……”。如：

Some say yes, and others say no. 有人赞成，有人说反对。

We all have an engine, i.e. the brain; some of us know how to use it, while others do not. 我们每个人都有一部机器，就是大脑，有人会用这部机器，有人不会用。

▶▶ 在some...others这一表示对比的结构中，others也可换用some，即“some...some...”，意思不变。如：

Some people drive carefully, and others（或some）don't. 有些人开车很小心，有些人则不然。

A: Do women smoke?

B: Some do; some（或others）don't.

例　Although some critics viewed (A) Ernest Hemingway as (B) an overrated writer, other (C) thought him (D) a truly gifted novelist.

［分析］题句中的第一部分中出现some，故C错，应改为复数形式others。这里others=other critics，和some连用起对照作用，即“尽管有的批评家把海明威看作是个被颂扬过分的作家，但有的批评家却认为他确实是个有才华的作家。”在此句中others也可换用some。

B. other作形容词的用法。

① 通常接复数名词。

There are other ways of translating this sentence.

People fool themselves, and try to fool other people. 人们欺骗他们自己，还试图欺骗别人。

② 在any other，every other，no other，one other，some other和the other后面，名词采用单数形式。

Have you any other book（或books）on this subject?

When I was ill, Gordon came to see me every other day.［every other day作“每隔一天”解］

No other book has had a greater influence on my life. 任何书对我一生的影响都没有这本书大。

Wilson found there was only one other guest besides himself. 威尔逊发现除了他自己外另外只有一个客人。

I'm very busy now; please come some other time. 我现在很忙，请另找时间来。

I caught Erlick drinking again the other day. 几天前我撞见厄利克又在喝酒了。［the other day=a few days ago］

③ other与数目字并用时的位置。

前面无定冠词the时，基数词应放在other之前，试比较：

Give me two other books.［√，因数字two放在other之前］

Give me other two books.［×，因two置于other之后，位置不当］

▶▶ 前面有the时，基数词可放在other之前或后都可，同样正确：

都对，因前面有定冠词the，句意是“给我其他两本书。”

Give me the other two books.

Give me the two other books.

C. other的常见习惯用法。

• among other things 除了别的以外还……

The conference discussed, among other things, the problem of disarmament. 除了其他问题以外，会议还讨论了裁军问题。

Among other things, Hassel is interested in photography. 除了别的以外，哈瑟尔还对摄影感兴趣［即“哈瑟尔对摄影和一些别的东西很感兴趣。”］

• among others=and others

Flora, among others, was there. 芙罗拉和其他一些人在那里。

Mr. Freedman, among others. recognized the problem. but failed to solve it. 弗里德曼先生同一些其他人一样，认识到这个问题但未能解决它。

• every other+单数名词，作“每隔……”解：

The doctor visits her every other day. 医生隔天来看她一次。

Mr. Levin goes to Canada every other year. 莱文先生隔年去加拿大一次。

Don't write on every line; write on every other line.不要每行都写，隔行写。

• none other than 不是别人，正是……

The new arrival was none other than the president. 刚到的就是总统本人。

• one after the other=one after another 一个接一个地，相继地

Difficulties arose one after the other. 困难一个接一个地发生。

The pupils left the classroom one after the other. 小学生一个接一个地离开教室。

• other fish to fry（通常与have连用）有别的事；另有打算

I don't think he will come to our tea party; he has got other fish to fry. 我看他不会参加我们的茶会，他有别的事要干。

They wanted Miss Shelby to be the secretary, but she had other fish to fry. 他们要谢尔比小姐当秘书，但她另有打算。

• other than（也可分开为other...than）

① 除了……以外

除了这个例子以外，我想不出别的来了。

I can think of no other example than this.

I can think of no example other than this.

下两句译文均为：如不努力，除了失败以外，你能指望什么结果呢？

If you don't work hard, what result can you expect other than failure?

If you don't work hard, what other result than failure can you expect?

② 只能是（作此解时，句子谓语部分通常用否定式，other than不能分开，后面可接从句、形容词和副词）

I cannot be other than I am.［接从句］我只能是我自己。

The father did not examine his son's homework other than casually.［接副词］该父亲对儿子的功课只是随便检查而已。

I can hardly be other than grateful to you.［接形容词］对你我只能是感激。

• other things being equal 在其他条件相同的情况下：

Other things being equal, I should marry you, not Barry; but he is rich and you are poor. 如果其他条件都一样，我就与你结婚，而不与巴里结婚；但是他富有而你很穷。

• some...or other（some后接单数名词）某一个，哪一个（用以表示不肯定或不精确之意）：

Mr. Rubin has promised to take me to see Disneyland some day or other（某一天；不定哪一天）.

Some ass or other（哪一个蠢货）has broken my looking glass（镜子）.

There is something or other Mr. Parker wants to tell you. 派克先生有某事要告诉你。

I hope to go to Paris some time or other. 我希望将来能有某个时间去巴黎。

▶▶ 有时候人们套用这一结构，使用somewhere or other（某处），somehow or other（=in one way or another设法；藉某种方法）。如：

She found a beautiful vase somewhere or other. 她在某处找到了一只美丽的花瓶。

Davis has somehow or other got the money. 戴维斯不知怎的竟得到了那笔钱。

• this, that and the other 各种各样的东西

This fanciful quilt was made of this, that, and the other. 这条奇特的被头是由各种各样的料子拼凑而成的。

4. most

most表示大多数、大部分或最大数量、最大程度等。

1 　most作代词或名词的用法。

A. 单独使用时前面不用冠词。

Some of the people stayed behind but most went. 有些人留下来没有走，但大部分都走了。

Most is wasted. 大部分给浪费了。［注意动词用单数］

A few people were killed in the fire, but most were saved.［在此句中most=most people，故后面动词用复数were］

▶▶ 当然，most后面带有限定性定语从句或定语短语时，它前面须有冠词the：

This is the most (that) we can do. 这是我们尽力所能做到的了。

The most this hall can seat is 1,000. 这个大厅所能容纳的最多人数是1 000。

We should get the most out of life. 我们应最大限度地利用人生。

B. most of+宾格人称代词（most前无the）。

Of course most of us don't agree with his opinion. 当然我们中大多数人不同意他的意见。

Most of them went there. 他们大多数去了那里。

I learnt English when I was a child, but I forgot most of it. 我小时候学过英语，但差不多都已忘了。

C. most of+the或物主代词时，后可接单数名词，也可接复数名词，但意义上有差别。

请见下列结构模式及例句：

例如：

Most of the people are aware of it. 这里大多数人都知道这件事。

Most of the book deals with problems in political economy. 这本书大部分论述政治经济方面的问题。

Most of his writing is rubbish. 他写的东西大部分是毫无价值的。

Most of her arguments were founded on facts. 她的论点大多数是以事实为依据的。

▶▶ 注意，在上例most of的结构中，most of前不能加the，这是各类英语测试中较为常见的一个项目。

例　The most (A) of the theories about its (B) origin assume that (C) the earth began in a gaseous state, moved through (D) a liquid state, and finally became partly solid.

［分析］A错，most of the...前不能再加定冠词the，把The most改为Most。

D. most of the+动名词。

Rick did most of the talking, so I did most of the listening. 话几乎都是里克在讲，因而我基本上是在听他讲。

My wife does most of the washing. 洗衣服基本上是由我太太包下。

E. most of the+时间。

Father is out most of the time. 父亲大部分时间待在外面。

Mother is busy with housework most of the day. 一天的大部分时间母亲都在忙于家务。

I write most of the morning, read most of the afternoon, and watch TV most of the evening. 上午大部分时间我写东西，下午大部分时间我看书，晚上大部分时间则看电视。

例　The party continued through_____.

A. the whole of the night

B. nearly whole of the night

C. almost all of the night

D. most of the night

［分析］应选D，most of the night符合“most of the+时间”这一结构。A应改为the whole night才符合习惯。B应改为nearly the whole night。C应去掉of，改为almost all (the) night。

2 　most作形容词的用法。

A. 接复数名词。

Most children like candy. 大多数儿童都喜爱糖果。

Most boys are fond of sports. 大多数男孩都爱好运动。

Most people think as I do about the matter. 关于这件事，大多数人的想法和我相同。

B. 接单数名词。

Those who have (the) most money are not always the happiest. 钱最多的人不一定是最快乐的人。

The storm did most damage to the houses on the edge of the cliff. 风暴给坐落在峭壁边上的房子造成了最大的损害。

从上面实例可看出，most用作形容词时前面也不能有定冠词the。但当most用作形容词many或much的最高级形式时，其前面也可用the。

C. most作形容词修饰名词时应注意的问题。

most作形容词时直接修饰复数或单数名词，不能在most和它所修饰的名词之间再插入起限定作用的修饰词如形容词性的物主代词等或this，that，there，those，the，即：

可以说 most friends

most money

但不可以说most my friends应改为⇒ most of my friends

most my money⇒ most of my money

most John's friends⇒ most of John's friends

most John's money⇒ most of John's money

例　Most (A) William Faulkner's novels deal with (B) the universal problems of evil (C) as represented (D) by family disintegration and degeneration.

［分析］A错。上题A项中的most用作形容词，因而most novels之间不能再加上起限定作用的修饰语William Faulkner's，须把A改为most of，即most of William Faulkner's novels。如果A不予改动，删去William Faulkner's，用法上成立，但句意不通。

D. most能否和another，other连用？

most后面不能接another加单数名词，但可接other加复数名词。

例　Like (A) most another (B) art forms, the Greek tragedy had (C) its origins in religious (D) observances.

［分析］一看便知B错，应改为other。

E. most+名词与most of the+名词在含义上的区别。

most+名词—→表示泛指

most of the+名词—→表示特指

例如：

Most English words form their plurals by adding“s”.［表泛指］

Most of the words here form their plurals by adding“es”.［表特指］

Most Englishmen like beer.［泛指］

Most of the Englishmen in this city have married native women.［特指］

如把每组中的两个例句进行比较，就能发现每组中的第二句都是表示一个特定的范围。一个表示特定范围内的words，另一个表示特定范围内的Englishmen，故均不能用most来代替most of the。

例　“What do they eat there in Honolulu?”

“_____eat rice rather than potatoes.”

A. Most people

B. The most people

C. The most of people

D. Most of the people

［分析］题中的people指生活在Honolulu的人们，系特指，该用most of the+名词这一表示特指的结构来表达，故应选D。A表示泛指，不妥。B和C不合语法，因most前不能用the。

3 　most作副词的用法。

A. 用于最高级。

作为much的最高级，most用在三音节或三音节以上的形容词之前构成最高级形容词，或用在副词前面构成最高级副词。这样用时most前面通常都有the：

Daphne is the most beautiful girl in our school.

This is the most majestic building（气势最宏伟的大楼）in the neighborhood.

Herbert walked the most slowly of them all.

B. 用于通俗英语中的词义。

在通俗英语中，most作“very”解，修饰形容词或副词：

most修饰形容词

We thanked our host for a most (=very) enjoyable party.

It is most dangerous (=very dangerous) to play with explosives.

most修饰副词

Whatever happens, I will most certainly stand by you.

Mr. Green will most probably sell his house and go and live abroad.

▶▶ 按习惯用法，most用作“very”的意思时带有“因实践经验而得知是非常……”的这一层含义，故不能用于否定、疑问或条件的从句中。如不能说：

He is not a most generous man.［否定句］

Is he a most generous man?［疑问句］

If he is a most generous man, I should like to make his acquaintance（我倒很想结识他）.［条件句］

在上面三例句中宜把most改为very。

C. 用作副词的most和副词mostly的区别。

most作“very”解，用法请参照前文的说明。mostly作“大部分（for the most part）”解。如：

The earth is mostly (=for the most part) covered with water and mountains. 地球的表面大部分是山和水。

What Fischer said is mostly (=for the most part) correct. 费希先生说的话大部分是正确的。

▶▶ 把mostly误用作“very”解的most，是一个较为常见的错误。

例　The scientists who (A) are (B) probably mostly (C) interested in (D) flights to the moon are geologists.

［分析］C错，mostly不能作“very”解，应改为most。

D. most作为副词能否和almost换用

在非正式的文字或谈话中，most常被用来代替almost（几乎），但在正式文体中，一般不这么用，如：

A drop in prices will appeal to most everybody.［most用作almost］物价下跌几乎会使每个人都高兴。

You feel the way most everybody else has felt.［同上］你的感觉几乎与每一个人的感觉是一样的。

4 　most的常见习惯用语。

• at (the) most 至多；最多

It won't take long to get there, three quarters of an hour at most. 到那里要不了多久，最多三刻钟。

I can pay only $100 at (the) most. 我最多只能出100美元。

• for the most part 大部分；多半；在大多情况下

German cameras are, for the most part (=mostly), of excellent quality. 德国照相机大都质量优良。

The audience consisted, for the most part (=mostly), of people over forty. 观众多半是40岁以上的人。

• make the most of 充分利用；尽量利用

You should make the most of your opportunities to learn. 你应该抓住一切机会学习。

We have only a short holiday, so make the most of it. 我们只有一个很短的假期，因此充分利用吧。

十二、准代词than

than通常用作连词及介词，但有时在带有比较级的句子中than具有代词的性质。如：

Don't give him more money than is necessary; money burns a hole in his pocket. 别多给他钱；他是钱烧口袋漏，一有就不留。

Barbara seems to take a keener interest in piano music than has ever been shown. 芭芭拉对钢琴音乐的兴趣似乎比以往任何时候都高。

That morning I drank more coffee than had been my custom. 那天早晨我喝的咖啡比往常要多。

The room was more luxuriously furnished than suited my purpose. 房间布置得太华丽，超过了我的要求。

There were more casualties than was reported. 实际伤亡人数比报道的要多。

从上列五例中可以看出，than用作代词时后面不带主语而直接跟动词，动词则采用单数形式，动词的时态应和主句谓语动词的时态相应，如一般现在时（见第1例）、现在完成时（见第2例）、过去完成时（见第3例）、一般过去时（见第4、5例）。

有些学者认为在上列例句的结构中，than后面省掉了it。譬如以第5例来说，国外部分学者认为There were more casualties than was reported=...than it was reported there were。但实际上运用这一结构时，从莎士比亚原著到现代英语，“it”从来不补添上，故正如已故的名闻海内外的英语惯用法泰斗葛传椝先生所说，在类似上列例句中，than可以说是它后面动词的主语，其先行词离它较远：在第一例中，than的先行词是money，在第2例中是interest，第3例和第4例中的先行词是整个主句，第5例中的先行词也可灵活考虑是casualties。因此在上述结构中，than也可作为准代词（quasi-pronoun）来考虑。than这一结构颇为常见，有时也出现在标准化考试的试题中。

例　“How embarrassing we are nowadays!”

“The next war will be more cruel_____can be imagined.”

A. that

B. than it

C. which

D. than

［分析］在上题的第二句中出现比较级more cruel，代词应用than，故选D，than的先行词是the next war。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. It is the teacher_____is important, not the kind of school he teaches in.

A. whose

B. which

C. that

D. what

2. _____the ultimate conclusion, the discussion ought to prove of great interest to all concerned.

A. What

B. Who

C. Whatever

D. Whoever

3. He gave me a watch, which is made of gold, _____I keep to this day.

A. and which

B. and

C. that

D. and that

4. We don't understand why you object to_____with us.

A. him coming

B. that he comes

C. his coming

D. that he come

5. Fool_____I was, I did not believe every word he said.

A. who

B. whom

C. that

D. which

6. _____is true of any developed society, in America a complex set of cultural signals, assumptions and conventions underlines all social interrelations.

A. What

B. As

C. That

D. It

7. In our work it is_____unusual to be confronted with failures but we should in no way be discouraged on that account.

A. something

B. nothing

C. anything

D. everything

8. What is most obvious in this book are those details of daily living which make Mrs. Richards_____but common.

A. anything

B. everything

C. nothing

D. something

9. If you had told us earlier_____he was, we could have introduced him at the meeting.

A. who

B. which

C. whom

D. whoever

10. I guess Jones didn't have a chance to win the election; _____the people in the city voted for his opponent.

A. almost all of

B. most all of

C. most of all

D. the most of

11. Would you please put the book_____it belongs?

A. to which

B. to whom

C. where

D. what

12. _____you dream of in all this world.

A. There is no such place as

B. There is not such place as

C. There is no such a place as

D. There is not such place that

13. It is earth's gravity_____people their weight.

A. which give

B. which gives

C. that give

D. that gives

14. Walt Whitman originated a distinctive form of free verse that sets his work apart from_____of all other poets.

A. what

B. that

C. how

D. it

15. Today_____little fossil ivory remains comes from Alaska.

A. what

B. which

C. there is

D. where

16. Which hazel extract, _____distilled from the bark and twigs of the witch hazel shrub, has been utilized as medicine?

A. is

B. when to be

C. which is

D. that is

17. The quantum theory states_____, such as light, is given off and absorbed in tiny definite units called quanta or photons.

A. energy that

B. that it is energy

C. it is energy

D. that energy

18. During the late fifteenth century, _____of the native societies of America had professions in the fields of arts and crafts.

A. only a few

B. a few but

C. few but only

D. a few only

19. Nebraska has floods in some years, _____.

A. in others drought

B. droughts are others

C. while other droughts

D. others in drought

20. In the United States, a primary election is a method_____voters select the nomineers for public office.

A. that

B. is that

C. by which

D. by those

21. In a bas-relief sculpture（浅浮雕塑作品）, a design projects very slightly from its background, _____some coins.

A. as on

B. because

C. the way that

D. similarly

22. Precious metals, gems, and ivory have been used to make buttons, but most buttons are made of_____wood, glass, or plastic.

A. such materials that

B. materials as such

C. such materials as

D. such materials

23. The first people to live in_____Hawaii were the Polynesians, who sailed there in large canoes from other Pacific Islands about 2,000 years ago.

A. now where is

B. what is now

C. it is now

D. now this is

24. Hiram Revels, the first Black member of the United States Senate, served as senator from Mississippi, an office_____he was elected in 1870.

A. which

B. to which

C. and which

D. being which

25. Built in 1882, the Kinzua Viaduct in McKean County, Pennsylvania, is open only to those visitors_____are able to walk its 2,058-foot length.

A. who

B. that

C. which they

D. that which

二、改错

1. Although Alice has been to (A) the mountains many times before (B), she still (C) loves visiting it (D).

2. The president announced that he himself (A) would act upon (B) the evidence as presented (C) to himself (D) by the congressional committee.

3. The (A) president urged that the English colonists be given (B) the same constitutional rights to what (C) other English subjects were entitled (D).

4. It is reported that one out of (A) every twenty-five people on the island is born deaf (B) and that the island as a whole (C) has a deafness rate at least 17 times greater than the rest (D) of the U.S.

5. The main reason for (A) the rise of the people's living standard is not as much (B) an increase in family incomes (C) as (D) a drop in prices.

6. To help meet (A) the national needs, Harewood contributed quantities of (B) timber far in excess of which (C) its economy could have taken (D) during World War Ⅱ.

7. School counsellors are convinced (A) that it will be obligatory that everyone (B) of us should have (C) some computer training so as (D) to enter the job market.

8. A symbol (A) of freedom, the Statue of Liberty represents a woman has (B) just escaped from the chains of slavery, which (C) lie at her feet (D).

9. The teacher asked them (A) who had completed (B) their tests to leave (C) the room as quietly (D) as possible.

10. Compared (A) with another (B) breeds, quarter horses can start (C) more quickly, turn more sharply, and run faster over short (D) courses.

11. Herons inhabit marshy areas (A) or the shores along fresh (B) or salt water, which (C) they find fishers, frogs, crustaceans, and other (D) aquatic animals to eat.

12. For hundreds of years, sailors relied on (A) echoes to warn them (B) of other (C) ships, icebergs, or cliffs in foggy (D) weather.

13. For each (A) enzyme reaction there is (B) an optimum temperature which (C) maximum efficiency (D) is achieved.

14. All almost (A) the electricity for industrial (B) use (C) comes from large generators driven by (D) steam turbines.

15. Migration of animals may be initiated by (A) physiological stimuli such as (B) reproductive changes, external pressures such as weather changes (C), or a combination of either (D) types of changes.

16. Widely acknowledged as a great (A) and important playwright, Eugene O'Neill brought to the United States stage it (B) was probably its first (C) really serious drama (D).

17.Through (A) the process of imprinting, the young (B) of a special bird rapidly learn to recognize and follow other members (C) of own (D) species.

18. None (A) two butterflies have exactly the same (B) design on (C) their wings (D).

19. Some (A) psychologists believe what (B) even when a person suffers (C) from amnesia, some memory (D) remains in the unconscious.

20. By distinguishing himself (A) as a judge (B) in Arizona, Sandra Day O'connor caught (C) President Reagan's attention and was appointed (D) the first woman justice on the Supreme Court.

Keys

一、多项选择

1. C

2. C

3. A

4. C

5. C

6. B

7. B

8. A

9. A

10. A

11. C

12. A

13. D

14. B

15. A

16. C

17. D

18. A

19. A

20. C

21. A

22. C

23. B

24. B

25. A

二、改错

1.［D］应改为visiting them。them指代复数形式mountains。

2.［D］应改为to him。the evidence as presented to him=the evidence as was presented to him，as指代evidence，当主语和宾语不属同一人或物时，便不能用反身代词，故himself在这里不妥。

3.［C］应改为to which。be entitled to sth.指“有权得到……”，be given the same constitutional rights to which other English subjects were entitled意指“应给予其他英国公民有资格享有的同样的宪法权利。”题句中urged是表示欲望的动词，其后所接的宾语从句中用虚拟语气，be given前省去了should，故无误。

4.［D］应改为that of the rest，that代表deafness rate。此题测试比较成分的对等性，句意是“据报道，该岛每25人中就有一人天生是聋的，整个岛屿聋哑率至少是美国其他地区聋哑率的17倍。”

5.［B］应改为so much。此题句测试“not so much...as”的用法。“not so much...as”意指“与其说……倒不如说……”解。

6.［C］改为what。what在句中具备两个功能：（1）在本题句中引导宾语从句what its economy could have taken during World War Ⅱ，（2）在该宾语从句中，what用作taken之宾语。

7.［B］改为every one。everyone指“人人”或“每人”，如要表示“……中的每个人”则须用every one，如every one of you/us/them/the students here, etc.

8.［B］改为woman who has。a woman充当represents之宾语，who has just escaped from the chains of slavery系定语从句修饰woman。

9.［A］改为those。在正式英语里，定语从句不能修饰人称代词宾格，但可修饰指示代词，故应改为those。

10.［B］改为other。another分开即成an other，故接单数名词；another后面紧跟基数词时便可接复数名词，意为“再……”。如：I want another two copies of this book.（这本书我再要两本。）

11.［C］改为in which或用where代替in which。

12.［B］题句“...sailors relied on echoes to warn them of other ships，...”中的主语是sailors，宾语them指代sailors，即主语和宾语相同，故宾语须用反身代词themselves，不能用them。

13.［C］改为in which。在in which maximum efficiency is achieved这一定语从句中，in which充当状语。

14.［A］应把两词的位置对调，即Almost all。

15.［D］either用作名词及形容词时，都作“两者中哪一个都”解，故接单数动词，如Either of the dictionaries is good for me。either用作形容词时接单数名词和单数动词，如Either dictionary is good enough for me。本题句中either后面跟复数名词types，须把either改为both。

16.［B］把it改为what，what在题句中引导一个宾语从句，充当谓语动词brought的直接宾语，在其引导的从句中what作主语。

17.［D］改为of their own。the quantum theory 量子论

18.［A］代词none通常不用作形容词，故把none改为no，no是形容词，如：No two finger prints are identical. None在表示特别强调的偶尔场合下也可用作定语，但结构很特殊：宾语＋主谓＋none。在这一特殊结构中，none不是和它所修饰的宾语放在一起，而须置于句尾，如Information I have none。none用作定语修饰information。

19.［B］按句意，句中谓语动词believe需接一个宾语从句，故把what改为连接词that。

20.［A］反身代词himself指代Sandra，而Sandra系女性名字，造成阴差阳错，应改为herself。

第五章　一致性

一致性指句子成分之间或词语之间在人称、数、性等方面保持一致关系。主要表现为主谓一致、代词的一致、主语及其补语的一致、宾语及其补语的一致等。

一、主谓一致

1. 主谓一致的分类

主谓一致有三种：语法一致、意义一致和就近一致。

1 　语法一致。

语法一致（Grammatical Concord），即主语为单数形式，谓语动词也采取单数形式；主语为复数形式，谓语动词亦为复数形式。如：

Little money is needed for the project. 这一项目需要花费的钱很少。

Iron and copper are useful metals.

No explanation has been given by him so far. 迄今他还没有作出任何解释。

James and his friend have arrived already.

2 　意义一致。

意义一致（Notional Concord），即从意义上着眼来处理主谓一致问题，也就是说有时主语形式为单数，但意义为复数，这时谓语动词视其意义亦采取复数形式；反之亦然。如：

John Laing and Son Ltd. announce the completion of the long-distance motor-way（英式英语：高速公路）.［主语John Laing and Son Ltd.是单数形式，但这里指这一公司的同仁，具有复数含义，故用announce，不用announces］

Bread and butter is wholesome（有益健康的）food。［“Bread and butter”这两个词放在一起意指涂黄油的面包，作为整体看待，故用is］

Five thousand pounds is more than I can afford. 5 000英镑不是我能拿得出的一笔款子。［主语“Five thousand pounds”为复数形式，但在本句中是作为一笔款子来看待，具有整体的单数含义，故用is］

3 　就近一致。

就近一致（Concord of Proximity），指谓语动词的人称和数往往和离它最近的词保持一致。如：

On the left of each person is a table-napkin and a plate with a roll on it. 每个人的左边都放着一块餐巾和一只盛有面包卷的盘子。

上例中有两个主语，即a table-napkin和a plate，明显是复数，但由于最靠近谓语动词的一个名词词组（a table-napkin）是单数，动词便用单数。再如：

Not only his children but he himself is hoping to be there.［谓语动词靠近he，故用is］不仅是他的孩子们，就连他自己都想待在那儿。

Either my wife or I am going.［谓语动词靠近I，故用am］我妻子不去就我去。

在上列三种表一致关系的原则中，何时采用何种原则须视习惯用法而定。逢到捉摸不定时，比较稳妥的方法还是遵循语法一致的原则，在标准化考试中尤其如此。

2. 主谓一致原则的具体应用

为便于读者掌握起见，现从结构角度来阐述主谓一致的应用：

1 　非并列主语的主谓一致。

A.

在上列A组结构中，可以看出谓语动词在数的方面不是和主语保持一致，而是和介词of后面的宾语保持一致，即需采用就近原则。如：

Half of the laboratory was damaged in the explosion.

Half of the buildings in the neighborhood were destroyed in the earthquake.

The first part is quite easy; the rest of the book is more difficult.

The rest of the books on that shelf are in Russian.

When enough of a tree is chopped away, it falls. 如果一棵树被劈开够多时，这棵树也就倒了。

Enough of the data on this subject have been collected. 有关这个课题的数据已经收集得很充分了。

B.

在B组的结构中，依然采取就近原则。如：

Lots (a lot) of people are lining up at the ticket office window.

Lots (a lot) of money has been saved up.

There is heaps of coal here.

There are heaps of tractors.

Loads of big watermelons were on the ground.

Loads of milk was given to them free.

There were scads of jokes in his story.

Scads of money was needed for the project.

C.

在C组结构中，习惯上采用语法一致的原则来处理主谓一致关系。如：

A portion of the old magazines is missing from the library.

A series of pre-recorded tapes has been prepared for the textbook.

A group of children is playing in the playground.

例　A series of debates (A) between (B) the major candidates were (C) scheduled for the Labor Day weekend (D).

［C错，改为was］

D.

在D组结构中采用就近原则来处理主谓关系。如：

(A) part of the land is devoted to agriculture.

(A) part of the textbooks have arrived.

Part of the students are absent.

The greater part of the highway is already completed.

E.

在E组结构中也采用就近原则。如：

Three-fourths of the earth's surface is sea.

Two-thirds of the country was destroyed in the war.

Two-thirds of the people present are against the plan.

Over 40 percent of the teachers here are women.

F. one of the+复数名词+who (that/which)+复数动词。

在F组结构中，关系代词代表复数名词，不代表one，故采用语法一致原则，动词用复数形式。如：

This is one of the best books that have ever been written on the subject. 这是人们所写的有关这一课题的最佳图书之一。

She is one of the few girls who are acquainted with（结识）the old poet. 在少有的几个认识那位年迈的诗人的女孩中，她是其中之一。

但需注意，在上列F组结构中，如在one前加上“the”或“the only”时，关系代词的先行词便不是靠近的复数名词而是one，故后面的动词便采用单数形式。如：

This is the one of the books on the subject that has ever been written in Russian. 这是有关这一课题的唯一一本用俄语写就的图书。

Larry is the only one of my friends who is acquainted with the old poet. 拉里是我的朋友中唯一一个认识那位年迈诗人的。

G. the+形容词（包括分词形容词）+复数动词

这一组结构表示一类人或一类事物，采用语法一致原则，动词用复数形式。如：

The sick (=The sick people) have been cured and the lost (=the lost things) have been found.

The aged (=The aged people) are well cared for here.

关于上列G结构中的主谓一致问题，尚需作几点补充说明：

① the+个别分词形容词，如deceased，accused等，不表示一类人而是指个人，如：

The deceased was an old friend of my father's. 过世的是我父亲的一位老朋友。

The accused was acquitted at last. 被指控者最后被无罪释放。

The living mourn for the dead. 生者哀悼死者。

The oppressed are to rise one day. 受压迫者总有一天会起来反抗的。

The good are happy. 善者长乐。

② the+形容词或分词形容词这一结构用于哲学著作中时往往表示一个抽象概念。如：

the true, the good and the beautiful（真善美）

get rid of the stale and take in the fresh（吐故纳新）

由于表示抽象概念之故，人们便用意义原则来处理其主谓关系，故动词用单数形式。如：

The unexpected（意外情况）often happens. 意外情况时有发生。

The beautiful is not always the same as the good. 漂亮的东西并不总是好的。

The impossible takes a little longer. 难以完成的事情总要花去较长一点时间才能做成。

The true looks less attractive than the false. 真往往不如假那么迷人。

The unknown is bound to come. 未知事物必然会来临的。

③ the+形容词或分词形容词这一结构，如运用得当可使行文简练。

如说“不要在别人背后讲坏话”，可以说“Never speak ill of people behind their backs.”但如改用the+形容词这一结构，则可说“Never speak ill of the absent.”用the absent两个字代替people behind their backs，文体顿时显得凝练、庄重。但应用这一结构，如不仔细，有时也会闹出笑话。如英译“救死扶伤”这一意思时，有的人会不假思索地译成“Heal the wounded and rescue the dead.”人已死怎能再救呢?应改用现在分词形容词“the dying”。

H.

There is a kind of peony（牡丹）in the garden which fills the air with delicate fragrance. 花园里有一种牡丹，使空气弥漫着淡淡的幽香。

This kind of book is worth buying. 这种书值得买。［通常不用this kind of books］

请比较下面两组例子：

He served us a kind of coffee. 他给我们喝一种咖啡。

He served us coffee of a kind. 他给我们喝的说是咖啡而非咖啡的东西。［有“徒有其名，实则太差”之意］

Animals of this kind are dangerous. 这种动物会伤人的。［注意animals用复数］

This kind of animal is dangerous.［句意同上，注意，在this kind of animal这一结构中，animal用单数，用复数不如用单数符合习惯］

2 　并列主语的主谓一致。

A. 并列主语一般后面都跟复数动词，但当并列主语在意义上指同一个人、同一物、同一事或同一概念时，动词便采用单数形式。

Her warmest admirer and severest critic is her husband. 她最热忱的崇拜者和最严厉的批评者都是她的丈夫。［admirer及critic指同一人］

The secretary and accountant of the company was absent at the meeting. 公司的秘书兼财务不在，开会去了。［be absent from the meeting指没有去/来开会；be absent at the meeting指不在，去开会了］

Whisky and soda is always my favorite drink. 威士忌和苏打水始终是我的最爱。［Whisky and soda指一种饮料］

There is a knife and fork on the table. 桌子上有一副刀叉。［a knife and fork组成一套］

War and peace is a constant theme in history. 在历史上，和平与发展是不变的主题。［War and peace指同一个概念］

Truth and honesty is the best policy. 诚实才是上策。

The iron and steel industry is of great importance to the national economy. 钢铁工业对国民经济至关重要。

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 只工作不玩耍，聪明的孩子也变傻。

注：both...and连接两个名词作主语时，谓语动词用复数形式。

例：Both he and I are fond of music very much.

B. every...and... (every...and every...)跟单数动词

each...and... (each...and each...)也跟单数动词

Every flower and tree is to be cut down in the soil preparation.

Every flower and every tree is to be cut down in the soil preparation.

Each boy and girl was congratulated.

Each boy and each girl was congratulated.

C. the+形容词and the+形容词+单数名词复数动词。

The tenth and the last chapter are written by Jack Lee. 第十章和最后一章是由杰克·李所写。

=The tenth chapter and the last chapter are written by Jack Lee.

The red and the white rose are withering in the cold. 红玫瑰和白玫瑰在寒风中慢慢枯萎。

=The red rose and the white rose are withering in the cold.

比较：

The tenth and last chapter is written by Jack Lee.［去掉第二个“the”，此句意思变成“第十章，即最后一章由杰克·李所写”，也就是说杰克·李只写了一章］

The red and white rose is withering in the cold.［指一朵红白相间的玫瑰］

D. 由or，either...or...，neither...nor...，not only...but (also)...连接的并列主语，根据就近原则，动词与最靠近的并列成分保持数的一致。

A technical manual（技术手册）or samples are distributed free at the exhibition.

Samples or a technical manual is distributed free at the exhibition.

Either George or I am to blame.

Either you or George is to blame.

Either the players or the coach is responsible for the defeat.

Either the coach or the players are responsible for the defeat.

Neither he nor you are wrong.

Neither you nor he is wrong.

Not only the switches but also the old wiring has been replaced.

Not only the old wiring but also the switches have been replaced.

either，neither和none用作名词时的主谓一致在试题中也常见到。either指“两者中任何一个都”，表示肯定；neither指“两者之中任何一个都不”，表示否定。因此正式文体中either和neither都必须与单数动词连用，仅在非正式文体中可与复数动词连用。例如：

Either of the books is good enough for me.［非正式文体可用are］这两本书中哪一本对我都很有帮助。

Neither of the sisters is at home.［非正式文体可用are］姐妹俩谁都不在家。

I wrote to invite William and Mike but neither of them has（非正式文体可用have）replied yet;in fact, I doubt if either of them is（非正式文体可用are）coming. 我写信邀请威廉和迈克，但两个人都没有回信。说实话，我怀疑他们俩有没有一个人能来。

▶▶ either和neither用作形容词时，后面均接单数名词和单数动词。例如：

Either book is good enough for me.

Neither sister is at home.

这两句的意义与上面either和neither用作主语的例句意义完全相同。

E. none作名词时，表示三者或三者以上的否定，后面可采用单数或复数动词。例如：

Of all my students none is（或are）so clever as Humphery.

none of+单数宾语接单数动词，none of+复数宾语接单数或复数动词，在标准化考试中宜采用复数动词。例如：

None of the money on the table is mine.

None of the books on the desk are/is mine.

▶▶ 有些句子中none of后面的宾语虽是复数，由于句子意思的关系，动词必须用单数。例如：

None of the men here is my brother.［这里不能用are，因主语补语brother是单数］

▶▶ none单独使用时，如果代表不可数名词，动词用单数；如果代表复数名词，动词用复数：

I need some flour but there was none in the house.［none代表不可数名词flour，故动词用was］

Twelve guests are expected, but none have arrived.［none代表复数可数名词guests，故用have］

F. 主语+as well as（as much as/rather than/more than/no less than等）词组时，动词的数采用就近一致的原则，即视主语究竟属单数还是复数而定。

The pilot as well as two of the passengers has miraculously escaped death.

Two of the passengers as well as the pilot have miraculously escaped death.

The coach, as much as the players, was responsible for the defeat.

The players, as much as the coach, were responsible for the defeat.

Ruth, rather than her roommates, is to blame for the theft.

Her roommates, rather than Ruth, are to blame for the theft.

Man, no less than（和……一样）the lower forms of life, is the product of the evolution process. 人和低等生物一样，是进化过程的产物。

Women, no less than men, are participating in all kinds of work in the construction of their country. 妇女和男人一样，参与国家的各项建设工作。

Dick, more than anyone else, is anxious to go to Detroit. 迪克比任何其他人更渴望去底特律。

Tom and Dick, more than others, are anxious to go to Detroit. 汤姆和迪克比其他人更想去底特律。

在F项下列示的五个词组中，as well as在日常应用及各类英语考试中出现率最高，需特别加以注意。

G. 单数主语+with(along with/together with/except)+单复数宾语用单数动词。

The headmaster with the rest of the staff was engaged in a heated discussion.

Catherine, together with her sister, goes to work by subway every day.

A catalogue（目录单）, along with a complete set of sample cuttings（剪样）, was sent to the client（客户）yesterday.

No one except Rosemary and Leslie was late for the lesson.

3 　名词从句及非限定动词短语作主语时的主谓一致。

A. 由连接词、连接副词及连接代词引导的名词从句作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式。

That the driver could not control his car was obvious.

That the crime was done deliberately（蓄意地）is quite clear.

Who was responsible for the accident is not yet known.

How the book will sell depends on the author.

Whether Max comes or not doesn't concern me.

B. 非限定动词短语作主语时，谓语动词须用单数形式。

Reading is learning, but applying is also learning and the more important kind of learning.

Crossing the Atlantic by plane takes only a few hours nowaday.

To listen to chamber music（室内乐）is Margaret's greatest pleasure.

To finish the job well in such a short time needs hard work.

注：当非限定动词作主语并构成并列结构时，需根据意义来决定采用单数动词还是复数动词。例如：

Weeping and wailing does nothing towards solving your problem. 哭哭啼啼丝毫无助于解决你的问题。［“Weeping and wailing”是一回事，故用单数动词does］

Reading Thomas Hardy and solving a quadratic equation are assignments of a different nature. 阅读汤姆斯·哈代的作品与解答二次方程式是性质截然不同的作业。［此句中两个并列主语指两个不同性质的事情，故用复数动词are］

C. 由连接代词what引导的主语从句，其谓语动词采取单数或复数形式均可。

What is required is some good dictionaries.

What are required are some good dictionaries.

What they want are promise.

What they want is promise.

一般而言，单数动词比复数动词更为正规。在有关结构的考试中也少量出现这种类型的句子，考生可以从句子本身意义来断定用单数还是复数动词。如：

What I want most at the moment is a recorder.［recorder用单数，故用is］

What appear to be specks（小点）on the moon's surface are really large craters.［specks以复数出现，故用are］

4 　由there引导的句子的主谓一致。

一般而言，引导词there引导的句子其主谓一致按就近原则处理：

There is a piano standing against the wall.

There are many good reasons to study a foreign language.

因此，在现代英语中，当there的谓语动词后面的主语是并列结构时，只要靠近的第一个主语是单数形式或带有不定冠词a(n)，谓语动词在习惯用法上也采取单数形式：

There is my wife and family to consider.

There is enough food and drink in the kitchen.

There was singing, dancing, and laughter at the party.

There is a time to be silent and a time to speak, a time for study and a time for recreation.

但要注意的是，关于there be结构中的主谓一致性问题，美国以往TOEFL考试中心仍要求按传统的语法一致原则来处理，即there后面只要跟着两个或两个以上的主语，谓语动词就得用复数。

例　In the room_____an armchair, a table and a desk.

A. there have

B. there is

C. there are

D. there was

［分析］句中有三个主语，故此题的正确答案是C，但在现代日常应用中则按就近原则宜选用B。

注：在简略式there's后面可跟复数主语，在口语体里尤其普遍：

There's worse things than that.

There's lots of places in the city where you can eat.

There's many feeling the same way as I do. 有许多人和我有同感。［注意，句中feeling不是名词而是分词］

在标准化考试中There's必须改为There are。

另需注意的一点是，习语one or two things（things也可改为其他复数名词）在there引导的句子中则根据意义一致的原则采用复数动词，因one or two...意思同a few...，one or two things意思同a few things。例如：

There are one or two things I want to tell you.

5 　表示时间、距离、价格、度量衡等的复数名词或短语作为一个整体看待时，谓语动词一般用单数形式。

Forty years is not a long time. 40年的时间并不长。

Two million dollars is more than the man can afford. 200万美元那人是付不起的。

That happy six days has passed like a dream. 那快乐的6天像梦一样过去了。

Five oranges is enough for me. 5个橘子对我来说足够了。

That first several days was terrible indeed. 起初的几天确实非常难受。

6 　算式中表示数字的主语一般视为单数，谓语动词也多用单数。

One plus (and) one is (are) two. 一加一等于二。

Two times four makes (make) eight. 二乘以四得八。

注：在用from表示“被减”，multiplied by表示“被乘”，into和divided by表示“被除”时，其谓语动词要求用单数，不能用复数。例如：

6 from 20 leaves 14. 20被减去6得14。

50 divided by 10 equals 5. 50除以10等于5。

3 into 9 is 3. 3除9得3。

6 multiplied by 4 makes 24. 6乘4等于24。

7 　关于many的两个特殊用法。

A. many和another搭配，后接单数名词。

Like many another girl, Linda has passed the exam for dancing course.

B. many is the后面接单数名词，放在句首，意为“多得是，很多”。

Many is the child she has taught. 她教过的孩子很多很多。

Many is the time I have heard him play the flute in the veranda. 好多次我听见他在阳台上吹长笛。

Many is the job he's left unfinished. 他留下了很多尚未完成的工作。

8 　用作书名、剧名、报纸名、机构组织等的复数名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式；如果是山脉、群岛、瀑布等的名称，谓语动词用复数。

The Times has a wide circulation.《时代》杂志销路很广。

The Aesop's Fables is a very instructive book.《伊索寓言》是本很有教育意义的书。

Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy.《罗密欧与朱丽叶》是个悲剧。

The United Nations is an international organization. 联合国是个国际性组织。

The Himalayas are the roof of the world. 喜马拉雅山是世界屋脊。

The Great Lakes lie between the USA and Canada. 五大湖位于美国和加拿大之间。

二、主语和主语补语的一致

主语和主语补语的一致主要表现在数的方面。在大多数情况下，主语和主语补语在数的方面应该是一致的：

Both Jimmy and Jackson are graduate students.

The deer is a shy（怕人的，易受惊的）animal.

但有时，主语和主语补语的数也会不一致，表现在以下两种情况：

1 　主语为复数而主语补语则为单数形式。

在这种句子中，主语补语采取单数形式是为了表示一个整体概念，有时候某些单数形式的主语补语在意义上相当于形容词：

Tomatoes are a vegetable.［表示整体概念］

Evening classes are a constructive idea.［同上］

My wife and children are my sole care.［同上］

Your letters are always a delight. (a delight=delightful)

Good manners are a rarity among young people nowaday.［a rarity=rare极少见的］

2 　主语为单数而主语补语却为复数形式。

这时，主要取决于句意：

My principal anxiety is my aged parents.

The cargo is potatoes.

The chief trouble here in summer is mosquitoes that swarm about you in the evening.

The room is magazines and pens. 这房间里到处都是杂志和笔。

Jack is pals with Mary. 杰克和玛丽是朋友。

在下列固定词组中，主语和主语补语在数上不一致，但符合英语习惯用法：

Two soldiers stand（或mount）guard（站岗）at the entrance.［在stand/mount guard习语中，guard总是用单数，无冠词］

Two birds fell (a) prey to the cats（为猫所食）.

Two of the campers stood sentinel（守卫）while the others slept.［stand sentinel也是习惯用语，sentinel用单数，无冠词］

He/They turned traitor under the enemy's severe torture. 在敌人的严刑拷打下，他/他们成了叛徒。［turn traitor是习惯用语，不管主语是单数还是复数，主语补语traitor总是用单数，无冠词。如把此句中的turned改为became，则应说：He became a traitor...或They became traitors...］

再如：

Women have eyes for fashion. 女人对时装很感兴趣。

Tom made faces at her. 汤姆向她做鬼脸。

Many fall victim. 许多人都成了受害者。［不用victims］

They are always the victor. 他们总是赢家。［不用victors］

He is shipmates with you. 他和你同乘一条船。

I am quits with you. 我们两清了。

三、代词的一致

代词一致是指句中代词应与它所照应的名词词组在数、性、人称等方面彼此保持一致。

Robert and Henry haven't made up their minds yet.

I bought a fridge. It is of American make.

I have two fridges. They are both of American make.

▶▶ 当everyone，everybody，no one，nobody，anyone，anybody，someone，somebody用作主语时，其相应的代词在标准化考试中按语法一致的原则采取单数形式。

Everyone had his say at the meeting. 大家都在会上发了言。

Everybody looks after himself.

No one has yet availed himself of this offer.

Anyone who fails (=fails in) the driving test will not be able to get his license.

例　Everyone in the audience kept_____eyes focused on the curtain behind which Layton had taken refuge.

A. his

B. their

C. its

D. her

［答案：A］

但在现代日常用语中，因everyone，everybody，anyone，anybody统指男女两性，已改用复数代词，听起来更合理，更合英语表达习惯。在当今的英语考试中也采用复数形式，诸如英国的《COBUILD等英汉双解词典》已采用这一复数代词的指代法。例如：

Everybody knows what they have to do.

If anybody calls while I'm out shopping, tell them to call back this evening.

▶▶ everything，anything，something，nothing等不定代词作主语时，句中相应的代词一概用单数形式。

Everything is ready, isn't it?

Something strange happened yesterday, didn't it?

▶▶ 当代词所指的对象为并列结构时，代词的单复数应按并列结构的意义来决定。

The old woman and her daughter managed to support themselves by being babysitters.［老妇人和女儿是两人，故代词用themselves］

The owner and the captain refused to abandon their sinking ship.［船主和船长是两个人，故代词所有格用their］

The owner and captain refused to abandon his sinking ship.［船主兼船长是指一个人，故代词所有格用his］

I bought bread and butter at the supermarket, and they cost four dollars.［面包和黄油，这里指两件东西，故代词用they］

I like bread and butter, and this is my favorite food for breakfast.［这里指涂有黄油的面包，是一种东西，故代词用this］

最后需要加以说明的是，一致性的处理在正式文体及非正式文体中往往不一致；这种情况在实际应用中是一个很普遍的现象。譬如说本章中曾讲到由连词or，either...or...，neither...nor...等连接的并列主语，通常根据就近原则，要求谓语动词与最靠近的并列主语保持数的一致，也就是说，最靠近的主语是单数时动词也用单数，最靠近的主语是复数时动词也用复数。本章节曾列举五组实例相互比较从而说明这一根据就近原则在数方面的一致性用法。但日常的非正式文体中由or，either...or...，neither...nor...等连接的并列主语也可根据意义一致的原则采用复数形式的动词。如：

Reward or punishment are［正式文体用is］meted out quite independent of human interference.

If either Arther or Lucy come［正式文体用comes］, they［正式文体用he or she］will want a cold drink.

Neither she nor her husband have［正式文体用has］any idea of it.

鉴于国内外标准化考试中的结构部分均以正式文体为准则，作者着重按正式文体的要求来处理一致性这一语言现象。

四、并列（又称平行排比）结构中成分宜保持一致性

在日常英语写作中，长句、复合句、三项排比、非谓语等的运用比比皆是，这时就要求作者在语法结构等方面做到前后对应，保持一致，以此使句子保持平衡和协调。此技巧掌握得好，定能使自己写出的句子对仗工整、气势磅礴。

The student's task is reading English, speaking English and listening to English. 学生的任务就是读英语，说英语，听英语。

Comment is often made about activities which are relatively easy and satisfying, like arranging flowers; but not about jobs which are hard and dirty, like scrubbing floors.［两个about都是修饰comment］那些相对轻松和讨好的活儿，例如插花，就更容易获得人们的评论；但是像擦地板这样又苦又脏的工作却不予置评。

The instrument has been welcomed by users because of its stability in serviceability, reliability in operation and simplicity in maintenance. 该仪器性能稳定，操作可靠，维修方便，因而受到用户欢迎。

另外，结构成分的一致除了并列结构外，还有比较结构、排比结构等。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. The data_____arrived just in time.

A. has

B. have

C. have been

D. has been

2. George is one of the brightest students who_____from New York University.

A. is graduated

B. has graduated

C. have graduated

D. had graduated

3. Almost immediately_____flashed on the Internet and was picked up, half a world away, by John Hofsess, executive director of the Right to Die Society of Canada.

A. a word

B. words

C. the word

D. word

4. The team_____preparing for its big game.

A. were

B. are

C. have been

D. is

5. I want to have two_____.

A. scissors

B. sets of scissors

C. pieces of scissors

D. pairs of scissors

6. Anybody_____knows anything know this.

A. who

B. not

C. doesn't

D. that

7. Each bus and tram_____with colored lights.

A. is decorated

B. are decorated

C. decorates

D. decorated

8. Nebraska has floods in some years, _____.

A. in others drought

B. droughts are others

C. while other droughts

D. others in drought

9. Commercial expansion from city to suburb has affected the way people in the United States_____.

A. living and working

B. they live and work

C. live and work

D. to live and to work

10. Before linoleum was invented in 1860, _____hard-wearing, easy-to-clean flooring.

A. any house did not have

B. no house have

C. no house had any

D. any house had not

11. Tom is so poor that even five dollars_____a big sum to him.

A. is

B. are

C. add

D. equal

12. Part of the books_____arrived.

A. is

B. have

C. was

D. has

13. The office staff_____gathered to hear the President speak.

A. is

B. are

C. be

D. will

14. The wheel and axle_____a rotating lever.

A. is

B. was

C. are

D. were

15. No sulfur and no phosphorus（磷）_____present in this product.

A. are

B. were

C. will

D. is

二、用is/are，was/were，has/have或does/do填空

1. Nothing but two empty bottles_____been found in the victim's bedroom.

2. A large number of cattle_____slaughtered for meat every day.

3. Industry, not ability, _____the key to success.

4. One-third of the guests_____left.

5. One-third of the land_____cultivatable.

6. Stealing cars_____a common crime nowadays.

7. Our football team_____won the match.

8. The enemy_____been driven out of the country.

9. A vase filled with camellias_____placed on the table.

10. There_____lots of useful information in this article.

11. Three times one_____three.

12. What worries the people there_____disease and famine.

13. There_____a pan, a pencil and two dictionaries on the desk.

14. The number of cars in Tokyo_____increasing every year.

15. A black and white kitten_____found in the garden yesterday.

16. They say riches_____wings.（人们说财富易散。）

17. Collecting stamps_____my favorite hobby when I was a boy.

18. The long and the short of the matter_____that they both incurred heavy losses.

19. A summons_____been sent to the witness.

20. There_____one or two apples left in the basket.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［B］data是datum（材料）的复数形式，故用have。

2.［C］题句中关系代词who不指one，而是指复数名词students，“graduated（或be graduated)from＋校名”表示“毕业于……学校”。题句中未提供明确时间，一般宜用现在完成体，故选C。A项中之is改are便可。

3.［D］word用作单数时前不用冠词，作“news；information”解，如：Finally word came that they had arrived there safely.（最后传来了他们已安全到达那里的消息。）本题意指“消息马上出现在计算机国际互联网上并被北半球加拿大安乐死权利协会执行主席John Hofsess所检索。”

4.［D］题句中出现的its指team；显然，集体名词team这里表示整体，不是表示team中的各个成员，故选D。题中之game指成为打猎目标的野生鸟兽，系不可数名词。如要表示“一头猎物”，该用a head of game。

5.［D］two pairs of scissors两把剪刀，合句意。

6.［A］在everybody，everyone，anybody，anyone，somebody，someone等词后面宜用who（用作从句中主语），whom（用作从句中宾语），不用that。如When I entered, they were talking about somebody whom I didn't know.（whom作know的宾语）/Is there anyone here who knows Spanish?（who作know之主语）

7.［A］Each bus and tram或Each bus and each tram都接单数动词，every用法和each相同。

8.［A］in others=in other years。题句意指“在有些年份Nebraska发生水灾，在有些年份则发生旱灾。”其余皆不合语法。题中之drought也可用作不可数名词，如areas of Africa affected by drought（遭受旱灾的一些非洲地区）。

9.［C］the way people in the United States live and work=the way in which（或the way that）people in the United States live and work。

10.［C］题句的主句缺主谓，故选C。A项在语法上尚可，但不合英语的习惯表达法，在带有no，nothing，any，anything的句子里，按习惯用法应采用“主语否定，谓语肯定”这一结构形式来表示否定的意思。如“这项工作一个人是干不了的。”在英语中不能说“Anybody cannot do the job alone.”应说“Nobody can do the job alone.”因此，A项不妥。linoleum：油地毡。

11.［A］five dollars作“整体”概念考虑。

12.［B］Part of...=A part of...；Part of接复数名词时便采用复数动词，接单数名词时则采用单数动词。

13.［B］staff作“全体工作人员”解，谓语动词用复数。

14.［A］在机械学中wheel和axle指“轮轴”，系整体，故接单数动词is。

15.［D］

二、用is/are，was/were，has/have或does/do填空

1. has。主语nothing是单数。

2. are。cattle指牛的总称，接复数动词。表示“一头牛”时用a herd of cattle，表示“30头牛”时用thirty head of cattle，head不能用复数。

3. is。industry在这里的意思是“勤奋”。

4. have。组合数词后面的介词接复数名词时，便采用复数动词，接单数名词便采用单数动词。如：One-third of the money is hers.

5. is。（同上）。

6. is。因主语是动名词短语。

7. has。team这里指足球队表示整体。

8. have。the enemy用作集体名词时指敌军，单复数动词都可接，但复数动词更为常见。

9. is。

10. is。lots of系修饰词，主语系单数名词information。

11. is。

12. is。这句结构也可在数上略为变动，改为what worry（复数动词）the people there are（复数动词）disease and famine。

13. is/are。按包括TOEFL在内的传统英语的要求，应用are，但现代英语和当前标准化考试都倾向用is，因第一个主语pen前有a。

14. is。the number of接复数名词，但采用单数动词。a number of接复数名词和复数动词。

15. was。a black and white kitten指一只黑白间色的猫，a black and a white kitten则指两只小猫，一只黑、一只白。

16. have。

17. was。

18. is。The long and (the) short of the matter（第二个the也可省略）意指“这件事情的要点或主要意思”，后接单数动词。

19. has。summons是复数形式的单数名词，作“传票”解，后接单数动词。

20. are。主语apples是复数。

第六章　动词

一、不规则动词

英语动词有规则动词和不规则动词之分。规则动词的过去式和过去分词形式相同，如walk（散步），walked，walked。但不规则动词的这两种形式却往往不相同，如bite（咬），bit，bitten。然而也有一些不规则动词，它们的过去式和过去分词同它们的原形一样，如hit（打击），hit，hit。

英语的不规则动词，虽然看来是个简单的语言现象，却不可掉以轻心，因它们同英语的时态、语态、分词和合成词都有密切关系，可说是基础的基础。故标准化考试常考这一语言现象。

例　Pickling（腌渍）of foods (A) begun (B) in prehistoric (C) times (D).

［分析］B孤零零地用了过去分词形式，显然是错的。句子表达的是过去的意思，谓语动词应用过去式began。

例　Tons (A) of boulders were leaved (B) scattered by glaciers all over (C) what was to become the New England landscape (D).

［分析］leave系不规则动词，它的过去式和过去分词均为left，故应把B改为left，与前面的动词were构成过去时被动语态。

二、特殊连系动词

除了系动词be即am，is，are，was，were之外，还有其他一些动词，它们后面不是跟副词而是跟形容词或名词作为表语。在语法结构上，这些动词因所起的作用和系动词be一样，故称特殊连系动词。例如，英美人不说“The air has suddenly grown coldly.”而是说“The air has suddenly grown cold.”因grow有时用作特殊连系动词。

例　It is prohibited by law to mail through parcel post any merchandise that might prove_____in transport.

A. dangerous

B. with danger

C. dangerously

D. to the danger

［分析］在上题的定语从句中动词prove系特殊连系动词，后面不能跟副词来修饰，须接形容词作为其主语that的表语，故应选A。

1. 特殊连系动词的分类

1 　表示一个特征或状态。

这类动词有feel，look，sound，taste，smell，appear等：

His argument does not sound very reasonable.

The perfume smells nice.

These apples look ripe.

The milk tastes sour.

The sun feels good. 阳光宜人。

The verdict appears just. 判决看来很公正。

2 　表示由一种状态进入或转变为另一种状态。

这类动词有become, grow, get, turn, fall, go, come, run等：

Our technique is becoming increasingly specialized. 我们的技术正在变得越来越专业化。

Stop it; he is getting drunk. 别再这样搞了，他快喝醉啦。

The engine runs hot. 引擎发烫了。

I regret that my question goes unanswered. 很遗憾，我的问题未得到答复。

He turned nasty when he found he had been ripped off. 他发现被人“斩”后大为光火。

His mouth fell open（变得张口结舌）when the police questioned him.

You will grow used to the life style here in course of time. 日子久了你会习惯这里的生活方式的。

Your shoelaces have come undone. 你的鞋带散了。

3 　表示保持某种状态。

这类动词有continue, keep, remain, prove, turn out, stay, sit, lie, stand等：

He eats much but remains thin. 他吃得很多，可依旧很瘦。

The stock market continued bullish for as long as two years. 股市继续保持牛市行情达两年之久。

We can keep abreast of what is going on by reading the newspaper. 通过读报我们便能跟上形势发展。［注意：abreast这里是形容词］

The boy will turn out (to be) a marvellous man. 那男孩将成为一个了不起的人。

She stayed (=remained) single all her life.

The new method proved efficient.

Monica sat motionless, waiting for the interview.

Gilbert is still lying（lie之现在分词）awake.

I stand innocent of any wrong. 我未做错任何事。

2. 特殊连系动词的固定搭配

blush crimson/red 羞得脸通红

The girl blushed crimson when her boyfriend kissed her in the presence of his friends（当着他朋友的面）.

break free/loose 挣脱；迸发

In the sweeping economic reform, people's creativity is breaking loose. 在势不可挡的经济改革中，人们的创造性正在迸发出来。

come easy 变得容易

Skill comes easy through constant practice. 技艺熟能生巧。

come loose/undone 松掉

Some of the pages have come loose. 有几张书页松脱了。

come right 没问题

Don't worry. Everything will come right in the end. 船到桥头自会直。

come true（预言、期望、梦想等）实现；成为事实

I wonder whether the prophecy（预言）will come true.

cut loose 摆脱

The boy left home and cut loose from his parents' control. 该男孩离开了家，摆脱了父母的控制。

fall asleep 入睡

The child fell asleep just now. 这孩子刚睡着。

fall due 到期

The rent falls（或comes）due tomorrow; don't forget to pay it.

fall flat 完全失败；达不到预期效果

The project fell flat. 该项目完全失败了。

The speaker's joke fell flat on the audience. 讲话人的笑话没有能使听众感到好笑。

fall short 未中标；达不到标准或要求

The arrow fell short of the target. 箭未射中目标。

Supply falls short of demand. 供不应求。

go bald（头发）变秃

I started to go bald at about 40. 我40岁左右开始秃顶。

go bad（食物等）变质

Food goes bad easily in summer.

go crazy/mad 发疯；着迷

Mike has gone crazy (mad); there is no doubt about it. 迈克发疯了，这是毫无疑问的。

The girls all went crazy (mad) over the film star. 姑娘们都为该电影明星神魂颠倒。

go dead（电话）中断；（电池）电用完

The telephone suddenly went dead in the middle of our talk.

go easy 省着点吃……；放（某人）一码（后接介词on）

There is not much cocoa left; let's go easy on it. 可可粉不多了，咱们省着点喝吧。

As you are a teenager, we'll go easy on you. 因你是个十几岁的孩子，我们就放你一码算啦。

go sour（牛奶等）变酸

I forgot to put the milk back in the fridge; it has gone sour.

go white（脸色，头发）发白

My father went white（头发变白）at the age of 40.

go wrong 走入歧途；弄错；不如意

People help teenage boys and girls who have gone wrong. 人们帮助失足的男女青少年。

You can't go wrong in buying this bargain. 买这个便宜货你错不了。

Something went wrong today. 今天事事不称心。

lie awake 躺着醒着

He has not gone to sleep yet（尚未睡着）; he is still lying awake.

lie waste（土地）未被开垦

Large areas lie waste for lack of manpower. 由于缺少人力，大片空地未得到开垦。

rest easy 放心

You can rest easy. 你们尽可放心。

rest assured（指对……）放心（后接of)

You can rest assured of our best cooperation. 你们请放心，我们会给予最佳合作。

rest content 对……很满意（后接with）

I rest content with my life at present. 我对目前的生活心满意足。

ring false 听起来不真实；听声音像假货［反义词组为ring true］

Their statement rang false. 他们的陈述听起来不真实。

These coins ring false. 这些钱币听声音像是假货。

ring hollow 听上去空泛泛

The promises made by that friend of yours ring hollow. 你那位朋友所许下的种种诺言听上去都是泛泛空话。

run dry 干涸

The well has run dry. 这井已干涸。

run mad=go mad

run hot 发烫

The engine is running hot. 引擎在发烫了。

run rampant（植物）蔓生；（谣言等）四处传开

The rich soil has made the plants run rampant. 肥沃的土壤使植物十分繁茂。

Gossip has run rampant. 流言已四处传开。

run wild 变得荒芜；失去控制或约束；

The garden has run wild. 花园荒芜了。

Ivy ran wild all over that old house. 常青藤爬满那幢旧房子。

Don't let your children run wild. 别把孩子宠得毫无管束。

wear smooth 磨得光滑

Constant treading has worn the cobbled street smooth. 人们经常踩踏，已把这条石子路磨得很光滑。

wear thin 磨薄，穿/用薄；慢慢失去；失去吸引力

The soles of these shoes have worn very thin. 这双鞋底已穿得非常薄了。

My patience began to wear thin during the long wait. 在长时间的等待中我渐渐变得不耐烦了。

A joke heard too often can wear thin. 笑话重复太多便会失去吸引力。

wear hollow 使耗成空壳

This tooth of yours is almost worn hollow. 你这颗牙几乎给蛀空了。

3. 特殊连系动词与实义动词

有些特殊连系动词也可用作一般实义动词；这样用时含义有所不同，它们应和副词一起用，而且不能再接形容词。试比较：

The accident appeared impossible. 这个意外事件看来似乎是不可能的。

Betty suddenly appeared in the doorway. 贝蒂突然出现在门口。

Anthony looks angry. 安东尼看来在发火。

Anthony is looking at you angrily. 安东尼在发怒地看着你。

The soup tastes wonderful. 这汤尝起来味道极佳。

I tasted the soup suspiciously. 我怀疑地尝一尝这汤。

My skin feels rough. 我的皮肤摸起来很粗糙。

The doctor felt my arm carefully. 医生很当心地摸弄着我手臂。

在上面四组例句中，每组第一句中的动词系特殊连系动词，后跟形容词；在第二句中该动词用作一般实义动词，意义也有所改变，故为副词所修饰。

4. 表层结构和深层结构在特殊连系动词结构中的应用

有时，一个非及物动词后面不跟副词而是接形容词或名词，例如：

The day dawned misty.［动词dawned后面接形容词misty，不跟副词mistily］

Eloise left a child, and came back a mother of three children.［动词left和动词词组came back后面均跟名词］

从表层结构看，上列两个例句中似乎都有问题，第一例句中的misty应改为mistily，第二例中的不及物动词left和不及物动词词组came back后面都跟名词令人费解。但当我们对上列两个例句的表层结构深入下去后，便可发现它们的深层结构：

The day dawned. It was misty.

Eloise left. She was a child. She came back. She was a mother of three Children.

在上列两个深层结构中，代词it指the day，即两个主语相同，it后面又有系动词was;在符合这两个条件的情况下，两句便可合并形成表层结构：The day dawned misty.在这一表层结构中，动词dawned的性质已由一般动词变为半系动词（semi-link verb）。同样地，在上面第二个深层结构中三个代词she指的都是Eloise，四个主语指的是同一个人，第2和第4句中又都有系动词was，故合并成这一表层结构：Eloise left a child and came back a mother of three children. 当然，动词left和动词词组came back在这一表层结构中也都变为半系动词。这种带有半系动词的表层结构有时也应用在写作中，如：

Robert went home disappointed［不用disappointedly，因深层结构为Robert went home. He was disappointed.］

Geoffrey and Gerald parted the best of friends.［此句的深层结构为Geoffrey and Gerald parted. They were the best of friends. 第二句中的They指代Geoffrey和Gerald，后面有系动词were，故可合并成表层结构。］

再如：

The man jumped into the water to save the drowning boy. He was fully clothed.便可合并成表层结构：The man jumped fully clothed into the water to save the drowning boy. 那男子没有脱衣服就跳进水里去救那溺水的男孩。

唐朝诗人贺知章的名诗《回乡偶书》中的第一句“少小离家老大回”的英译就可采用这一由深层结构演化而来的表层结构：

或

I left home young and came back old.

I left home a child and returned an old man.

下面是一例测试表层结构的标准化考题，难度极大，90%以上的考生都失分：

例　Mrs. Robinoson stared at (A) the robber, and then (B) crumpled to (C) the floor unconsciously (D).

［分析］因题中第二部分系深层结构，后面省去两个she，即and then she crumpled to the floor; she was unconscious.第二个she后面有was，故可合并表层结构she crumpled to the floor unconscious.故(D) unconsciously，错，改为unconscious。

中国人传诵着一句名言“莲出污泥而不染”来形容一个品格高的人处于逆境中而能洁身自好。这句名言汉译英时宜用表层结构。为便于读者掌握，现分两步处理：

第一步：Lotuses emerge from the filth. They are unstained.

第二步：They指代lotuses（两个主语相同），后面出现系动词are，两步便可合并为一步，成为表层结构，即：

Lotuses emerge unstained from the filth.

三、情态动词

1. can (could)和be able to用法上的区别

1 　can可以表示能力，指某人具有某种知识和技能而能够做到某事。can用于指现在，过去时则用could。

Can you speak English? 你能说英语吗？

He said that he could do anything we wished. 他说他能做我们想要他做的任何事情。

但当表示经过艰苦努力而成功地做到或设法做到某事时要用be able to，而不用can。试比较下面两例：

He couldn't drain the whole bottle of beer. 暗示他没能力把整整一瓶啤酒一饮而尽，结果也未尝试着去喝。

He was not able to drain the whole bottle of beer. 隐含他尝试着去喝，但结果没能一口气喝完。

2 　can表示现在时，无人称和数的变化。be able to则不同，有人称和数的变化，并可用于各种时态。

在表示意愿或准许的含义时或在表示将来时的 if 从句或when从句中can也可表示将来，这一用法并不多见。

Can you translate this poem?［表现在］

Can you come to our party?［表意愿，相等于 will，指将来］

If you can help me with the work, I will buy you a gift. 你如能帮我干这工作，我定会买件礼物送你。［用在if从句中表将来时］

As you look so listless, you can take this afternoon off. 你看来精神很不济，今天下午你就休息吧。［指将来，表准许］

On graduation from college, I shall be able to fend for myself. 大学毕业后，我将能自力更生了。［表将来，这里不能用can。fend for oneself自谋生计］

注：① 表示“准许”时，can可表示现在：We can't wear jeans at work. 我们上班时不准穿牛仔裤。be able to 则不能用来表示准许或许可，如: She said that I could（不能用I was able to）take any one of her books I wanted. 她说我可以拿她所有书中我要的任何一本书。

② 表示准许或许可时，通常用can，不用could。

A: Could I use your bike for a while?［这里could表请求之意］

B: Yes, of course you can.［不用could，表许可］

The girl is too timid. She has not been able to get a licence so far. 这姑娘太胆怯，她至今还未能拿到驾驶证。［表现在完成时］

He told me that since the traffic accident, he had not been able to walk properly. 他告诉我，自那次交通事故后他一直未能正常行走。［表过去完成时］

3 　could和was/were able to用法上的区别。

A. 表示时间跨度较大、笼统的过去时段中具备的能力时 could和was (were) able to 可换用。

He could (was able to) swim across the Huangpu River when he was a kid. 他还是小孩子时就已能游过黄浦江了。

She was able to (could) sing like an angel when she was young. 她年轻时歌唱得能像天使般那样动听。

B. 表示完成过去某一具体动作时，只能用was (were) able to，不能用could。

After six hours' climbing, we were able to reach the top of the mountain. 爬了6小时后，我们终于登上了山顶。［指过去某一次具体的爬山活动］

He was a terrific liar；he could (was able to) make anybody believe him. 他是个说谎大王，能使任何人相信他的谎话。［这里anybody表示一个笼统的泛指概念，故could或was able都可用］

When I was younger, I was not able to (couldn't) decide what I wanted to do. 我年轻时拿不定主意自己要干什么事。［在否定结构中 could和was(were) able to两者都可用，无差别］

例　He could (A) climb to (B) the top of the (C) mountain in spite of (D) the snow.

［分析］上题题意是“尽管山上积雪，他还是爬上了山顶。”表示完成过去某一具体动作时，只能用was(were) able to，故A项错，把could改为was able to。

从上面试题，可看出was (were) able to表示过去做成某具体事情的能力时，相等于 managed to do sth.或succeeded in doing sth.。由此可见，当表示“经过多年坚持不懈的努力，她终于赢得了大奖”时，便可说“After years of persistent efforts, she was able to win the grand prix.”［grand prix是“大奖”；“大满贯”则叫 the grand slam］

4 　can和could的一些其他用法。

两词各种功能基本相同。除了could是can的过去式外，could比can更婉转、客气。

A. 表示可能性（指可以或了解做某事）。

表示可能性时常用于疑问句和否定句，但有时也用于肯定句和进行时。如：

The story is sensational; it can't be (couldn't be) true, I think. 这报道耸人听闻。我想这不可能是真的。［否定句］

He was living in Moscow when I last met him about five years ago. Can (could) he still be living there? 我上次约五年前碰到他时他正住在莫斯科。他可能还住在那里吗？［疑问句，进行时态］

We can (could) dine out tonight. 我们今晚可以在外面吃。［肯定句］

B. 表示婉转的命令或批评。

You can (could) go and buy a packet of cigarettes. 你去买包香烟来。

You can (could) tidy up your room, Mike. 迈克，整理整理你的房间吧。

You can (could) be more careful at your work. 你工作要更细心些。

C. 表示偶尔会出现的一种反常态的表现。

It can (could) be very cold in May here. 这里五月份有时会非常冷。

Sometimes our manager can be very tactless in dealing with interpersonal relations. 有时我们的经理在处理人际关系上会很不讲究方式。

Man can (could) be more cruel than wild beasts. 人有时会比野兽更残忍。

D. 用于修辞性问句。

修辞性问句以修辞手段表意而不需回答，借此表示某种情绪，如：Is that a reason for complaint? 难道那就是抱怨的理由吗？can也用于日常的修辞性问句中，如：

He is never content with his lot.What on earth can satisfy him? 他从不知足。究竟什么能满足他呢？［表不满情绪］

Time is so pressing. How can I complete such a task single-handed? 时间这么紧，我独自一人如何完成这样的任务呢？［表难以办到的畏难情绪］

以上两例表示较为强烈的不满及畏难情绪，can要比could更适宜些。

E.“can（或could) have+过去分词”表示过去可能发生的事；“cannot（或could not）have+过去分词”表示过去不可能发生的事。

The car and the van collided head-on in thick fog.Both drivers can (could) have been seriously hurt in the accident. 那辆小轿车和货车在浓雾中迎面相撞，两位驾驶员可能在那次交通事故中受了重伤。

My electronic calculator has disappeared.Who can（或could）have picked it up on the sly? 我的电子计算器不见了，谁会顺手牵羊把它拿走呢？

He started early. He can't (couldn't) have missed the train. 他动身很早，不可能误车的。

注：① can (could) have+过去分词也可用于完成进行时，即can (could) have been+现在分词，否定式也一样。如：

They can (could) have been discussing the problem yesterday afternoon. 他们可能昨天下午一直在讨论这问题。［肯定式］

They had two math classes yesterday morning, so they couldn't/can't have been playing table tennis all yesterday morning. 他们昨天早晨有两节数学课，因此不可能整个上午都在打乒乓球。［否定式］

② could have+过去分词表示原本可能的动作。

You could have finished your thesis last week. 你原本可以在上星期完成你的论文的。

You could have passed the driving test, but you were too nervous. 你原本可以通过驾照考试的，但你太紧张了。

2. may和might

1 　may表示“许可”，“可以”，用于陈述句、疑问句和否定句，它的过去式是might。

表“许可”时may和might要比can和could更正式，might和could则比may和can更婉转、更有礼貌。如：

You may have some smoke here.［陈述句］

Students may not refer to books in the examination room. 学生在考场中不准参考书本。［否定句］

Visitors may not walk on the grass in the garden. 参观者不准在花园的草地上行走。［否定句］

A: May I come around in the morning? 我上午来好吗？［疑问句］

B: Yes, please do. 行，好的。

注：表肯定回答时，可用“yes, please do”或“yes, you may”（通常不用You might）。

2 　回答问题表示“不许可”时可用can't或may not。

—Can I be excused from the meeting? 我可以不参加这个会吗？

—No, you can't. 不，不行。

—May I use your dictionary for about two hours? 你的字典我可以用两小时左右吗？

—No, you may not. 不，不行。

3 　may not也可表示“不许可”，表示该意思时，它的过去形式不是might not。试比较：

Ike may not go home right after school. He will have to finish yesterday's homework. 埃克不准一放学马上回家，他得补做昨天的作业。

Ike might not go home right after school. He will participate in the school orchestra rehearsal. 埃克可能一放学不会马上回家，他要参加学校管弦乐队的排练。

▶▶ might not作为may not的过去式只能表示“不可能”，不能表示“不准，不许可”，故上面第1例“Ike may not go home right after school. He will have to finish yesterday's homework.”只能表示“不准，不许可”的意思。但语气要比“He is not allowed (permitted) to go home right after school”婉转得多。

4 　may 表示的“可能”，比might表示的可能性较小，或者表示更委婉的语气。

They may not leave so early. 他们可能不会这么早离开。［否定句］

One may live a hundred years, but cannot live to three hundred years. 人可能活到100岁，但不可能活到300岁。

区别下面两个句子：

两句都表示可能借给你那本小说，但第二句的可能性要比第一句小。

Tom may lend you the novel.

Tom might lend you the novel.

注：can与may表示“可能”时要注意以下几点：

① 在疑问中表示“可能”时，按标准用法须用can不宜用may。如：

A: Where can she be? 她可能会在哪里呢？［疑问句不用may］

B: She may be at the nearby cybercafe wading through some websites. 她可能在附近的网吧，游览几个网站。［陈述语，可用may］

② 在口语中发may not 时，如果重音落在not上意思便由“不可能”转为“不准许”，如：

The naughty boy may' not leave after school. 这个顽皮的男孩放学后不准回家。［重音落在not上］

在书面语言中may not可能会引起歧义，故表示“不可能”宜用can't。

③ 在肯定陈述句中，may和can都能表示“可能”（probability），但在含义上有微细的差别。比较下面两例：

Even on Saturdays and Sundays, this busy road can be blocked. 即使逢星期六及星期日，这条繁忙的道路也可能会堵。［指逻辑推理上的可能性］

Even on Saturdays and Sundays, this busy road may be blocked. 即使逢星期六及星期日，这条繁忙的道路也要堵。［指事实上的可能性］

④ may表示“可能”时一般不用于疑问句，而以其他词语来替代。

如：May he capture the intercollegiate table tennis championship for 2007? 他有可能夺得2007年大学校际乒乓球联赛冠军吗？

上列是个疑问句，may 表“可能”不妥，可改为Can he capture...?或Is he likely to capture...?或Is it possible for him to capture...?

5 　may/might have+过去分词表示对过去发生事情的一种猜测，might比may在语气上更婉转。

He did not leave till as late as two o'clock.He may/might have missed the train. 他挨到2点钟这么晚才动身，他很有可能已误车了。

You may/might have read that very stirring news report yesterday. 你昨天可能已看了那份非常激动人心的新闻报道。

The two may/might not have met that night. 这两个昨晚可能没有见面。

注：上一结构还可用来表示“本来可能发生但却没有发生”或“本来可能完成但却没有完成的事情”。这样用时，一般都用might或could而不用may或can。如：

You were marvellously lucky to have a narrow escape from that accident. You might have got killed. 那桩事故中你九死一生，算你命大；你本来可能会送命的。［表一桩“本来可能发生但却没有发生的事情”］

You might have/could have passed the examination, but you did not work hard enough. 你本可以通过这次考试的，但不够努力。［表本来可能完成或做到但却没有完成或做到。］

6 　表示委婉的责备时只能用might，用于一般现在式或完成体。

You might ask me before you use my computer. 你可先问问我再用我的电脑嘛。［表现在］

You might have lent her a helping hand at that time. 那时你蛮可以拉她一把的嘛。［表过去，原可做到但却没有做到］

7 　表示祝愿时只能用may。

A. may用于句首，主谓倒置。

May you succeed! 祝你成功！

May you live long! 祝你长寿！

May your birthday be happy! 祝你生日快乐！

B. 副词或形容词置于may之前，主谓也须倒置。

Long may you live! 祝你长寿！［副词long置于句首］

Happy may your birthday be! 祝你生日快乐！［形容词位于句首］

注：may还可用于对死者的祝愿，如May he rest in peace! 愿死者安息吧！

8 　may/might的句型结构。

A. may well接动词原形，作“理应，有充分的理由”解。

His parents may well be proud of him. 他的父母以他为骄傲，是有理由的。

He may well say so. 他说得对。

B. may/might as well+动词原形+as+动词原形，意指“与其……还不如……”，其中第二个as表示“与其”，may/might as well表示“还不如”。

may/might as well（还不如……）as...（与其……）

may和might并无现在时和过去时的分别，要说有所不同，则是may表示的可能性比might表示的要大。如：

One may as well not know a thing at all as know it imperfectly. 对一件事情，与其一知半解，还不如完全不知的好。

You might as well throw the money into the sea as spend it on the stock market. 你与其把这笔钱花在股票市场上还不如把钱扔进海里。

有时候可在may/might as well之间加上just，以加强语气。如：

You might just as well act it as say it. 你与其那样说还不如付诸行动更好些。

有时候，第二个as引导的部分可全部省掉，句意为“还是……好”，或“还不如……”，如：

You may just as well tell me the truth. 你还是把事实真相告诉我为好。

There is nothing to do, so I may as well go to bed. 我没什么事要做，所以还不如上床睡觉。

3. have to和must

1 　have to和must都表示必须，但二者有些区别。

have to侧重于客观需要，表示由于客观环境的原因而不得不做某事；must则侧重说话人的主观意志，表示主观上说话者认为有必要做某事。试比较：

I must learn the English language well.［表示主观上想把英语学好的意志］

I have to learn the English language well.［客观需要，可能由于工作需要或要去欧美国家深造一段时期等客观原因］

You must write the feasibility report yourself.I'm afraid I'm not in a position to help you. 我恐怕帮不了你。［说话人的意志］

You have to write the feasibility report（可行性报告）yourself. Nobody can help you.［表客观情况所迫］

2 　have to可用于不同的时态，也可与情态动词连用，并可用于被动语态。

We had to put off the track meet because of the bad weather. 因天气不好我们不得不推迟田径运动会。［用于过去时，表客观环境因素］

We will have to come up with the design scheme today. 我们今天得交出该设计方案。［表将来时］

The work will have to be completed before the 10th. 这项工作得在10号前完成。［用于将来时被动语态］

He has been having to stay up late to finish his book for the last few weeks. 近几周来，他必须一直熬夜以完成他的书。［用于现在完成进行时］

My husband is always having to go on a business trip. 我先生总是要经常出差。［用于现在进行时］

It's getting late; we will have to be going. 时间已不早，我们得走了。［用于将来进行时］

▶▶ 而must一般只用于现在时中，也可用在将来时；在间接引语及宾语从句中也可表示过去时，如：

All pedestrians must cross this road by the footbridge. 所有行人必须由天桥穿越这条马路。［表现在时］（“天桥”还可用pedestrian bridge或overhead walkway来表示）

Must we finish the job before tomorrow noon? 我们一定得在明天中午前完成这个工作吗？［表将来时］

I'm afraid we must be going, or we'll not be able to catch the last bus. 我看我们得走了，否则我们将赶不上末班车了。［表现在进行时］

3 　must作情态动词可表示主观推测，而 have to 则无此用法。must表示观推测时可用于各种时态。

A. 现在时。

There must be something wrong with the car.I can't start it. 这汽车准是出了毛病，它发动不起来了。

B. 现在进行时。

Don't take it seriously. He must be joking. 别当真，他准是在开开玩笑而已。

C. 过去时。

Mrs. Crook realized that it must be the man from the Electricity Board who had come to read the meter. 柯鲁克夫人意识到来者准是电力公司的人来抄电表的。［用在宾语从句中］

Yesterday morning I told my parents that I must call on an old friend of mine at once. 昨天早晨我告诉我父母说我得立刻去拜访我的一位老朋友。［用于间接引语中表过去式时，must比had to更符合习惯用法］

注：有时候在一定的语境中，虽然没有间接引语的形式但却含有间接引语的意味，这时如表过去式也倾向于用must，如：

Before going to bed last night, I considered how I should spend the next day. First, I must finish my composition.［这里的I must含有I thought I must之意］

D. 表示对过去情况的肯定推测用must have+过去分词，但不能用have to+过去分词。

You must have read a lot of Maugham's novels, or you couldn't have talked so much about that famous British writer at yesterday's seminar. 你肯定以前读过毛姆的很多小说；不然，你不可能在昨天的研讨班上谈那么多关于那位著名英国作家的情况。

He left about two o'clock.It's five now. He must have got home.

他两点钟走的，现在已是5点；他肯定已到家了。

E. 表过去完成进行时，用must have been+现在分词，表持续性动作，但不能用have to。

It must have been snowing all night. All the trees in the garden are covered with snow. 雪肯定下了整整一夜，花园里所有的树木都盖满了雪。

F. must表“必须”时，否定式不是must not，而是do not have to或needn't。

—Must I work overtime（加班）tonight?

作“不必”解，must的否定式。

—No, you don't have to.

No, you haven't got to.

No, you don't need to.

must not作“不许，不准，禁止”解，相当于be not to。如：

你不可如此顶撞你的父母。

You mustn't answer back to your parents like that.

You are not to answer back to your parents like that.

G. must表示的推测含有极有把握的意思，通常只用于肯定式中，其否定和疑问式多用can/could来表示。

He must be at home. He can't be in the office.［can't be是must现在时的否定式］

H. must have+过去分词表示对过去行为、动作或状态的推测，它相应的否定式是can not have/could not have+过去分词。

He was at home all day yesterday, so he can't/couldn't have got involved in the bank robbery yesterday afternoon. 他昨天一整天待在家里，因而不可能参与昨天下午发生的那桩银行抢劫案。

I. must needs和needs must。

① must needs和needs must表示“必须，不得不”解，其中needs是副词，=of necessity或necessarily。

I must needs/needs must do the experiment carefully. 我必须仔细地做这个实验。

② must needs还可作“偏偏”解，但needs must则不能表示这一意思。

My wife must needs talk to me when I don't care to talk. 我太太偏偏在我不想谈话的时候和我谈话。

J. must的两个常用表达法

① What must be...：表注定要发生的意思

What must be will be. 注定要发生的事总要发生。

② If you must+与主句句意相同的动词（通常省略）：表无奈的意思。

A: Can I smoke here?

B: If you must. 如果你一定要抽的话（那就抽吧）［表无奈］

A: Who is it that you care for? 你爱的到底是谁？

B: If you must know, I love Jimmy deeply. 如果你一定要知道（那我只好照实告诉你），我深爱着杰米。

K. must在现代英语中还可作名词，作“必不可少的东西”解。

His new kungfu novel is a must for all lovers of Chinese martial arts. 他新出版的武侠小说是所有中国武术爱好者的必读书。

4. 情态动词need和行为动词need

1 　情态动词need。

need作情态动词时有以下几个特点：

① 没有人称和数的变化。

② 后接动词原形（即不带to的不定式）。

③ 否定式为needn't，作“不必”解。

④ 用于疑问句时不用do，does或did。

例如：

He needn't come if he is busy. 他如果忙就不必来了。

Need I repeat what I said just now? 要我重复一下我刚才讲的话吗？

He has gone to the country to recuperate.He never need know. 他已去乡下养病去了，他就不需要知道了。

Nobody need be afraid of developing AIDS. 谁都不必害怕患上艾滋病。

I need hardly say that the experiment is very important and admits of no negligence. 我用不着说，这项实验非常重要，容不得半点疏忽。

注1：need作为情态动词也可用在宾语从句中，即使主句的谓语动词是过去时，need的形式还是不变。如：

The landlord said I need not pay the rent till the 10th. 房东说我不必在10日前付房租/我到10日付房租就可以了。

注2：need的肯定回答是must，否定回答是needn't。如：

A: Need I hurry her into leaving?

B: No, you needn't.（否定）

Yes, you must.（肯定）

注3：must的否定回答也是needn't。如：

A: Must we hand in the homework today?

B: No, you needn't.

▶▶ “needn't have+过去分词”表示过去原本不必做的事情却做了。如：

The weather here is very warm. We needn't have packed these woolen sweaters. 这里天气很热，我们原本不需要带上这些羊毛衫的。

Your son is doing fine at school. You needn't have been worrying so much about him. 你儿子在学校里表现很好，你不必一直为他这么担心。

▶▶ “need have+过去分词”可用于：

① 疑问句中，表示“需要这么/那么……吗？”如：

Need you have worked so hard? 你需要这么辛苦吗？［含有“你条件很好，干吗还要那么劳累辛苦呢？”］

② 用于比较结构中，表示过去，意指“不必……/没有必要……”如：

Last night, you drove faster than you need have done. That was unsafe. 昨晚你没有必要把车开得那么快，那很不安全。

You were more careful than you need have been in doing a job like this. 做像这样的工作，你没有必要那么小心的。

2 　行为动词need。

A. 用法和其他行为动词一样。

need作行为动词时有人称和数的变化，后接带to的不定式，在否定句中它前面需按实际需要加doesn't，don't or didn't，在疑问句中句首必须按实际情况加Do，Does或Did。如：

You need to sum up your good experience in this aspect. 你需要总结一下你在这方面的好的经验。

He needs to finish his work report today. 他需要今天完成他的工作报告。

All a company manager needs to have is foresight. 公司经理所需要具备的是预见性。

Do I need to tell him about it? 我需要把这件事告诉他吗？

Does he need to print two or three copies for you? 需要他为你打印两三份副本吗？

Did the man in question need to go to hospital this morning? He only had a few bruises. 此人今天上午需去医院吗？他只是有点碰伤而已。

B. need作行为动词时可接动名词或不定式。

① 接动名词时，动名词须是主动语态，但它的意思一定是被动的，如：

That naughty boy needs spanking（不能用being spanked）. 那个顽皮的男孩需打一顿屁股才行。［这里的needs不是表男孩的主观需要，而是表客观需要，即不打他几下屁股他是不会听话的］

② 接不定式时，不定式须是被动语态。

This difficult sentence needs to be explained（不能用to explain）in detail. 这个难句需要作详细解释。［这里，不定式表示的是主观需要，即难句本身需要给以详细解释］

在实际应用中，need加上后面词语表被动意义时必须用主动态的动名词或被动态的不定式，如：

Your shoes need cleaning=Your shoes need to be cleaned.

My watch needs winding up（上发条）=My watch needs to be wound up.

Your room needs cleaning=Your room needs to be cleaned.

C. need和want一样，后面可接复合宾语。

例如：

We need the work done within two hours.Please put your back into it. 我们需在两小时内把这项工作完成，请加把劲。

We need you over to help our children with their mathematics lessons. 我们需要你过来帮我们的孩子复习数学功课。

We need you to solve that technical problem. 我们需要你解决那个技术问题。

5. 情态动词dare和行为动词dare

1 　dare作情态动词。

A. dare作情态动词时无人称和数的变化，后接动词原形，表过去时形式也不变；它的否定形式一概是dare not+动词原形。用于疑问句首不用Do，Does或Did。如：

The late managing director was hot-tempered; no one dare oppose him. 前任执行董事脾气火暴，没人敢反对他。

She is haughty; he dare not ask her out. 她很傲慢，他不敢约她出去。

Dare you contradict what your superior says? 你敢顶撞你的上级吗？

How dare he take my laptop computer without even asking! 他怎么敢不问一声就把我的手提电脑拿走！

注：情态动词dare表过去时形式不变，但在文学语言等正式文体中，dare也可改用其过去式dared，但仅限于表示否定意义。如：

No one dared utter a sound when he flew into a rage. 他大发雷霆时没人敢吭声。

We hardly dared breathe as the president of the corporation walked into our office. 公司总裁走进我们办公室时，我们几乎都不敢喘气了。

以上两例都系正式文体，在日常文体中dared都用dare。

B. 情态动词dare也可用于完成体。

即dare have/daren't have+过去分词，表过去想做而不敢做或过去不敢做而现在敢做的事情。如：

I daren't have criticized him in the past, but I think I dare now. 我过去不敢批评他，但我想我现在敢这么做了。

Dare he have done it without your permission? 他当时没有你的同意敢做这事吗？

C. 情态动词dare可用于虚拟语气中。

If you dare swim across the English Channel, you would be our school hero. 你如敢游过英吉利海峡，你就是我们学校的英雄了。［虚拟语气，表示同现在事实相反］

Foreign powers daren't have bullied us if China had been powerful. 如果当时中国强大，列强就不敢欺侮我们了。［虚拟语气，同过去事实相反］

D. 情态动词dare的三个习语。

I dare say 以为，相信

I dare say you are Japanese. 我看你是日本人。

注1：I dare say也可置于句末。在现代英语里dare say可连写。如：

You are night, I dare say. 我认为你是对的。［置于句末］

I daresay you are American. 我想你是美国人。［daresay连写］

注2：I dare say有它的否定式，是I daren't say，如I daren't say so. 我不敢这么说。

Don't you dare 你敢……

Don't you dare tell my father about my smoking! 你敢把我吸烟的事告诉我爸爸！

Don't you dare touch the boy! 你敢动这男孩的一根毫毛！

注：“Don't you dare!”也可独立使用，意指“你敢！”，如：

A: I'm going to tell your teacher about the gambling. 我要把你赌博的事告诉你老师。

B: Don't you dare! 你敢！

祈使句+if you dare! 你要是敢就……！如：

Quit your job if you dare! 你要是敢就炒你鱿鱼！

Touch me if you dare! 你要是敢就碰我！

2 　dare作行为动词时所表示的一些主要词义。

① 敢（做某事）：

He is terrific, daring to confront the tough with toughness. 他真了不起，敢于硬碰硬。

He dares to accuse his superior of corruption. 他敢于指控他的上级有腐败行为。

② 敢于面对……

I will dare any difficulties standing in my way. 我敢于面对前进道路上的各种困难。

③ 向……挑战（往往是带有危险的事情）：

He dared me to jump over the stream. 他向我挑战跳过那条小溪。

6. shall的用法

1 　用于第一人称单复数表示征求对方的意见，或请求指点。

Shall I open the envelope? 我打开信封好吗？［征求意见］

How shall we install these machines? 我们如何安装这些机器？［请求指点］

2 　用于第二、第三人称，表示许诺、意志、命令、预言、必然结果等。

但必须注意的是，所表示的意志、许诺、命令等是说话人的意志、命令等，而非句子中主语的意志、许诺。在法律文件、条约、贸易合同中shall表示有关各方需承担的义务或遵守的规定。如：

It shall be arranged as you wish. 这事一定会按你的希望去安排的。［表许诺］

If you fare well in the examination, you shall have a new bike. 你如考得好，就会给你一辆新的自行车。［表许诺］

Grafters shall be punished according to administrative discipline and law. 贪污分子定要绳之以政纪法纪。［表命令或意志］

If we stick to our pioneer research with persistence, our day shall come. 我们如能锲而不舍地把我们开创性的研究工作搞下去，我们的出头之日定会到来。［表意志］

No one shall smoke here. 不准在这里吸烟。［表命令］

The draft stipulates that all organs of state shall combat corruption and strengthen the building of a clean and honest government. 草案规定所有国家机关都必须反对腐败，加强廉政建设。［表规定］

The Board of Directors shall meet at least twice a year (June and December); such meetings shall be called and presided over by the Chairman of the Board. 董事会每年召开两次会议（定于6月和12月），由董事长召开并主持。［第一个shall表规定，第二个shall表义务］

POWs (=prisoners of war) shall not be ill-treated. 战俘不得受虐待。［表法律规定］

He who plays with fire shall perish by fire. 玩火者必自焚。［表必然结果］

Death is certain to all; all shall die. 死必临万物；万物皆会死。［表命运］

7. should的用法

1 　表义务，可用于肯定式、否定式、疑问式及进行式。

You should do as your teacher says. 你应该照老师说的去做。［肯定式］

A good child should not tell lies. 好孩子不应该说谎。［否式定］

Should I brush my teeth after each meal? 我每次饭后都该刷牙吗？［疑问式］

注1：should用于疑问句时有时是表示一种修辞性的反问，不需对方作回答，如：

Should I stand by and do nothing while the others are working?

=I shouldn't stand by and do nothing while the others are working.

注2：should用于疑问句时也可表示征求对方意见，如：

Should I turn on the air conditioner? 可以开空调吗？

You shouldn't be reading in such dim light. 你不要在这样暗淡的灯光下看书。［现在进行式］

2 　表推测，含有可能性较大的意味。

The investigation group should arrive before evening. 考察团该在黄昏前到达。

3 　表示语气较强的假设。

If you should change your mind, please let me know. 万一你改变了主意，请告诉我。

If I should die, all I have would be yours. 万一我死了，我所有的一切就都归你。

4 　表示委婉、谦逊的语气，含有“倒，可”的意思。

I should like to know why. 我倒想知道个中原委。

You'd better ask her yourself about it, I should think. 我倒是想这件事情你最好自己去问问她。

5 　有时可表示有很大的把握性。

I should identify him among a crowd. 他在人群中我也会把他认出来。

6 　用于表示必要、适当、惊奇、遗憾等的从句中，意指“应该；竟然会”。

I'm surprised that a person of your intelligence should be so foolish as to believe such deceitful lies. 我很惊讶，像你这样聪明的人竟然会变得如此愚蠢而相信这种骗人的鬼话。［表惊奇］

It was inevitable that people should compare him with your former boy friend. 人们把他和你以前的男朋友相比乃是理所当然的事。［表必然性］

I'm sorry to learn that you two trading partners should want to part company. 我很遗憾得知你们两个贸易合伙人竟然要分道扬镳。［遗憾］

It is quite natural that you should succeed. 你的成功是很自然的（或：是理所当然的）。［表适当］

7 　should用于完成体时。

肯定式“should have+过去分词”表示该完成但却未完成的过去动作；否定式“shouldn't have+过去分词”表示不该完成但却完成了的过去动作。如：

You should have handed in your homework yesterday. 你本应昨天把家庭作业交上来。［肯定式，表示昨天应该做到而拖到今天才做］

Oh, you have got a fever! You should not have gone out. 啊呀，你发烧了！你原本不应该出去的。［否定式，表示原本不该外出但却出去了］

［should在各类从句中的应用将在“虚拟语气”这一部分再详加阐述］

8. ought to的用法

肯定式为ought to+动词原形，否定式为ought not (oughtn't) to+动词原形，疑问式则把ought放在主语前面，即Ought+主语+to+动词原形。

1 　表义务。

Every citizen ought to obey law. 每个公民都应当守法。［肯定式］

We oughtn't to marry young. 我们不应该早婚。［否定式］

Ought you to drink so much? 你应该喝这么多酒吗？［疑问句］

注：在现代美国英语中，ought to 用于否定句和疑问句时，to往往可省去。如：We oughtn't marry young. Ought you drink so much?

2 　表推测，隐含的可能性较should强，但比must 弱。

It ought to be possible to mend this bike. 修理这辆自行车应该是可能的。

We took lunch at noon. It's 5 o'clock. You ought to be hungry by now. 我们中午时吃的午餐。现在是5点钟，你该饿了吧。

3 　通常ought to用来表示将来，现在时则用进行式。

We ought to be leaving now. 我们现在该动身了。

4 　ought to可用于完成体。

肯定式为ought to have+过去分词，表示该做但未做，否定式为ought not (oughtn't) have+过去，表示不该做而已做了。如：

You two ought to have come to the meeting. It was interesting. 会议可有意思了；你们俩真该出席。［表应该出席却未出席］

You oughtn't to have told him about it yesterday. 昨天你不该把这事告诉他的。［表不该告诉他的却告诉了他］

5 　在间接引语中表过去时形式不变。

He said we ought to phone for the police. 他说我们应该打电话叫警察。

9. 情态动词will和would

1 　表示请求，would在语气上比will更委婉。

Will (Would) you water the plants while I'm away? 我外出的时候请你给我的花草浇浇水好吗？［would则表示更为客气的请求］

注：作肯定回答时，只能用I will，不能用I would。如：

A: Will (Would) you let me know as soon as possible? 请尽早告诉我，行不行？

B: Yes, I will. 行，我一定尽快告诉你。

2 　表示意愿，主要用于第一人称。

这样用时will指将来，would则用于间接引语中指过去的将来。如：

I will correct these students' papers for you if you want.

3 　表示经常性、不可避免性、倾向性、客观事实，意指“经常；总是；终究”。

Girls will be girls. 女孩终究是女孩。［倾向性］

Keep on trying. You will succeed once in ten times. 继续试下去吧。十次里你终究会成功一次的。［倾向性］

Stone will sink under water. 石头总是沉在水下。［客观事实］

Sometimes the printer will dysfunction. 这台打印机有时候会发生机能障碍。［经常性］

What will be, will be. 该发生的事情总要发生。［不可避免性］

注：上述用法通常指现在，故不用would。

4 　表示带有顽固性的拒绝，用否定式。

This drawer won't shut.这个抽屉就是关不上。

I admonish him earnestly and maternally, but he won't listen. 我苦口婆心地劝导他，但他就是听不进去。

Though wet with sweat all over, she would not change. 尽管她浑身汗水湿透，她还是不想换衣服。［would表过去］

注：上述否定式也可用来表达客观事实，如：

Gold won't dissolve in hydrochloric acid. 金在盐酸中不溶解。

5 　表能力、功能，作“能……”解。

Some plants will live without water for a couple of months. 有些植物没有水能存活两个月。

This quality steel will not crack under heavy pressure. 这种优质钢在重压之下不会断裂。

That was a strong beast of burden. How much would it carry? 那载重兽体强力壮，它能载负多少重量？［would表过去］

The stadium will seat 10,000 people. 该体育馆能容纳一万人。

6 　表许诺。

Work hard, I won't let you down. You each will have a share. 努力干吧。我决不会使你们失望，你们每人都会得到一份的。

7 　表推测或料想。

It will be the express messenger ringing. 按铃的很可能是快递员。

You will not know those rare animals. 那些稀有动物你很可能不知道。［否定式］

You will have learned of that terrible injury at work. 你们想必已经获悉那桩可怕的工伤事故了吧。［will have+过去分词表对过去事情的推测］

I'm sorry for being late. You will have been waiting for some time. 对不起我来迟了。你们想必已等了一些时候了。［will have been+现在分词表对过去发生的持续性动作的推测］

注：大多数情态动都能表示推测，推测程度由弱到强的排列为：might → may → could → can → should → ought to → would → will → must。

8 　用于一般的习惯。

A. will 表现在。

Dogs will bite. 狗总会吠叫。

My husband will often read late into the night. 我先生常会读书到深夜。

Grandfather will take a walk in the park every early morning. 祖父每天清晨会在公园里散步。

注1：will表示习惯时，如在口语中重读，便会有批评的意味，如：

A: Sorry, I forgot to bring the book you need. 对不起，我忘了把你需要的书带来了。

B: You will（重读）keep forgetting things. 你老是忘记事情。

注2：在现代英语中will有时也可用作实义动词，如：

The plan was fulfilled ahead of time as the factory leader willed. 计划已按厂长想的那样提前完成了。

B. would 表一般的过去习惯。

In my younger days I would continue reading by lamplight till late into the night. 我年轻时常会挑灯夜读至深夜。

［would和used to用法上的区别将在“时态”部分详加阐述］

9 　在动词wish后表意愿的从句中只能用would不能用will，在动词hope后的从句中表现在时只能用will，表过去将来时便用would。

I wish you would start the work immediately.［隐含命令或请求的意愿，语气较为婉转，不能用will］

I hope they will arrive there safe and sound. 希望他们平安无事地到达那里。［用will，不用would］

注：wish用作名词时后面的从句用should，如：It is my wish that he should start with a clean slate（他会改过自新）.［should 也可省，即he start with...］

［will在if从句中的运用将在“虚拟语气”部分阐述］

10. had better的用法

1 　这一结构通常用于现在时、过去时或一般将来时，并可用于所有人称。

I think I had better go. 我想我最好去。［表现在］

I thought I had better go. 我当时想我最好就去。［表过去，had better形式不变］

It's getting cloudy. We'd better (=We had better) leave before it rains. 天上已有乌云。我们最好趁天还未下雨就走吧。［表一般将来时］

2 　否定式为had better not+动词原形。

You had better not smoke here. 你们最好不要在这儿吸烟。

注：you had better not+动词原形是正常英语；you had not better+动词原形是不正常英语。

3 　用于疑问句时，had置于句首。

Had he better leave at once? 他最好马上动身吧？

Hadn't I better take a raincoat? 我是不是带上雨衣比较好？

What had we better do? 我们最好干什么？

4 　had better也可用于现在进行时。

We'd better be getting everything ready. 我们最好马上把一切准备好。

5 　had better也可用于完成体。

表示最好要完成却没有完成的动作，它的形式是had better+have+过去分词。如：

You had better have completed that feasibility study. 你最好把那一项可行性研究完成掉。［含义是，你没有完成］

注1：you had better+动词原形这一结构只能用于平辈，或用于上级对下属；对上级或长辈绝对不能用。

注2：在口语中，特别在现代美国口语中had往往省掉。如：

You better go at once=You had better go at once.

注3：had better 有个变体，即had best，但远远不如had better那么常用。

11.

1 　表计划，通常指现在之前已定下来，但在以后实行。

You are to meet Mr. David Crook at Hongqiao Airport tomorrow afternoon. 你明天下午去虹桥机场迎接戴维·克鲁克先生。

It has been decided that the committee is to meet once a week. 已决定委员会一周开一次会。

They are to be married in December this year. 他们定于今年12月结婚。

2 　表命令。

All the teachers are to attend the general meeting to be held in the auditorium on Tuesday afternoon at 2:00. 所有教师都得出席周二下午2点在大礼堂举行的全体大会。

You are to get over here right away. 你马上到这里来。

3 　表可能，较多用于被动语态。

Where is the student to be found? 哪里可找到该学生？

Such a book is nowhere to be bought. 这样一本书哪里也买不到了。

How am I to solve the problem? 我怎样才能解决这个问题？

4 　表应该，含有询问对方的意见。

How are all these old newspapers and magazines to be disposed of? 所有这些旧的报纸和杂志该如何处理？

Two of us are on sick leave today. What is to be done now? 我们中有两人今天请了病假，现在该怎么办？

Who is to blame for this error? 这个失误该怪谁？

5 　表命中注定，较多用于过去时。

When he went abroad for further study, he did not know at that time that he was never to see his parents again. 他出国留学时，没想到他会再也见不到他的父母了。

Am I never to see my playmates in childhood again? 难道我再也见不到我青梅竹马的伴侣了吗？

注1：注意，“我该怎么办？”的正确表达法不是“What is to be done by me?”而应是“What am I to do?”同样，“我该向何处去？”的正确讲法是“Where am I to go?”

注2：在条件句中，如要表示“想要……”，该用“If+主语+be to...”如：

If we are to extricate ourselves from the present predicament, we must work out our own salvation. 如果我们想要摆脱目前的困境，我们必须奋力自救。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. Studying is easier when one_____the big public libraries.

A. can use

B. may use

C. would use

D. should use

2. The room is in a terrible mess; it_____cleaned yesterday.

A. mustn't have been

B. couldn't be

C. should be

D. can't have been

3. He was a good swimmer, so he_____rescue the drowning boy in the deep river.

A. could

B. might

C. succeeded to

D. was able to

4. Easy as it_____to be, it still called for some thought.

A. may seem

B. might seem

C. can seem

D. ought to seem

5. _____you have a pleasant journey home!

A. Can

B. Will

C. May

D. Shall

6. The mid-term examination will be taking place from Monday to Friday next week. We_____put the volleyball match off till the examination is over.

A. will as well

B. shall as well

C. may as well

D. can as well

7. We'll never give up our pilot project whatever people_____say or do.

A. will

B. shall

C. should

D. may

8. We promised them to get there by 4:00. Now it's 3:45 already, and it is pouring with rain. They_____for us impatiently.

A. must wait

B. must be waiting

C. must be waited

D. must have waited

9. You_____pass the College English Test (Band 6) before he graduates from the university.

A. have to

B. can

C.should

D. may

10. I'm sorry that at that time I had no other choice. I_____what I did.

A. must do

B. should do

C. had to do

D. might have done

11. This street will be widened a great deal, and therefore all the houses along the street_____.

A. will have to pull down

B. will have to be pulled down

C.must have to be pulled down

D. must pull down

12. You hardly_____say anything more since we know all about it.

A. needs

B. need

C.need to

D. needn't

13. No one_____back to the awe-inspiring manager.

A. dares talk

B. dare talk

C. dares says

D. dares saying

14. When we got there, none of them had arrived, so we_____.

A. mustn't have hurried

B. mustn't hurry

C. needn't hurry

D. needn't have hurried

15. You_____out yesterday without an overcoat in such cold weather. No wonder you caught a cold.

A. oughtn't have gone

B. shouldn't have gone

C. can't have gone

D. mustn't have gone

16. It's twenty minutes to ten. We_____now, or we'll miss the last bus.

A. has best to leave

B. bad better to leave

C. had better leaving

D. had better leave

17. With all the work on hand, he_____to the cinema last night.

A. should have gone

B. shouldn't have gone

C. mustn't have gone

D. might have gone

18. “Manager, the client has arrived. _____he wait ontside?”

A. Would

B. Will

C. Must

D. Shall

二、汉译英

1. 你一次可以从图书馆借六本书。

2. 我上次去看他，约四年前吧，他已是87岁。过了这么多年，他还健在吗？

3. 你若安静不下来，就请离开教室吧。

4. 你还能要什么呢？

5. 男人妒意大发时什么事都干得出来。

6. 在过去的一年里生意蒸蒸日上，但愿这种情况能持续下去。

7. 不受教育而想立身处世，就像没有砖和灰泥来建造房子一样。

8. 你想要我改变意见，就和想要太阳从西边升起一样。

9. 愿你长生不老，永葆青春！

10. 时间已经很晚了，街上已空无一人。

11. 雨一定是下了整整一夜，花园里有大片大片的水。

12. 大厦入口处的大门前不准停汽车。

13. 此处不得拍照，这是禁止的。

14. 我找不到我的支票本，准是忘在家里了。

15. 哦，你看来心不在焉。你准是在想什么心事。

16. 你不得无照驾车。

17. 昨天聚会时，你本不该提起那事。

18. 他们一定走了，可是应当给我们写一张条子呀！

19. 厨房里一点面包也没有了，我想一定是汤姆吃的。

20. 你们用不着这么为她着急，可能她已经好了。

21. 这些植物五年后就该长成了。

22. 你们全身都是汗，准是在干什么体力活来着。

23. 这里一定有翡翠。

24. 她双眼很红，准是哭过了。

25. 人固有一死，或重于泰山，或重于鸿毛。

26. 我们应该敬老爱幼。

27. 那男孩小时候很胆小。他上课不敢举手。

28. 我们应该充分认识到实施“三个代表”思想的重要性。

29. 这会儿准是医生来了。

30. 她总是独自一人在屋里听古典音乐，一听就是几个小时。

31. 我早就应该给你写回信的，但是我近来忙于准备期终考试。

32. 即使你认为如此，你也不必说那样的话来伤害她的感情。

33. 该学术报告确实内容丰富，有说服力，演讲者准备它时一定花了很多时间。

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［A］

2.［D］

3.［D］题意指完成一次过去的动作，故不能选A项中的could。

4.［B］题句以形容词easy开头，后紧跟as，as便等于though，表让步。主句中的谓语动词called用过去时，故选B (might seem)，不能选A (may seem）。

5.［C］题句表祝愿。

6.［C］表“还是……好”这一意思时应用may/might as well+动词原形，不能用其他情态动词。

7.［D］表让步。

8.［B］whatever people may say=no matter what people may say。

9.［A］句意表示的是学校对学生毕业前在英语水平方面须达到的一个要求，故应选。

10.［C］这里需要的是must的过去形式，故选C (had to do）。

11.［B］

12.［B］在与含有否定意义的副词如hardly连用时，宜用情态动词need，通常不用形为动词need。

13.［B］用作情态动词。A项中dares用作形为动词，但后面须加上to，即dares to talk back to... 便可。awe-inspiring：令人望而生畏的。

14.［D］表过去一个不需要做的动作但却做了，便要用needn't have+过去分词。

15.［B］A项中oughtn't 后漏掉to，应改为oughtn't to have gone便对。

16.［D］

17.［B］也可用oughtn't to have gone。must之现在时的否定式为needn't，过去时之否定式为needn't have+过去分词，故C项错。

18.［D］用来表示征求对方的意见。

二、汉译英

1. You can borrow six books at a time from the library.

2. He was already 87 when 1 last went to see him about four years ago. Can he still be alive after all these years?

3. If you can't quiet down, you can leave the classroom.

4. What else can you want?

5. A man can do anything when jealous.

6. Business has been thriving in the past year. Long may it continue to do so.

7. You might as well erect a house without bricks and mortar as try to get on in life without education.

8. You might as well expect the sun to rise in the west as expect me to change my opinion.

9. May your shadow never grow less!

10. It must be late as the streets are deserted.

11. It must have been raining all the night. There are big puddles in the garden.

12. Cars must not park in front of the entrance to the building.

13. You mustn't take photographs in here. It's forbidden.

14. I can't find my cheque book. I must have left it at home.

15. Oh, you look absent-minded. You must have been thinking of something.

16. You mustn't drive without a license.

17. You needn't have mentioned the matter at the party yesterday.

18. They must have gone, but they ought to have/should have left us a note.

19. There is no more bread in the kitchen; I dare say it was Tom who ate it.

20. You needn't be worrying about her like that. She may have got well already/might have got over it already.

21. These plants ought to reach maturity in five years.

22. You are sweating all over. You must have been doing some sort of manual labor.

23. This is where the jadeite deposits must be.

24. Her eyes are red. She must have been crying.

25. Though death befalls all men alike, it may be weightier than Mount Tai or lighter than a feather.

(or: All men must die, but death may be weightier than Taishan Mountain or lighter than a feather.)

26. We should respect the aged and love the young.

27. When he was younger, the boy was rather timid. He dare not put up his hand in class.

28. We should be fully aware of the importance of carrying out the“Three Represents”thought.

29. That will be the doctor now.

30. She will listen to classical music, alone in her room, for hours.

31. I should have/ought to have answered your letter earlier, but I have been busy preparing for the end-term examination.

32. You needn't have said those things to her to hurt her feelings, even if you thought so.

33. The academic report was rich in content and convincing. The speaker must have spent an enormous amount of time (in) preparing it.

第七章　时态

时态是表示动作发生的时间和表现方式的一种动词形式。每一种“时间+方式”就构成一种时态；所以，按照传统语法，英语动词有以下十六种时态：

乍看起来时态似乎很复杂，但在实际应用中出现最多的时态也只有九种，即一般现在时、现在进行时、一般过去时、过去进行时、一般将来时、过去将来时、现在完成时、过去完成时及将来完成时。现结合日常应用及考试实际情况，扼要说明该十种时态的主要功能。

一、一般现在时的用法

1. 表示客观真理或科学真理

Light travels faster than sound. 光的传播速度比声音快。

Anything that is dropped falls towards the center of the earth because of the pull of gravity.

由于万有引力的作用，掉下的任何东西都会落向地球的中心。

2. 表示格言或警句

Pride goes before a fall. 骄者必败。

A stitch in time saves nine. 及时缝一针，以后省九针。或：小洞不补，大洞吃苦。

A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. 一鸟在手胜似二鸟在林。

No one but errs. 人非完人，孰能无过。（或：人皆犯错。）

注：此例为省略结构，它的完整形式是：

There is no one but errs.其中but用作关系代词=who/that...not，即：There is no one who does not error.在这一but的句型中，There is往往省略，如：There are few books but have a misprint or two.=There are few books that (which) do not have misprint or two.（几乎没有不出现一两个印刷错误的图书。）There are省略，便是Few books but have a misprint or two.

3. 表示客观存在

England and France are separated by the English Channel. 英法两国由英吉利海峡隔开。

London stands on the Thames. 伦敦位于泰晤士河畔。

4. 表示现在习惯性的、经常重复的或定期发生的动作

James is so busy that he never goes to bed till midnight.

Dick and I meet twice a week. 我和迪克每周见两次面。

5. 表示能力、性格、个性等

Anne Wang writes good English but does not speak well. 王安妮能写出很不错的英语，但是说不好。

The director treats his subordinates as equals. 主任对他的下级一视同仁。

6. 多用于表示状态的动词

What's the matter with you, Bob? You look pale. 你怎么了，鲍伯？你看上去脸色苍白。

I agree with you completely. 我完全同意你的看法。

Robert knows Spanish. 罗伯特懂西班牙语。

▶▶ 注意：

A. 在简单句子中，有时一般现在时可代替一般将来时。

这主要用来表示在时间表上已经确定或安排好的事情。这种用法在带有come，go，start，leave等动作动词并附有将来时间状语的句子中尤为常见。

Larry leaves for Wisconsin next week. 拉里下周去威斯康星州。

When does the bus start?—It starts in ten minutes. 这辆公交车何时发车？——十分钟后发车。

B. 在表示时间、条件、让步、比较、方式、比例等状语从句中，用现在时表示将来时。

When Bill comes（不用will come）, ask him to wait for me.［表时间］

If winter comes（不用will come）, can spring be far behind?（英国诗人雪莱名句，“冬天来了，春天还会远吗？”）［表条件］

It is immaterial whether he comes himself or sends a substitute. 不管他本人来还是派代理人来，都无关紧要。［表选择条件］

Keep calm, whatever (=no matter what) happens. 不管发生什么事，都要保持镇静。［表让步］

Please be at ease.In the future I will do as he says. 请放心吧。以后我一定照他说的做。［表方式］

The sooner we begin our work, the sooner we shall finish it. 我们开始工作得越早，结束也将会越早。［表比例］

注1：在上面这一表示比例的句子中，第一部分是从句，第二部分是主句。在从句中，只能用现在时，不能用shall begin，在主句中，可用将来时或现在时，如：

The harder you work, the greater progress you will make（或you make，语气更强调）.

注2：在表示结果等状语从句中，通常不能用现在时来代替将来时。如：

The patient is so seriously ill that he will probably not live through tonight. 这病人的病情非常严重，恐怕他挨不过今晚。

C. 在表示现在时的句子中，如主语系单数并属第三人称时，谓语动词需加“s”。

例　The project require (A) more time (B) than has been put in (C) so far because it is so (D) difficult.

［分析］通观全句，上题是表示一个现在的情况。主语project系单数并属第三人称，故A中的谓语动词require须加“s”，应改为requires。

以下是一些有关一般现在时其他用法的试题：

例　Continental glaciers_____today in Antarctica and Greenland.

A. have existed

B. exist

C. are existing

D. that exist

［分析］此句表示现在的状况，故应选B。glaciers作“冰河，冰川”解。Antarctica指“南极洲”。Greenland系岛名，位于北美洲之东部，属丹麦。

例　“Bob must be very wealthy.”

“Yes, he_____more in one day than I do in a week.”

A. has been earned

B. had earned

C. earns

D. has earnings

［分析］对话中第一句用must+原形动词，表示对现在某事的猜测。在第二句答话中，连词than之后接一般现在式动词do，说明句子表示现在的经常情况，故选C。

例　“_____to have tea in the afternoon?”

A. Would you like

B. Do you like

C. Won't you like

D. Will you like

［分析］A (Would you like)表示请客之意，用于特指；B (Do you like)表示征求意见，用于泛指，这里询问对方是否有喝下午茶的习惯或嗜好，属一种经常性的情况，故选B。

例　The ocean liners (A) that used (B) to cross (C) the Atlantic Ocean now specialized (D) in cruises.

［分析］B和C中的used to cross表示过去习惯性的动作，后面出现的now便表示现在习惯性的动作，故D错，应改为现在式specialize。cruises作“巡航”解；now specialize in cruises表示“现在专门搞巡航工作”这一层意思。

例When he will come (A), please inform him of (B) all that (C) I have just told (D) you.

［分析］When he will come是表示将来时的时间状语从句。在这一类时间状语从句中，按习惯用法须用一般现在时，不能用将来时，故A错，应改为When he comes。

例　Chewing gum (A) is usually made from (B) chicle, which is melted and sterilized (C) and then has been sweetened (D) and shaped into sticks.

［分析］这句讲的是口香糖（chewing gum）的生产程序，生产程序是每天重复的动作，宜用一般现在时来表示，故D错，应改为(is) sweetened。chicle 糖胶树胶（美洲热带树的乳汁，制口香糖的主要原料）；be sterilized 加以消毒。

7. 表示报道或表演中的解说词，其动作与话语同时发生

Tom catches the ball and passes it to John. 汤姆接住了球，把它传给约翰。［用于比赛评论员的报道］

I add some salt and sugar into the pot, and put it onto the stove. 我放一些盐和糖在锅里，然后把锅放在炉子上烧。［用于烹饪示范的解说词］

I declare the meeting closed. 我宣布会议结束。［用于专门性的日常用语］

8. 在I hope，I bet等后面的宾语从句中，可用一般现在时代替将来时以加强语气

I hope the train is not (=will not be) late. 我希望火车不要误点。

I bet it snows (=will snow) tonight. 今晚准下雪。

9. 用来表示没有时间性的事物，诸如书面材料内容、图片说明等

How does the novel end? 小说结局如何？［剧情介绍］

The scene of the play is set in New York City. 剧本以纽约市为背景。［剧情介绍］

The mayor arrives for the opening ceremony of the Expo. 市长出席博览会开幕式。

10. 在宾语从句或定语从句中可用现在时来代替将来时

Tomorrow afternoon we'll know who is the champion. 明天下午我们就会知道谁是冠军了。［用于宾语从句中］

The Federal Government of the U.S.A. will offer a reward of $100,000 to any one who brings the terrorist to justice. 任何人能将恐怖分子捉拿归案，美国联邦政府悬赏10万美金。［用于定语从句］

11. 表示按照时间表或事先的安排即将要发生的动作

The train from Shanghai arrives at 4 pm. 从上海开来的火车下午四点到站。

They leave for New York tomorrow morning. 他们明早去纽约。

12. 用在置于句首的Here或There后面表示正在进行的动作

Here comes the school bus! 校车来啦！

There goes the bell. Hurry up! 铃响了，快一点！

二、现在进行时的用法

1. 表示现在正在发生的事情，通常是正在进行的短暂的动作或状态

“What are you doing?”“I am reading.”

Look! Tom is running towards us.

It's raining hard outside.

They are waiting for you.

2. 表示现阶段正在进行的、长期的或重复性的动作，而说话时动作未必正在进行

Mr. Smith is writing another novel.［说话时并未在写，指目前阶段处于写作的状态］

Jane is learning the violin under Mr. Johnson.［现阶段在学习小提琴但是讲话时未必在练］

I came to Shanghai two years ago; I am studying for master's degree.［讲话者这两年在读研究生，但讲话时并不在读］

注意区分下面两组句子：

What does your father do?［问他的永久性工作］

What is your father doing now?［也许他经常换工作，问他目前在做什么］

Tom's sister writes articles for the magazine.［指经常性的］

Tom's sister is writing a novel at present.［暂时或阶段性的］

Juliet takes a bus to school.［经常的］

Juliet is riding a bike to school.［指临时性的安排］

3. 与连系动词连用

与连系动词become，get，go，grow，turn，run等连用后面接形容词时表示逐渐的变化，如：

English is becoming increasingly important. 英语变得越来越重要。

The leaves are turning yellow. 树叶在渐渐转黄。

It's getting warmer and warmer. 天气越来越热。

4. 用现在进行时表示非进行意义

1 　与频度副词always, constantly, forever, continually等连用。

表示反复发生的动作或持续存在的状态，往往带有说话人的感情色彩。

He is forever boasting. 他老爱说大话。［表不满］

You are always changing your mind. 你老是改变主意。［表责怪］

She is constantly thinking of others. 她总是想着别人。［表赞扬］

You are always doing well. 你总是干得不错。［表赏识］

My mother is continually finding fault with me. 妈老是找我的碴。［表不满］

2 　和瞬间动词连用。

有一些如hit, jump, kick, knock和see（看见）等瞬间动词用于現在进行式时可以表示动作的重复。

The boy is jumping with joy. 这孩子高兴得跳个不停。

I'm seeing a lot of the child at the station. 我常在车站看见这孩子。

3 　用于hope，wonder，find，want这类动词，表达一种委婉的语气。

What are you wanting? 您想要点什么吗？

I am wondering if you will dine with me tonight. 不知您是否肯和我一块共进晚餐。

We are hoping you will do us a favor by coming to our English evening on Saturday. 我们希望您能赏光参加本周六的英语晚会。

4 　用于arrive，come，go，leave，start，stay等动词后面。

一般接表示将来的时间状语，表示按计划、安排即将要发生的动作。

They are going to Madrid next Sunday. 他们打算下星期日去马德里［西班牙首都］。

We are meeting with distinguished guests from Canada tomorrow. 我们明天要会见来自加拿大的贵宾。

I'm heading for sunny climes next month.我下个月要去阳光明媚的地区。［clime指（具有某种气候的）地带］

Are you coming tomorrow and staying here till next week? 那你明天来一直待到下周，对吗？

5 　表示较近的将来或马上要发生的动作。

He is dying. 他快要死了。［表较近的将来］

I'm leaving.［可能话音未落人就走了］

6 　与表示心态或情感的动词连用。

表示“几乎”、“差一点”等含义，相当于nearly do/be on the point of doing...。

I'm forgetting (=nearly forget) that I promised to take you to go sightseeing on the West Lake. 我差一点忘了我曾答应过要带你去游览西湖的。

He was believing the man's tall story. 他差一点听信了那个人的鬼话。

7 　be动词的进行时态。

状态动词be的进行时态（be being）后面接行为形容词brave，careful，stupid，clever，foolish，polite，kind和shy等，以及由这些行为形容词接名词构成的名词短语时，表示主语所表现的非一贯性特点或故意的行为或暂时出现的平时所没有的某种特质。如：

［表明例外行为］

He is being a good boy today. 今天他真是一个好孩子。

You are being very clever today. 你今天表现得很聪明。

［故意行为］

He is being polite. 他装模作样地客气起来了。

You are being patient with them. 你对他们可真够耐心的。

She is being desirable this evening. 她今晚显得特别妩媚动人。

▶▶ 注意：有些表示心理状态、情感、关系等的动词，如：love, know, understand, remember, recognize, believe, contain, hold, seem, look, appear, belong, own, possess, matter, suit, fit等。还有see（看见），hear（听见），feel（感觉到），smell（闻到）等表示感官的动词都不用于现在进行时，但当这类词表示其他含义时可以用进行时态。

试比较下面几组句子：

We are seeing a friend off at the railway station.［送行］

Can you see the chimney from the distance?

Do you like the car?［喜欢］

How are you liking the car? 你认为这辆汽车怎样？

I think you make a mistake.（我想……）

I am thinking of attending an English lecture. 我在考虑/在打算去听一次英语讲座。

5. 一般现在时和现在进行时在表示将来时的含义上的区别

一般现在时和现在进行时都可表示将来，两者含义上的区别是，一般现在时表示的是指客观上按时间安排将要发生的事，并非表示按个人的计划将要做的事；现在进行时则表示自己主观上打算要做的事。试比较：

I leave Hongkong tomorrow morning. 我明天上午离开香港。［指工作上的安排，不是我个人的计划］

I'm leaving Hongkong tomorrow morning. 我明天上午离开香港。［指我自己的决定］

Tomorrow is July 28. 明天是7月28日。［指日历的规定］

Tomorrow will be July 28. 明天是7月28日。［纯然表示将来］

三、现在完成时的用法

1. 表示现在之前已发生或完成的动作或状态

但其结果却和现在有联系，也就是说，动作或状态发生在过去但它的影响现在还存在着。

I have lost my wallet.［含义是：现在我没有钱花了。］

Jane has laid the table.简已摆好餐具。［含义是：已可吃饭了。］

Michael has been ill.［含义是：现在仍然很虚弱。］

2. 同表示不确定的过去时间状语连用

如already, yet, just, before, recently, lately等：

He has already obtained a scholarship.

I haven't seen much of him recently (lately).

We have seen that play before.［也可用过去时：We saw that play before.］

Have they found the missing child yet?

3. 同表示频度的时间状语连用

如often，sometimes，ever，never，twice，on several occasions等：

Have you ever been up in an airplane? 你乘过飞机吗？

I have never heard Bunny say anything against her.

I have used this razor blade only three times; it is still good.

George has met that gentleman on several occasions.

4. 同包括现在时间在内的时间状语连用

如now, up till now, up to the present, so far, just, in (for) the past (last) few years, these few days (weeks, months, years), today, this morning (week, month, year)等：

Peter has written six papers so far（迄今）.

Man has now learned to release energy from the nucleus of the atom.

There has been too much rain in San Francisco this year.

The friendly relations and cooperation between our two countries have been enhanced in the past few years.

Up to the present everything has been successful.

5. 表示现在之前已完成的动作，其效果或影响现在依然存在

Thomas has studied Russian.（含义是：懂俄语，但已不再学习该语言。）

如果加上for+一段时间，则现在完成时的动作便表示持续性，这可用一个固定的公式来加以证明。如：

Thomas has studied Russian for three years.

=Thomas began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.

掌握上述的固定公式，我们便能正确地运用现在完成时来表示动作的持续，也能一眼看出“Harry has got married for six years.”这一类句子的谬误，因这一句相当于Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.显然，这是荒诞不经的，应改为“Harry got married six years ago.”或“Harry has been married for six years.”由此可见，在“现在完成时+一段时期”这一结构中必须用表示持续性动作的动词（durative verbs），如live，teach，learn，work，study，know，verb to be等，不能用表示一时性动作的动词（terminative verbs），如come，go，leave，start，die，finish，become，get married等。

▶▶ 注意：现在完成时+for+一段时期也可认为是现在完成进行时+for+一段时期，如：“Thomas has studied Esperanto（世界语）for three years”相当于“Thomas has been studying Esperanto for three years”，但后者比前者更强调动作的持续性。

6. 现在完成时在对话中的使用

对话开始时，问方往往用现在完成时开头，答方也须用现在完成时来回答以取得时态上的统一；在谈到具体时间或地点时便由现在完成时转为一般过去时。如：

A: Have you found that photo?

B: Yes, I have (=I have found it.)

如果回答时立即转到具体的时间或地点，便跳过现在完成时而直接用一般过去时：

A: Have you found that photo?

B: Yes, I found it when I tidied (up) my drawer.

例　“Have you ever been anywhere even for a trip?”“I_____to Long Island.”

A. went

B. have gone

C. have never been

D. have been

［分析］问句用现在完成时，答句也应用同一时态，故应选D。

例　Who's taken away my dictionary?”“_____.”

A. She did

B. He took it

C. I have

D. Him

［分析］选C，I have=I have taken it。理由同上。

7. 表示一个人的经历、言行或作用对现在和将来具有长期现实意义和深远影响

Toby has had a good education.［表经历］

Confucius（孔子）has left us great works on education and philosophy.［表示深远影响］

例　In spite of its small size (A), Europe has (B) a greater impact on (C) world history than any other (D) continent.

［分析］句意为，“欧洲，尽管地方不大，但对世界历史的影响却比任何其他洲来得大。”这种影响早已产生并继续到现在，具有长期现实意义，宜用现在完成时来表示，故应把B改为has had。

8. 同since一起用

现在完成时同since（副词），since短语或since从句一起用时，谓语动词表示持续性的动作或状态。

Brother came back at noon and he has been in the room since (=since noon).

since短语和since从句在用法上有五种情况。

1 　since+过去一点时间（a point of time in the past）。

凡是具体的年份、月份、日期、点钟、分秒或具体事件都谓a point of time（一点时间），如1980，last year/month，March，April 1st，half past six，World War Two等；此外都谓a period of time（一段时间）。例如：

I have been here since 1979.

More than 30 years have passed since World War Two.

2 　since+一段时间+ago。

注：a period of time+ago便相当于a point of time，故不能说since ten years，应改为since ten years ago。例如：

I have been here since five months ago.

3 　since（用作连词）+从句。

动词用过去时，可以是一时性或持续性动词，两者均表示动作或状态已完成或结束。例如：

Great changes have taken place since you left.

I haven't heard from Susan since she lived in Shanghai.［lived是持续性动词，在since从句中用过去时lived的动作已完成或结束，含义是她不再住在上海，故应理解为“自从她离开上海以来”］

Sarry has written to me frequently since I was ill.［理由同上，“since I was ill”的含义是我生病的状态已结束，故应理解为“自从我病愈以来”。］

4 　since+从句。

动词用现在完成时，该动词只能是持续性动词，表示动作或状态还在继续。例如：

Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.［含义是我们仍在这里］

5 　It is+a period of time+since从句。

（注：在此句型中，“It is”比“It has been”更普通。）试比较：

It is two years since I became a postgraduate student.［口语］

Two years have passed since I became a post-graduate student.［书面语言］

例　“Who's that good-looking girl Frank's dancing with?”

“I don't know; I_____her before.”

A. never had seen

B. had never seen

C. was never seeing

D. never saw

［分析］before用作副词时通常与现在完成时或过去时连用，在以上四个选择中，没有现在完成时，只有过去时，故选D。

例　Alice was so far behind in her correspondence that she has been_____for two days.

A. writing

B. to write

C. written

D. to wrote

［分析］has been后面接动词形式时，需用现在分词构成现在完成进行时或用过去分词构成现在完成时之被动态。这里选C则意思不通，故只能选A。

例　The family has been in America_____.

A. in last year

B. for a last year

C. after last year

D. since last year

［分析］A中应在last前加the，in the last year=in the past year，表示近一年来，便可同现在完成时动词连用，但表连续性时in the last year则不如for the last year好。B中的a应改为the，理由和A中的说明相同。C不合语法。D对，since后接过去一点时间，last year系过去一点时间。

四、一般过去时的用法

1. 表示在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或状态

这时往往同表示过去时间的状语一起用，如yesterday，last week，an hour ago，the other day，in 1982等。例如：

The negotiations ended last week.

Henry Ⅷ（亨利八世）was born on the 28th ofJune, 1491, and died on the 28th ofJanuary, 1547.

注1：一般过去时表示的动词或状态都已成为过去，现已不复存在。试比较：

Christine was an invalid（病号）all her life.［含义是：她已不在人间］

Christine has been an invalid all her life.［含义是：她现在还活着］

Mrs. Darby lived in Kentucky for seven years.［含义是：达比太太已不再住在肯塔基州］

Mrs. Darby has lived in Kentucky for seven years.［含义是：现在还住在肯塔基州，也可能刚离开肯塔基州］

注2：一般过去时动作发生的背景已成为过去，具有不复存在的含义。试比较：

Fred did a lot of work this morning.［含义是：早晨已过去，话是当天下午或晚上讲的］

Fred has done a lot of work this morning.［含义是：早晨还未过去，话是在中午以前讲的］

Did you see the film“Gone with the Wind”?［含义是：电影《乱世佳人》现已不再放映］

Have you seen the film“Gone with the Wind”?［含义是：电影目前仍在放映］

2. 用来表示过去的习惯动作

When he was in Los Angeles，David often went to Disneyland.

Whenever the Browns went during their visit, they were given a warm welcome.

▶▶ 过去习惯动作也可用其他方法来表示：

1 　be（过去时）+in the habit of。

When I was younger, I was in the habit of rising early.

2 　used to+动词原形。

表示过去习惯性的动作或状态，但如今已不存在，与现在的情况形成对比，其否定式为did not use to（口语体）和used not to（书面体）：

Scarf used to take drugs.［含义是：现在不再吸毒了］

There used to be a nursery（托儿所）here.［含义是：现在已经搬走或关闭了］

Mother used not to be（或：did not used to be）so forgetful.［否定式，含义是：妈妈现在很健忘］

Used you to know him（或：Did you use to know him）?［疑问式］

注：used to+动词原形和be used to很容易混淆。be used to=be accustomed to作“对……已感到习惯”或“习惯于……”解，可指现在，也可指过去；在这一句型中to是介词，需接名词或动名词，不可接动词原形：

Mother is used to a vegetarian diet.［表示现在情况］

During this year in the hospital, Dr. Cronin was not used to treating patients this way.［表示过去情况］

例　I_____play basketball.

A. am used to

B. get used to

C. used to

D. used to used of

［分析］A不对，因to是介词，须把play改为playing。B也不对，理由相同。应选C。

例　John has been sick for a long time, so he_____pain.

A. used to

B. is used to

C. use to

D. is use to

［分析］应选B，因此题中pain是名词，意谓“因长期生病，对疼痛已感习惯”。A则不合语法。

3 　would+动词原形。

表示过去的习惯，但和used to...不一样。used to...既可表示持续的状态，也可表示重复的行为，而would...只表示重复的行为，不能表示持续的状态。如：

People used to think（过去一直认为）that the earth was flat.［继续的情况］

Nora used to see us every Sunday.［重复的行为］

Nora would see us every Sunday.［对，因表示重复行为］

would...还常用来表示没规律的习惯，这时便不能用used to...，如：

Sometimes the naughty boys would play a trick on（戏弄）their teacher.

4 　情态动词+have+过去分词。

① may（或might）have+过去分词用来推测过去时间里可能发生的事情：

Phillip may (might) have been hurt seriously in the car accident.

这里may和might在意义上差不多，只是might仅较may在口气上婉转。

② can（或could) have+过去分词在用法和意思相当于may(might) have+过去分词，前者是后者的口语体：

Phillip can (could) have been hurt seriously in the car accident.

③ must have+过去分词也表示对过去时间里可能发生的事情的一种推测，语气较强，具有“肯定”的意思：

A: Linda has gone to work, but her bicycle is still here.

B: She must have gone by bus.

④ ought to（或should) have+过去分词表示过去应该做某事而结果未做：

You ought to (should) have been more careful in this experiment.

这句话的含义是：You were not careful enough. ought to与should两者之间的区别是，ought to的语气比should强。

⑤ needn't have+过去分词表示过去不需要做的事情而实际却做了：

I dressed very warmly for the trip, but I needn't have done so; the weather was hot.［含义是：那次旅游时天气很热，衣服不需要穿很多］

顺便提一下，情态动词+be+现在分词可用来表示现在或过去正在进行的动作或状态：

Vishinsky may be reviewing his lesson now.

情态动词可用来表示对现在、过去及将来事态的推测，这里着重阐明其对过去时间里所发生或正在进行的事态进行推测这一用法。

例　John's score on the test is the highest in the class; _____.

A. he should study hard last night

B. he should have studied hard last night

C. he must have studied hard last night

D. he must had to study hard last night

［分析］句意是“在这次测试中，约翰的成绩在全班中最高”，原因是“他昨晚肯是在努力学习”。显然是指过去已发生的事情进行一种推测，故应选C。B则表示“昨晚应用功复习功课而结果未这样做”，不合句意。D不合语法。

例　“You didn't hear me until now?”

“No. I must_____soundly when you came in.”

A. have been sleeping

B. have slept

C. be sleeping

D. sleep

［分析］从问、答句的时态来看应选A以表示“你进来时我一定还在睡觉”这一层意思。这是对过去时间里正在发生或进行的事情的推测。

例　“I didn't see her yesterday.”

“Oh, but you_____.”

A. must have

B. ought to

C. should have

D. cannot have

［分析］选C。should have后面省略了seen her yesterday。should have+过去分词表示过去某事该做而却未做；这句意思是“你昨天应该去看她，但你却未去。”must have+过去分词表对过去的推测，在这里不合句意。B (ought to)后面不能省略have。D表示对过去否定的推测，亦不合句意。

3. 在日常会话中用一般过去时来表示现在时间

这种用法使句子在语气上较为婉转客气。能这样用的动词有want, hope, wonder, think, intend等。例如：

Did you want any help from me?［比Do you want any help from me更婉转］

I wondered if you'd look after my child while I go shopping.［比I wonder if you'd look after my child while I go shopping婉转］

在测试中，题句带有明确表示过去时间的短语并只表示一个动作时谓语动词就需用过去式。

例　Between (A) one thing and another, Julie does not (B) finish her work in time (C) to go to the show (D) last night.

［分析］题句中有表示过去时间的短语last night，故应把B改为did not。

注：between...and...系一种固定结构，表示“又要……又要……”，如My time is fully taken up between teaching and writing.意指“又要教书又要写作，我的时间完全给占用了。”故between one thing and another的意思是“又要做这，又要做那”，含有要做很多事情的意思。

五、过去完成时的用法

1. 表示过去某一动作或状态发生或结束在另一过去动作之前

Edgar flew home, but his sick wife had already died.［died这一过去动作发生在另一个过去动作flew home之前，故用过去完成时had died］

Frieda had written the letter when they came.［had written发生在came之前，故用过去完成时］

We had not thought of（先发生）the solution until they gave（后发生）some hints.

We realized（后发生）we had lost（先发生）our way.

He wasn't（后发生）exactly a stranger—I had met（先发生）him once before.

2. 表示到过去某一时间之前已经完成或结束的一个过去动作或状态

By the end of last term I had written two papers.［By作“到……之前”解，the end of last term指过去时间。“By the end of last term”即“上学期结束之前”，故用had written］

The factory had fulfilled its yearly plan of production by last November.［理由同上］

注1：在以连词after指明两个过去动作的时间先后关系时，after从句中可用过去完成时，也可用一般过去时。例如：

Ethel left the room after she had turned off（或turned off）the light.

注2：在连词when引导的从句中，有时过去完成时和一般过去时也互相换用。例如：

When the teacher had left（或left）the room, the pupils started talking.

注3：当before用作连词引导从句时，主句中上述两种时态也可互换使用。例如：

Before he entered college, he had served（或served）in the army.

例　The day before yesterday (A), June had had (B) dessert at the icecream parlor, but today she will buy (C) pastries at (D) the bakery instead.

［分析］the day before yesterday指前天，也是过去时间，B采用过去完成时，不妥，须改为一般过去时，即had dessert。

例　When Columbus discovered (A) America, he thought that he arrived (B) in India (C), so he called the people he met Indians (D).

［分析］“arrived”这一动作明显地发生在“discovered”之前，故B错，应改为had arrived。

六、过去进行时的用法

1. 表示过去某一时刻正在发生的动作

A: What were you doing at nine last night?

B: I was writing a paper before you arrived.

We were playing basketball just now. 我们刚刚还在打篮球。

They were not having a math class yesterday morning. 他们昨天上午不在上数学课。

My brother was not doing his homework at eight last night. 昨晚八点我兄弟不在做家庭作业。

2. while或when引导的从句

句子中出现while或when引导的时间状语从句表示的是一件不太重要、作为背景来衬托的事情。该事情宜用过去进行时来表示。

与此同时，另一件较为重要的事情发生时便用一般过去时。这一用法的关键是，过去时的动作发生前，过去进行时的动作已在进行中，过去时的动作结束时，过去进行时的动作还在进行中。其中，较为重要的事情通常用一般过去时来表示。如：

We were talking about the film when the teacher came in. 老师走进来时，我们正在谈论那部电影。［即老师进来前我们已在讨论，进来时还在讨论］

While I was reading, I heard someone knocking at the door. 我正在看书时，听到有人敲门。

注意，在这种情况下，当从句是由 while 引导的时间状语时，过去进行时多在从句中，一般过去时出现在主句中，且通常译为“正在……时”；当表示过去时动作的从句是由when引导时，过去进行时多出现在主句中；这时，when已不是从属连词，而是并列连词，意思同and just then/and just at that time，故这样的句子结构通常译为“正在……这时……”

I was driving very fast when the police stopped me and gave me a traffic ticket. 我正在快速开车，那时警察叫我停车并给了我一张罚款单。

I was leaving home when the telephone rang. 我正要出门，电话铃响了。

Tom fell while he was riding his bicycle, and hurt himself. 汤姆骑自行车时摔了下来，伤了自己。

It was raining when they left home. 他们出门时天在下雨。

When I got to the top of the mountain, the sun was shining. 我到达山顶时阳光照耀。

While we were having dinner all the lights went out. 我们正在进晚餐时所有的电灯全部熄掉了。

when和while引导的状语从句都可表示正在进行的动作，但while更强调动作持续一段时间。用while连接的状语从句还可表示一个动作正在进行的同时，另一个动作也在进行之中。例如：

While Dad was washing his car, Mum was cooking. 爸爸洗车时，妈妈在做饭。

3. 以某种持续的动作为背景，而以一般过去时引出的新动作为主要描述对象

The snow was falling. The wind was blowing. Suddenly an explosion was heard. 天在下雪、刮风，突然传来了一阵爆炸声。

It was raining as the medical team made their way to the village. 医疗队向该村庄行进时天正下着雨。

4. 表示按计划安排在过去某事将要发生的动作

She was told that her parents were arriving two days later. 她被告知，她的父母两天后到达。

5. 在问到一段时间怎么度过时，过去进行时要比一般过去时有礼貌

What were you doing before you came here? 你来这儿之前做什么工作？［这比What did you do before you came here?听起来更有礼貌］

6. 一般过去时和过去进行时的区别

一般过去时表示动作已完成；过去进行时表示未完成的动作。

I was reading a book last evening.［指读了一些，未读完］

I read a book last evening.［指读完了整本书］

They were building a house last year.［指在建设中，房未造完］

They built a house last year.［指房子已经建好］

七、一般将来时的用法

一般将来时除了由shall或will接动词原形以外，也可以使用下列的几种句式来表达：

1 　be going to do sth. 即将……；打算将……

It is going to rain. You'd better take an umbrella with you. 就要下雨了。你最好带把伞去。

The Smiths are going to move to Canada. 史密斯一家打算搬到加拿大去。

2 　be about to do sth. 即将……［指紧接着要发生的动作］

Please wait a minute. The teacher is about to arrive. 请稍等一下。老师马上就到。

3 　be doing sth. 定于……［指接近的将来动作］

She is leaving for Beijing tomorrow afternoon. 她定于明天下午到北京去。

4 　be to do sth. 定于……［指预定的将来动作］

They are to be here at 8:00 a.m. tomorrow morning. 他们定于明天早上八点到达这里。

常用于修饰一般将来时的时间副词有：tomorrow，tomorrow morning，tomorrow night，next Monday，next week，next summer，next year，in (the) future，soon，in six days，in two weeks等。

八、将来进行时的用法

1. 表示将来某时进行的状态或动作，或按预测、计划在较近的将来会发生的事情

I will be waiting for you at the school gate. 届时我在学校大门口等你。

I will be looking forward to meeting you soon. 我盼望不久碰到你。

You will be living here tomorrow. 明天你将住在这儿。

They will be telling you about it. 这件事他们以后会告诉你的。

I will be writing to you. 那时我会写信给你。

They'll be coming soon. 他们不久就会过来。

I'll be meeting him sometime in the future. 以后不定什么时候我会同他碰头的。

2. 用将来进行时和一般将来时提问时在含义上的区别

将来进行时用来表示按计划在将来某时进行或发生的动作，而一般将来时除表示将来的时间概念以外，还可能隐含意愿的意思。试比较：

When will you visit our corporation again?［用一般将来时提问的这个句子含有意愿的意思，如果对方作否定答复，便含有不愿意再来访问我公司的意思，这会使对方显得不礼貌，从而在客观上迫使对方作出肯定的回答便会使问话的人显得既不礼貌又很专横。］

When will you be visiting our corporation again?［这一疑问句用将来进行时向对方提出要求，隐含着如果对方计划或打算再来访问我公司的话，他便是受我们欢迎的客人。因此，用将来进行时提问不会有客观上强行迫使对方作出肯定表态的无礼之嫌。在现代英语中向对方提出要求或希望对方再度来访时常用将来进行时。］

3. 将来进行时、现在进行时和一般将来时的区别

The president will be giving a speech on TV.［表示不久的将来就要发生而且已经计划好了］

How soon are you returning to Paris? 你准备什么时候回巴黎？［表示动作马上就要发生或已在准备中］

They will come to see you.［表示模糊的将来时概念］

九、将来完成时

1. 到将来某一时间之前将要完成的动作

I think I will have finished the paper by the end of next month. 我想下个月底前我会完成这篇论文。

I shall have been in the city for two and a half years by the end of this year. 到今年年底，我将在这一城市呆上两年半了。

2. 在将来某一动作完成前完成的动作

My brother will have got married by the time I graduate. 到我毕业时，我哥哥就该完婚了。

The train will have pulled in by the time we get to the station. 我们到达车站时列车将已进站。

▶▶ 介词by的确切意思是“到……之前”，含有在时间上逐步累积的动态概念，在汉译时则往往译成“到……时”，by接过去时间时主句用过去完成时，接将来时间时主句便用将来完成时，如：

By the end of last month, we had produced 5,000 cars. 到上月月底时我们已生产5000辆汽车。

By the end of 2009, I will have got a Master's degree in economics. 到2009年年底，我将已获得经济学硕士学位。

注：在口语体中by接将来时间用于表将来完成体的句子中时也可用动词come的原形来替换，如：We will（或would）have been married thirty years come this September (=in September this year). 到今年九月我们结婚就有三十年了。

3. 表示将来发生的事情的一种可能性或假设

You will have heard they are going to get married. 你大概已经听说他们准备结婚了吧。

It's seven o'clock now. They will have arrived in Beijing. 现已七点钟，他们可能已到北京了。

十、过去将来时

表示从过去某一时间来看将要发生的动作或存在的状态。过去将来时常用在宾语从句中。

1. 过去将来时由 would (should)+动词原形构成

They said they would come to see me the next day.

He asked me whether I would attend the lecture or not.

I was sure they would come tomorrow.

2. 由were (was) going to+动词原形构成

表示对过去来说的将来的主观打算或客观判断。

He said he was going to visit our city next month.

I was sure it was going to rain tomorrow.［这里用tomorrow是指说话人讲话时的第二天，如不指第二天，则宜用the next day］

They told me there was going to be a lecture tonight.

3. 由were (was) to+动词原形构成

表示按计划、命令、安排或命中注定等以后要发生的事情。

The boy was told he was not to be late next time.

She said we were to arrange everything immediately after breakfast.

He was to regret that decision for the rest of his life. 他以后终生都会后悔他作出了那一决定。

注：如要表示冥冥中以后要发生的事，宜用was (were)+不定式，而不是should (would)+动词原形。

例　As a young man, he did not know that he_____become famous later on.

A. was to

B. should

C. was going to

D. would

［分析］乍看之下，A和D都可以；但题意隐含以后注定要发生的情况，A更为贴切，宜选A。

4. 由were (was) about to+动词原形

对过去来说，将来很快就要发生的事情。

He told us to hurry up because the bus was about to leave.

Exercises

一、用所给词的适当形式填空

1. This river_____(run) to the east. It is the largest river in the city.

2. He knows his girlfriend very well since they_____(be) friends for years.

3. Where is Tom, John?He_____(play) in the backyard.

4. I think Mary will come to see her mother before she_____(leave) the city.

5. Look, here_____(come) our teacher. Let's go and meet her.

6. _____you_____(speak) French?Only a little. But I can speak English very well.

7. The Second World War_____(break) out in 1945.

8. We don't believe her any more; she_____(lie) to me several times.

9. When Thomas visited me this morning, I_____(read) a novel.

10. The party_____(begin) at 8 last night, but they_____(arrive) at nine.

11. It_____(rain) hard when I came back from work yesterday.

12. Tom_____(talk) with his teacher when I last_____(see) him.

13. Do you have Jim's telephone number? He_____(give) me his telephone number, but I'm afraid I_____(lose) it.

14. How is your grandmother? My grandmother_____(die) for three years.

15. Did you tell them where he_____(go)?

Yes. And I also told them he_____(come) back until the next week.

16. I had hoped that our football team_____(win) the game, but the other team played very well.

17. She told me that she_____(help) me out of the trouble.

18. What_____you_____(do) from nine to ten yesterday morning?

I was writing the paper at home.

19. I was so interested in the film that I_____(see) it twice.

20. She lost her bag shortly after she_____(buy) it.

21. When they got home, the thief_____already_____(go).

22. _____you ever_____(be) to Japan before?

23. The young girl_____(tell) me that she_____(go) to go abroad to study the next month.

24. He_____(hurry) across the street when a car_____(knock) him down.

25. We_____(have) dinner at a restaurant when Harry Steele_____(come) in.

26. The train_____(leave) in ten minutes. We must go now.

27. While the men were working hard in the fields, the women_____(enjoy) themselves in the house.

28. We_____(take) a walk in the street when it began to rain.

29. They_____(get) everything ready by tomorrow.

30. By the end of yesterday they_____(receive) more than 300 letters of congratulation from different parts of the country.

二、多项选择

1. After he grew whiskers on his cheeks（两颊蓄着连鬓胡子）, most of his acquaintances（相识的人）_____him.

A. failed to recognize

B. fail to recognize

C. had failed to recognize

D. have failed to recognize

2. Of the millions who saw Halley's comet in 1986, how many people_____long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century?

A. live

B. will live

C. have lived

D. are living

3. He is ill. He_____any food since last night.

A. does not eat

B. has not been eating

C. did not eat

D. has not eaten

4. Volcanoes_____as active, dormant, or extinct.

A. described

B. are described

C. being described

D. which are described

5. Ever since Pan Yuliang's paintings went on display（潘玉良的画展展出以来）, there_____large crowds at the Exhibition center every day.

A. have been

B. had been

C. was

D. were

6. Having been selected to represent the Association of American Engineers at the International convention, _____.

A. the members applauded kim

B. he was giving a short acceptance speech

C. he had given a short acceptance speech

D. he gave a short acceptance speech

7. You ought to have put the soya-bean milk（豆浆）in the fridge, I expect it_____undrinkable by now.

A. became

B. is becoming

C. has become

D. has been becoming

8. There are rings at the door again（门铃又响了）. It is the second time I_____interrupted this morning.

A. was

B. have been

C. was being

D. will have been

9. By the end of the third quarter（三季度）we_____the goal.

A. will achieve

B. will be achieving

C. will have achieved

D. are to achieve

10. When walking down the street, I came across（碰见）David, whom I_____for years.

A. haven't seen

B. hadn't seen

C. didn't see

D. haven's been seeing

11. By the middle of the 21st century, the vast majority of the world's population_____in cities rather than in the country.

A. are living

B. will be living

C. have lived

D. will have lived

12. In the last ten years, there_____many changes in family life. Are these changes for better or for worse?

A. are

B. have been

C. had been

D. will have been

13. After he_____for half an hour, Robinson came to the conclusion that Mrs. Brown was not coming.

A. waited

B. was waiting

C. has waited

D. had been waiting

14. Tom is not himself today. He_____all day.

A. is being serious

B. is serious

C. was serious

D. was being serious

15. No sooner_____home than the telephone rang.

A. he had got

B. had he got

C. his getting

D. he went

Keys

一、用所给词的适当形式填空

1. runs

2. have been

3. is playing

4. leaves

5. comes

6. Do...speak

7. broke

8. has lied

9. was reading

10. began，arrived

11. was raining

12. was talking，saw

13. has given (gave)，have lost

14. has been dead

15. had gone，wouldn't come

16. would win

17. would help

18. were...doing

19. has seen

20. had bought（或：bought）

21. had...gone

22. Have...been

23. told，was going

24. was hurrying，knocked

25. were having，came

26. is leaving

27. enjoyed

28. were taking

29. will have got

30. had received

二、多项选择

1.［A］

2.［B］

3.［D］

4.［B］

5.［A］

6.［D］

7.［C］

8.［B］在It is the first (second, etc.) time这一结构中后面的定语从句通常用现在完成时，如It's the third time I have visited your country. 如It is 改用It was，后面之定语从句便相应改用过去完成时，如：There was a loud knock at the door again. It was the second time I had been interrupted that morning.

9.［C］

10.［B］

11.［B］按惯常模式，by接将来时短语，主句通常用将来完成时。但本句意是“到21世纪中叶时，世界人口中的绝大多数将住在城市而不是乡间。”故表示的是一个将来进行的居住状态，而不是将来完成的动作，应选B，不能选D。

12.［B］“In/During/Over+the+last/past+时间”这一表示时间的短语意指“……年来”，含有“……年前到现在”这一连续性的时间概念，通常用现在完成时来表示所发生的动作。如：Great changes have taken place in China during the past 20 years and more. 20多年来中国发生了巨大的变革。

13.［D］过去完成进行时表示动作从过去某一时刻开始，一直持续到过去另一时刻，那时动作可能刚完成也可能仍在进行。故选D。

14.［A］“is being+adj.”这一句式表示该特征不是主语通常具备的，是一时的表现。如某人平时一脸严肃，但今日却一反常态显得很诙谐，便可用这一句式来描绘他：He is being humorous today.故本题的正确选择是A。

15.［B］① no sooner，scarcely或hardly 置于句首时句子用过去完成时，主谓须倒装。② no sooner和than连用，scarcely和hardly则和when连用。如：No sooner had they got to the theater than the play began. Scarcely（或Hardly）had they got to the theater when the play began. 上列例句意思相同：他们刚跨进剧院，音乐会就开始了。no sooner，scarcely或hardly也可不置于句首，这时仍须用过去完成时，但主谓不能倒装。如：They had no sooner got to the theater than the play began. They had scarcely/hardly got to the theatre when the play began.

第八章　被动语态

英语动词有两种语态，一种叫主动语态（Active Voice），一种叫被动语态。主动语态用于主动句，表示主语是动作的执行者；被动语态用于被动句，表示主语是动作的承受者。

英语中被动语态的使用虽不及主动语态那么广泛，但它应用的场合也很多。而且，被动语态与时态、动词的非限定形式（即分词、动名词和不定式）以及合成词的构成均有密切的关系，所以也是英语中的一个基本语言现象。

一、被动语态的形式

被动语态的具体形式繁多，但只要抓住它的基本公式就行，即“be”动词+过去分词。所有的具体形式都是从这一基本公式演化出来的，现列表如下：

am (is, are)+过去分词

现在时被动语态

am (is, are)+being+过去分词

现在进行时被动语态

was (were)+过去分词

过去时被动语态

was (were)+being+过去分词

过去进行时被动语态

has (had) been+过去分词

现在（过去）完成时被动语态

shall be (will be)+过去分词

将来时被动语态

should be (would be)+过去分词

过去将来时被动语态

should be (would be)/must be/may be (might be)/ought to be/can be/could be/shall be/will be/need be+过去分词

情态动词被动语态

be+to be+过去分词

不定式被动语态

to have been+过去分词

不定式完成时被动语态

being+过去分词

动名词及分词被动语态

having been+过去分词

完成时动名词及分词被动语态

二、被动语态的应用

1. 强调动作的承受者

The first prize was won by Shelley.

Strong measures will be taken by the government to crack down on traffic in narcotics（取缔毒品贩卖）.

2. 动作的执行者不明或不需明确提出

Many new books on the subject have been published recently.

The President was assassinated in 1980.

I am told he has left for London.

Great changes will be brought about in the living conditions of the people in the 21st century. 在21世纪人们的生活条件将产生很大变化。

由于上述理由，被动语态在科技文献中使用得尤其普遍，因它不光省略了不需要说出的动作执行者，而且能使文句结构紧凑、上下连贯。如：

Mineral oil, of course, is of no use to man until it has been cleaned and separated into different commercial products—oil for ships and trains, petrol for cars and aeroplanes, and machine oil of all kinds. This cleaning and separating is known as“refining”and is done in big factories called“refineries”.

3. 为了诸如礼貌、策略、婉转等缘故不提出动作的执行者

This proposal was generally considered not practical. 这一提议被普遍认为不切实际。

This matter should be taken up with the insurance company. 这事应向保险公司提出。

It is generally considered improper to spend so much time on such trivial things. 在这种琐碎小事上花这么多时间大家都认为不妥。

He rose to speak on the subject and（he省略）was attentively listened to. 他站起来就这题材讲话，大家聚精会神地听着。

Jack fought Michael in the men's singles last night and（Jack省略）was defeated.

The word“plastic”comes from the Greek word“plastikos”and（it省略）is used to describe something which can be easily shaped.“可塑性物质”这一词语来自希腊词“plastikos”，被用来指称易于塑造的东西。

在上述后面三例中，每句的第二部分由于使用了被动语态而避免了主语的变换，从而达到结构紧凑、上下连贯的修辞效果。有时候也会发生这种情况：句子的第二部分用被动语态后造成主语不必要的变换，这时便该把被动语态仍改为主动语态。

例　Ferdinand and Isabella journeyed (A) to the south (B) of Spain (C), and Granada was besieged by them (D).

［分析］在第二部分即D项中，主语是Granada，them指Ferdinand and Isabella，这样变换语态使结构松散，影响了前后两部分的连贯性，应把D改成主动语态，即Ferdinand and Isabella journeyed to the South of Spain, and besieged Granada.读来行文流畅，一气呵成。

4. 在现代英语及口语中的应用

现代英语及口语中也可用“get+过去分词”来替换“be+过去分词”，这时后面通常不接by。如：

Thousands of people got killed in the terrorist attacks of September 11. 数以千计的人死于“9.11”恐怖主义者袭击事件中。

He got hurt on the way to work. 他在上班路上受伤了。

The boy got lost on his way home. 那男孩在回家路上迷了路。

5. 主动句的宾语是由that引导的从句在变为被动句时，应补添it作形式主语

People both at home and abroad know that Zhu Rongji is a man of integrity and rectitude. 国内外人士都知道朱镕基为人刚正不阿。［主动句］

It is known that Zhu Rongji is a man of integrity and rectitude.［被动句，加上it］

注：上列It is known that Zhu Rongji is ...这一被动结构也可简化为：Zhu Rongji is known to be a man of integrity and rectitude.这一简化结构在现代英语似乎更为常见。

注意：被动句中的by短语通常表示动作的执行者，但有时也可表示方式方法或原因。如：

A man is known by the company he keeps. 从一个人的交友中可知道他的为人。［by表示方式方法］

I was very much excited by her inviting me to her birthday party. 我对她邀请我参加她的生日庆祝会感到非常兴奋。［by表示兴奋的原因］

6. 被动结构常用于公告、通知中

Smoking is strictly prohibited in the warehouse. 仓库重地，严禁吸烟。

None of the reference books and magazines are to be taken out of the reading-room. 参考书和杂志不得携出阅览室。

三、主动语态变成被动语态的步骤

① 把主动句的宾语变为被动句的主语；

② 按照主动句的时态和被动句的主语加上相应的verb to be（进行体再加being）；

③ 把主动句的谓语动词变为过去分词；

④ 把主动句的主语变为被动句的宾语并在它前面加上介词by，但这一步往往省去。

注意下面五例由主动变成被动四个步骤中的词序变化：

Travel broadens the mind.［主动语态］

The mind ① is ② broadened ③ by travel. ④［被动语态］

They built the church in 1984.［主动语态］

The church ① was ② built ③ (by them) in 1984. ④［被动语态］

The girl is feeding the chickens.［进行时主动语态］

The chickens ① are being ② fed ③ by the girl. ④［进行时被动语态］

Tom will pay the bill.［将来时主动语态］

The bill ① will be ② paid ③ (by Tom). ④［将来时被动语态］

⑤ The thief has stolen many things.［完成时主动语态］

Many things ① have been ② stolen ③ (by the thief). ④［完成时被动语态］

四、使用被动语态时应注意的问题

1. 动作执行者前用by或with的原则

一般的原则是，表示动作执行者时用by，表示工具则用with，不能混淆。如：

The lion was killed by（表行为者）a hunter with（表工具）a gun. 那头狮子被猎人用枪打死了。

He was murdered by（表行为者）his enemy with（表工具）a dagger. 他被敌人用匕首谋害了。

▶▶ 但动作执行的主体有时也可由人以外的事物来承担，如：

Many buildings in the city were destroyed by an earthquake. 该城市中许多建筑物毁于地震。

The farm worker was killed by lightning. 该农场工被雷电击死。

在上面两例中earthquake和lightning虽不是执行动作的人，但却明显具有行为者的意味，因人们不能应用地震或雷电作为工具来为其意图服务，故上列两句中不能用with。同样，说“房间由电照明”，电是行为主体，故英语的表达应是“The room is lighted by electricity.”如说“房间用电灯泡照明”，电灯泡是工具，便该说“The room is lighted with electric bulbs.”了解这一区别，便能正确理解下面两个例句所包含的不同含义：

The house was destroyed by fire.［“房子被火烧掉了”，fire是行为的主体］

The house was destroyed with fire.［“有人用火把房子烧掉了”，fire是工具，行为者未讲明］

2. 主动语态变成被动语态的一些例外情况

有些动词的过去分词在日常应用中已逐渐演化成形容词，故用于被动语态时，其行为主体前的介词就不能一成不变地用by，应视具体搭配而定。如：

Jealousy seized her. 她妒火中烧。

被动：She was seized with jealousy.

Tears filled her eyes. 她眼中噙满了泪水。

被动：Her eyes were filled with tears.

Dangers surround us. 我们的处境危机四伏。

被动：We are surrounded with dangers. with比by更常用。

Everybody knows him. 大家都认识他。

被动：He is known to everybody.［不用He is known by everybody.］

This work greatly interested Larry.

被动：Larry was greatly interested in this work.（不用by）

再譬如说，面对当前金钱挂帅、物欲横流的不良潮流，具有哲理头脑的人士常会说，“金钱并不能买到幸福。”这句话的英语是用“Money can't buy happiness.”来表达的，句中的主语money采用拟人化（personification）的修辞手段，使引文非常简练，掩盖了文字上逻辑性的欠缺，完全可以成立，但如改为被动态，“Happiness can't be bought by money”，by money明显用作工具，显然不妥，应把by改为with，故其完整形式是“Happiness can't be bought (by us) with money.”

3. 表示状态的动词

有些表示状态的动词如fit，resemble，have，lack，suit等不能用于被动语态，如：

Tom resembles his father.［不能改作His father is resembled by Tom.］

Mary has a beautiful car.［不能改作A beautiful car is had by Mary.］

My camera costs（值）$400.［不能改作$400 is cost by my camera.］

You lack tact.［不能改作Tact is lacked by you.］

My shoes don't fit me.（不能改作I am not fitted by my shoes.)

注：表状态的动词一般不用于被动结构中，但在现代英语中有时为了特别强调动作的承受者，也可偶尔用被动句式来表示。试比较：

Everybody likes the cute child. 人人喜欢这个娇小可爱的孩子。

The cute child is liked by everybody. 这个娇小可爱的孩子为每个人所喜爱。［侧重the cute child］

All had a wonderful time at the birthday party. 在生日庆祝会上，大家玩得非常痛快。

A wonderful time was had by all at the birthday party.［侧重a wonderful time］

但必须指出，当不需特别强调动作承受者时上面两列不宜仿照。

4. 动词短语的处理

主动句变成被动句时，动词短语通常都作为一个及物动词来看待，需把动词短语中的动词变成被动语态形式，并将与之有关的介词一起移走。如：

They have sent for the doctor.

The doctor has been sent for by them.

Mrs. Jackson took good care of their children when the Smiths were away.

Their children were taken good care of by Mrs. Jackson when the Smiths were away.

但并不是所有的动词短语都能变成被动语态。如，可以说This chair is not to be sat on.或The children have been very well looked after. 但不可说I was agreed with by everybody或The room was walked into. 这种情况并无明确的规则可循，需边学边注意，时间一久便自然会掌握。

5. 某些动词表示被动意义的方式

英语中有些动词用主动语态，有些用进行时来表示其被动意义，这些动词大致可分为以下三类。

1 　某些特殊连系动词，如feel，prove，wear，sound等。

This material feels soft（手感柔软）.

The stone steps have worn smooth（已磨得光滑）.

The plan proved useless.

Your plan doesn't sound very reasonable（听起来不是非常合理）.

2 　某些实义动词如act，clean，draw，iron，keep，photograph，read，sell，wash等。

Some of Bernard Shaw's plays won't act.［意指只可供阅读，无法上演］

A porcelain sink cleans easily. 搪瓷水槽易于擦洗。

Clothes iron more easily when damp. 衣服潮湿时更容易熨烫。

This pipe does not draw well. 这管子吸水不好。

In warm weather meat and fish won't keep long. 在暖和的天气里，肉和鱼无法长期保存。

Winston Churchill's speeches read well. 温斯顿·丘吉尔的演说辞读起来很流畅。

Irene is a pretty girl, but she doesn't photograph well（不上照）.

Such books don't sell（卖不出去）.

3 　某些动词习惯用现在进行时来表示。

The dinner is cooking. 饭在烧。

The tea is brewing. 茶在煮。

The cakes are baking. 蛋糕在烘。

This week's rent is still owing. 本周租金还欠着未付。

The dictionary you need is binding.

你需要的那本辞典在装订中。

Don't hurry me. My work is finishing.

别催我，我的工作快完成了。

Pears are selling cheaply now.

生梨现在卖得很便宜。

The new film is showing in many cinemas.

好多电影院在放映这部新影片。

4 　 祈使句的被动式语态结构

祈使句通常用主动语态来表达；但有时候，为使语气婉和些，祈使句也可改用被动语态来表示，这时就要运用let这一词，即let+宾语+不定式（主动态祈使句）或let+宾语+be+过去分词（被动态祈使句）。

比较：

Move the grand piano into the hall.（主动态祈使句）

=Let these young chaps move the grand piano into the hall.

让这些小伙子把这架三角钢琴搬到大厅中去吧。（仍是主动态，但用let，语气变得婉和客气）

=变被动态祈使句：Let the grand piano be moved into the hall.

Don't forget to finish the work today.（主动祈使句）

=Don't let the work be forgotten to finish today.（改为被动式，用let)

=Let it not be forgotten to finish the work today.（被动式祈使句）

Do one thing at a time.（主动式祈使句）

一次做一件事。

Let one thing be done at a time.（用let结构，表被动态祈使句，语气更婉和）

6. 使用被动语态的基本原则

不及物动词及不及物动词词组均不能用被动语态，这是被动语态中的一个基本原则，在考试中常常故意出现这方面差错的句子以检查考生的辨识能力：

例　Economic (A) uncertainty, of course, is precisely (B) why the commodity-futures (C)（期货商品）market is existed (D).

［分析］exist是不及物动词，不能用被动语态；因此D错，应改为主动态exists。

7. 动词不定式符号“to”的处理

感官动词如see，watch，observe，notice，listen to，hear，feel及使役动词如make，have，let后面的宾语，如接不定式作为其宾语补语时，该不定式不能带有“to”这个符号，这种不带“to”符号的不定式称为bare infinitive。为清晰起见，现把该结构列表如下：

但当上列结构由主动态转换成被动语态时，不带to的不定式需换成带to的不定式，请比较下面三组例句：

We saw him cross the street.［主动，不带to］

He was seen to cross the street.［被动，带to］

John heard Mary go downstairs.［主动，不带to］

Mary was heard to go downstairs.［被动，带to］

The sharp pain made her cry out.［主动，不带to］

She was made to cry out by the sharp pain.［被动，带to］

例　John was made_____day and night.

A. work

B. to work

C. works

D. to be work

［分析］was made是被动语态的使役动词，后面的不定式需带to，故选B。但需注意，如果感官动词和使役动词的宾语后面有被动语态的宾补时，该宾补中的不定式符号to仍需省略。

例　Still holding (A) the young man's hand, he paused, and then added deliberately: (B) Now I am not the man to let a cause to be lost (C) for want of (D) a word.

［分析］掌握上述情况便能一眼看出上题中的错误所在是C，to let a cause to be lost应改为to let a cause be lost。

Exercises

一、改错

1. The doctrine of (A) environmental determinism, which enunciated (B) originally by Hippocrates in the fifth century B.C. enjoyed a great following (C) in the mid-nineteenth (D) century.

2. Guam, now a (A) United States (B) territory, discovered (C) by (D) Magellan in 1521.

3. The knee is morely likely (A) to be damage (B) than most other joints because it (C) is subject to tremendous forces during (D) vigorous activity.

4. In medicine, certain (A) plastics have important uses (B) because they do not affected (C) by chemicals in the body, and they do not harm (D) the body.

5. Paint must (A) be stirred (B) and sometimes dilution（稀释） (C) before it (D) is applied.

6. Although (A) the pecan tree（美洲山核桃树）is chiefly value (B) for its fruit, its wood is used (C) extensively for (D) flooring, furniture, boxes and crates（木箱，板条箱）.

7. A musical genius (A), John Cage is noted for his highly unconventional (B) ideas, andhe respected (C) for his unusual compositions and performances (D).

8. A smile (A) can be observed, described, and reliably identify (B); it can also (C) be elicited and manipulated under experimental (D) conditions.

9. Financier Andrew Mellon donated (A) most of his magnificent (B) art collection (C) to the National Gallery of Art, where it is now locating (D).

10. Rainbows in the shape of complete circles (A) are sometimes seen (B) from airplanes because they are not cutting off (C) by the horizon (D).

二、多项选择

1. Jane's dress was a cheerful pink, but on the other hand, her husband_____in severe black.

A. was dressed

B. dressed

C. has dressed

D. had been dressed

2. A: Have you moved into the new office?

B: Not yet.The rooms_____.

A. are being painted

B. have been painted

C. are painted

D. have been painting

3. Corn originated in the New World and thus was not known in Europe until Columbus found it_____in Cuba.

A. having been cultivated

B. having cultivated

C. being cultivated

D. cultivating

4. I prefer_____creative work to do.

A. to be giving

B. being giving

C. being given

D. to be given

5. The student found that his cheating in today's economics examination_____to his parents.

A. had reported

B. reported

C. was reported

D. had been reported

6. Booker T. Washington_____as one of the ablest public speakers of his time.

A. had been viewed

B. viewed

C. was being viewed

D. was viewed

7. Though the important project was to be kept a secret, it_____to the press.

A. was revealed

B. had been revealed

C. revealed

D. was being revealed

8. The secretary opened the mail which_____that morning.

A. delivered

B. was delivered

C. had leen delivered

D. in delivered

三、汉译英

1. 听到隔壁房间里有竖笛声。

2. 麦克，教研室有事找你。

3. 那里的一幢新房子已有人买了。

4. 有人建议董事会延期至下周二下午举行。

5. 这件案子将于下周进行调查。

6. 歌舞混合演出自九月起就已筹划了。

7. 有人指控他受贿。

8. 谣传那些贪官污吏已逃到邻国去了。

9. 恭请你给我们作一个有关中国文化的讲座。

10. 希望这种不愉快的事情不再发生。

11. 孩子们望着那些已经点着并挂在那家饭店门口上的色彩缤纷的灯笼给迷住了。

12. 他为他妻子的健康感到焦虑不安。

13. 覆水难收。

14. 过马路时要两边看看，不然会被车撞倒。

15. 个人携带物品只限20公斤。

16. 申请报告须在本月底前交进来。

Keys

一、改错

1.［B］which enunciated改为which was enunciated或省略which was。determinism：［哲］决定论（以为一切事物具有不以人们意志为转移的必然性的因果制约性的哲学学说）；决定性。enunciate：阐述，如enunciate a theory。

2.［C］discovered改为was discovered。

3.［B］to be damage改为to be damaged。joint：关节

4.［C］do not affected改为are not affected。

5.［C］dilution改为diluted，即...must be stirred and sometimes diluted。

6.［B］value改为valued。

7.［C］he respected改为he is respected。

8.［B］identify改为identified。elicit：引出，探出

9.［D］locating改为located。be located：（1）位于，如The information office is located in the city center.（咨询处坐落在市中心。）（2）将（某物）安置在某处，如：The clock is carefully located in the exact center of the mantel.（该钟被小心翼翼地安置在壁炉的正中心。）

10.［C］are not cutting off改为are not cut off。

二、多项选择

1.［A］（was dressed，是系表结构，指一时性；dressed则指经常性。）按句意是指某一次的穿着，故不能选B (dressed)。

2.［A］

3.［C］

4.［D］

5.［D］reported动作发生在found之前，故用过去完成体被动语态。

6.［D］

7.［A］

8.［C］delivered动作发生在opened之前，故需用过去完成时被动语态，选C项，不能选B项。

三、汉译英

1. A sound of clarionet is heard in the adjoining room.

2. Mike, you are wanted in the teaching and research section.

3. The new house over there has been bought.［“有人”买了乃属模糊的动作执行者。故“by someone”以不译为宜］

4. It is suggested that the board meeting (should) be put off till next Tuesday afternoon.［“有人建议”也属模糊动作执行者，故用It is suggested that...］

5. This case will be looked into next week.

6. The variety show has been planned since September.

7. He is charged with bribery.

8. It is rumored that those corrupt officials have escaped to a neighboring country.（或：Those corrupt officials are rumored to have escaped to a neighboring country.）

9. You are requested to give us a talk on Chinese culture.

10. It is hoped that such unpleasant things will not happen again.

11. The children were enchanted at the sight of the colorful lanterns that had been lighted and placed over the entrance of the restaurant.

12. He is very much agitated about his wife's health.［状语中in very much agitated不是被动态，而是系表结构，故后用about，不接by］

13. What is done cannot be undone.［系情态动词被动结构，动作执行者模糊，不需译出］

14. Look both ways when crossing the road, or you might be knocked down.［同样，撞倒动作的执行者模糊，不予译出］

15. Only twenty kilos are allowed for personal baggage.［被动结构用于公告］

16. Applications must be sent in before the end of the month.

第九章　分词

一、分词的功能

分词是动词的一种非限定形式。它分两种，现在分词和过去分词。这两种分词在句子中的功能基本相同，主要起形容词和副词的作用，可以用作定语（包括前置形容词和后置形容词）、表语、状语或宾语补语。例如：

The boring lecture made the bored audience thin out（逐渐散去）.［现在分词和过去分词均用作前置形容词］

Who is the boy watching TV in the next room?［现在分词用作后置形容词］

This is a letter written in red ink.［过去分词用作后置形容词］

The window is broken.［过去分词用作表语］

The story is amusing.［现在分词作表语］

The children were going to school laughing and talking all the way. 孩子们一路谈笑着上学去了。［现在分词用作状语］

The old man got on the bus supported by his son. 老人在他的儿子搀扶下上了公共汽车。［过去分词用作状语］

They found the lecture boring. 他们觉得这个讲座枯燥无味。［现在分词用作宾语补语］

They found all the windows broken. 他们发现所有的窗户都被弄坏了。［过去分词用作宾语补语］

二、现在分词和过去分词用作形容词时在用法上的区别

1. 现在分词和过去分词表示的意思不同

现在分词表主动动作或正在进行中的主动动作；过去分词表被动动作或已完成的动作。从上述较多的例句中可以明显看出分词，不论其用作前置形容词还是后置形容词，有一个不可变更的准则，即表示主动意思的动作或正在进行中的主动动作时用现在分词，表示被动意思的动作或业已完成的动作时用过去分词。

1 　用作前置形容词。

boiling water=water that is boiling 正在沸滚的水［表示一个正在进行的主动动作］

boiled water=water that has been boiled 开水，煮沸的水［表示一个已完成的被动动作］

the rising sun=the sun which is rising 冉冉升起的太阳［表示一个正在进行的主动动作］

the risen sun=the sun which has risen 已升起的太阳［主动动作，但已完成，故用过去分词］

2 　用作后置形容词。

The United States stretches across a vast area covering (=which covers) the cold, temperate and tropical zones. 美国幅员辽阔，包括寒带、温带和热带。［主动，故用现在分词］

Is there anything planned (=that has been planned) for tomorrow? 明天有什么活动吗？［被动，故用过去分词］

2. 分词用法上矛盾时所依据的准则

在运用分词作为前置形容词时，有时会碰到这样的情况，即所表示的动作既是主动同时又是已经完成了的；按主动的意义来讲应用现在分词，但从“已经完成了的”这一时态概念来看则应用过去分词，如何处理呢？两者发生矛盾时，习惯用法的准则是语态服从时态，以“已经完成了的”这一时态概念为准，故不管动词本是及物动词还是非及物动词，一律采用过去分词这一形式，如：

已完成的主动动作

已完成的被动动作

returned students 归国留学生

armed forces 武装部队

retired workers 退休工人

canned food 罐头食品

departed friends 离去的（或过世的）朋友

rolled steel 钢材

为了清晰起见，现再归纳如下：

现在分词表示1）不正在进行中的主动意味动作；2）正在进行中的主动意味动作，如：

主动但不正在进行

主动并正在进行中

guiding principle 指导原则

developing country 发展中国家

running water 自来水

raging flames 熊熊烈火

promising student 有前途的学生

barking dog 吠叫的狗

neighboring country 邻国

setting sun 落日

过去分词表示1）被动意味动作；2）已完成的被动动作；3）完成的主动意味动作。如：

被动意味

被动，已完成

主动，已完成

guided missile 导弹

smoked fish 熏鱼

developed country 发达国家

so-called expert 所谓的专家

changed conditions 已改变了的情况

escaped prisoner 逃犯

the interested party 有利害关系的一方

planned economy 计划经济

one's deceased wife 亡妻

faded flowers 萎谢了的花

3. 分词构成合成形容词时用法上的差别

分词可用来构成合成形容词。它通常用作定语，即前置形容词；在构成合成词时，用现在分词还是过去分词应以前面所讲的原则为依据。

注1：形容词加名词构成合成词时，通常在该名词后面+ed，变成过去分词，即形容词+名词+ed，如a fivelegged animal，a smoothskinned girl。

注2：另外，有些合成分词作定语，本身含有动状关系。如：

ever-lasting 永久的，永恒的，经久耐用的，long-standing 为时甚久的，长期存在的，hard-working 勤奋的，far-reaching 意义深远的，广泛的，never-ending 无休止的，永无止境的，well-dressed 衣着考究的，服饰大方的，well-paid 高薪的，得到优厚报酬的，long-running 长期的，连续上演很长时间的，quick-selling 销售得很快的

有些本身含有动宾关系。如：

time-consuming 费时的，旷日持久的，record-breaking 打破纪录的，exam-oriented 以考试为本的，如exam-oriented teaching应试教学，hand-made 手工制的，thought-provoking 引起思考的，发人深省的，self-taught 自学的

例　“Who were those people with the banners?”

“A group_____itself the League for Peace.”

A. calling

B. calls

C. called

D. is called

［分析］第二句是个省略句，完整的句子应是“They were a group calling (=which called) itself the League for Peace.”故应选A。

例　Lincoln, Nebraska is an important manufacturing, insurance, and_____center.

A. shipping of grain

B. to ship grain

C. grain was shipped

D. grain-shipping

［分析］Lincoln是一个制造业、保险业及粮食运输业的中心地，句子表示主动的意思，故应选D。

例　He was also told of frightened events (A) that had taken place (B) in his native state of Connecticut and listed (C) the fearful things (D) he had seen on his nightly walks in Sleepy Hollow.

［分析］画线A的意思是“使人害怕的事件”，表示主动，该用现在分词，故应改为frightening events。

例　High school and college students today (A) are often pushed so much in the direction of specialization that little (B) time is left for (C) the further development of the basic reading skills initiating (D) in earlier years.

［分析］画线D部分的意思是“早期的岁月中老师所授予的基本阅读技巧”，表示被动，应采用过去分词形式，把D改为initiated。

4. 个别分词位置的前后不同所产生的意思上的差异

个别几个过去分词用在名词前和用在名词后的意思就不一样，值得注意：

the people concerned 有关人员

a concerned expression 忧虑的神情

the people involved=the people concerned 相关人员

an involved explanation 复杂的解释

the solution adopted 所采纳的决定

an adopted child 养子

5. 现在分词用作后置形容词时应注意的问题

1 　分词用作后置形容词时表示下面两种情况。

A. 表示与句中谓语动词在时间上相应的一个正在进行的动作。

也就是说，当谓语动词是现在时，现在分词则表一个现在时的进行动作：

Can you see the girl dancing (=who is dancing) with your brother?

谓语动词是过去时，现在分词表示过去时的进行动作：

Did you see the man talking (=who was talking) to the dean?

谓语动词是将来时，现在分词则表示将来进行时的动作：

When you come tomorrow, give your report to the secretary sitting (=who will be sitting) at this desk.

B. 表示与句中谓语动词在时间上相应的一个经常性的动作。

即谓语动词为一般现在时，现在分词表示一个经常性的现在动作或状态；谓语动词为一般过去时，现在分词便表示一个经常性的过去动作或状态：

There is a piano standing (=which stands) against the wall.

Those were the chief technical problems confronting (=which confronted) our factory.

由此可见，句中谓语动词表示的动作和现在分词表示的动作在时间上不一致时，便不能用现在分词，须将其改为定语从句：

（×）Do you know anyone having lost a watch?［谓语动词know是现在时，分词having lost是完成时，时间不一致］

（√）Do you know anyone who has lost a watch?

（×）I want to talk to the person breaking the window.［从句中意思上看，分词动作肯定是发生在want to talk之前，两者在时间上不一致］

（√）I want to talk to the person who broke the window.

（×）Is there anyone answering this question?［分词answering这一动作肯定要发生在there is之后，两者时间上不一致。］

（√）Is there anyone who can answer this question?

（×）The man coming this morning is my cousin.［coming this morning系过去动作，与谓语动词is在时间上不一致］

（√）The man who came this morning is my cousin.

从以上正误例子中我们也可反过来说，定语从句中动作的时间和主句中谓语动作的时间相一致时，定语从句可用现在分词来代替，两者不一致时，便不能用现在分词。试比较：

We live in a room that faces south.［主句谓语动词live和定语从句中的动词face时间上一致，故定语从句也可用现在分词短语：We live in a room facing south.］

The boy who brings the milk has been ill.［定语从句中的动词brings在这里表示一个现在时的经常性动作，同主句中表示完成时的谓语动词has been在时间上不一致，故定语从句不能改为现在分词短语bringing the milk。］

The terrorist（恐怖主义者）who threw the bomb was arrested.［定语从句中的动作显然发生在主句谓语was arrested之前，故不能用分词短语throwing the bomb来代替定语从句who threw the bomb。］

The new foodstuffs store which stands at the corner of the street was established last year.［主句之谓语动词was established系过去时；定语从句中的动词stands用现在时表示的却是一个不大会变更的经常性的情况，故两者虽在时间上不一致，但仍能用现在分词短语来代替定语从句：The new foodstuffs store standing at the corner of the street was established last year.］

The woman who looks after my small brother gets paid $3 an hour.［定语从句中之动词和主句的谓语动词都表示现在时的经常性动作，在时间上是一致的，但由于定语从句说明的是一个特定的woman，不是泛指的任何woman，故逢到这种情况，定语从句则不宜用现在分词来代替。如把此句略加修改，由特指转为泛指，如：Women who look after small children generally get paid $3 an hour.定语从句便可由现在分词短语来替代：Women looking after small children generally get paid $3 an hour.］

2 　过去分词用作后置形容词时通常表示以下四种情况。

A. 过去分词所表示的动作发生在句中谓语动词的动作之前。

Is this the book recommended (=which was recommended) by Professor Jones?

Most of the people invited (=who had been invited) to the reception were old friends.

The film tells about the heroic struggles put up (=which were put up) by the French people against the German fascists.

B. 过去分词表示与句中谓语动词在时间上相应的一个经常性动作。

At college Larry was a young man loved (=who was loved) by all.

We have to pay duties on goods imported (=which are imported) from abroad.

As a teacher, I hate to see compositions written (=that are written) in pencil.

C. 过去分词表示一个正在进行的动作时，在这种情况下，不论句中谓语动词是现在时还是过去时，过去分词一概用being+过去分词这一形式。

Did you see that boy being questioned (=who was being questioned) by the police?

We must keep a secret of the things being discussed here (=which are being discussed here).

D. 过去分词表示一个未来动作时，要采用不定式的被动形式，即to be+过去分词：

Where are the sheets to be washed (=which are to be washed) this afternoon?

You are cordially invited to a party to be given (=which is to be given) at our institute at 7 p.m. April 1.

三、分词用作状语

分词不仅可用作定语，也常用作修饰或说明句中谓语动词的动作或整个句子所表达的意思。这样用时，分词短语通常表示原因、时间、伴随性情况、条件或结果，也就是说，分词短语相当于一个原因状语从句、时间状语从句、伴随性状语从句、条件状语从句或结果状语从句，偶尔也可起到让步状语从句的作用。

1. 用作原因状语从句

Being unable to help in any other way, I gave her some money. (=As I was unable to help in any other way)

Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress designer. (=Since I did not wish to continue my studies)

Despite untold hardships, the French people went on with their struggle against the German fascists, thinking theirs was a just cause.［=because they thought theirs was a just cause］

The doctor, not wanting to make the patient nervous, did not explain the seriousness of his illness.［=as he did not want to make the patient nervous］

2. 用作时间状语从句

Putting down my newspaper, I walked over to the window and looked out.［=After I put down my newspaper］

Approaching the island, I noticed row upon row of（一排排的）newly-built houses. (=When/As I approached the island) 这里as作“当”解，不作“因为”解。

Seeing these photos, I could not help thinking of my childhood days in Los Angeles. (=When I saw these photos)

3. 用作伴随性状语从句

分词短语用作伴随性状语从句时，实际上相当于一个起到陪衬作用的平行谓语或独立句子；合并时，这个起陪衬作用的平行谓语或句子便可改为分词短语以表示伴随性情况。

It rained for two weeks on end, completely ruining our holiday. (=and completely ruined our holiday)

Frustrated, he went back to his home town.［=He was frustrated］

He turned away disappointed. (=he was disappointed)

After working extra hours（加班加点）, we went home exhausted. (=we were exhausted)

4. 用作条件状语从句

Used economically, our tin-plate will last for at least six weeks. (=If it is used economically)［表示一个真实条件］

Given better condition, the crops could have grown better. (=If they had been given better condition)［表示与过去事实相反的非真实条件，作“如果当时管理得好一些的话”解］

Compared with your achievement, mine is nothing. (=If my achievement is compared with your achievement)［表示一个真实条件］

美国独立战争时期，流行的一句口号就是用分词来表示条件的，使得那句口号铿锵有力，号召力极大：

United we stand, divided we fall. (=If we are united, we stand;if we are divided, we fall.)

5. 用作结果状语从句

His wife died in 1984, leaving him with three children. (=so that she left him with three children)

The output of coal last year increased by 10 per cent, reaching 3,000 tons. (=so that it reached 3,000 tons)

We launched ground-to-air missles（地对空导弹）, bringing down（击落）two enemy planes.(=so that we brought down two enemy planes)

6. 用作让步状语从句

Admitting what you say, you are still in the wrong. (=Though we admit what you say)

Picked 15 times a year, these tea trees grow tired only after 30 or 40 years. (=Even though they are picked 15 times a year)［they指茶树，意指“即使一年采15次，这些茶树也要三四十年后才衰老”］

四、分词用作状语应注意的问题

分词用作状语时应注意以下几点：

① 分词短语可以扩大成状语从句。

② 分词短语的位置可放在句首、句中或句末，放在句首的位置较多。

③ 分词短语所表示的动作不是发生在句中谓语动作之前就是紧接发生在谓语动作之后。

④ 句中之主语必须是分词短语的逻辑主语，不然便犯悬空分词的错误（dangling participle）。如：

Looking out of the window of our hotel room, there were lots of mountains.［主语lots of mountains不能成为分词looking的逻辑主语，故分词短语应改为状语从句：As we looked out of the windows of our hotel room, there were lots of mountains.］

Running down the garden path, a rose bush scratched his face.［主语rose bush不能成为分词running的逻辑主语，应调整主句结构，使主语能充当逻辑主语，宜改为：Running down the garden path, he had his face scratched by a rose bush.］

例　Writing (A) in a terse, lucid style, the book describes (B) the author's (C) childhood experiences in Louisiana just before (D) the outbreak of the Civil War.

［分析］A错，因句中主语book不能作为现在分词writing的逻辑主语，应把writing改为过去分词written。

例　Founded in (A) 1961 and employed (B) an estimated 35,000 people, the organization has gained (C) a reputation for (D) brutality.

［分析］B项的逻辑主语是organization，表示一个主动的意思，故应把and employed改为and employing。

⑤ 分词短语表示否定意思时，not应放在分词之前，不能放在分词之后。如把not放在分词后，便犯结构上的错误。

例　Not wishing to continue my studies, I decided to become a dress designer.［不能改为Wishing not to continue...］

例　The doctor, not wanting to make the patient nervous, did not explain the seriousness of his illness.［不能改为wanting not to make...］

⑥ 如果要强调分词所表示的动作发生在谓语所表示的动作之前，就需要用完成式的分词形式：

Having finished all my letters, I had a drink and went out. (=After/When I had finished all my letters)

Having been beaten seriously, the enemy retreated. (=After they had been beaten seriously)

Not having received an answer, I decided to send them a cable（电报）. (=As/Since/Because I had not received an answer)

注意，在第三例句中完成式的分词短语的否定形式是not having received，不能改为having not received。

⑦ 上列例句说明分词短语所表示的动作，不是发生在句中谓语动作之前就是紧接发生在谓语动作之后。但有时候，分词短语的动作和谓语的动作同时发生；这时，在实际写作中往往采用when或while+分词这一结构：

Don't talk while eating.

Be careful when crossing the street.

I got to know Professor Jones while attending a symposium（研讨会）in New York City.

When leaving, Donald waved to every one of us.

用这一结构时，句子的主语必须是分词的逻辑主语，即：

(You) don't talk while (you are) eating.

(You) be careful when (you are) crossing the street.

I got to know Professor Jones while (I was) attending a symposium in New York City.

When (he was) leaving, Donald waved to every one of us.

如果两个主语不一样，从句中的主语不能省略：

Don't make so much noise while I am writing a paper.

When the train was leaving, we waved to each other.

五、状语从句变成分词短语的步骤

状语从句变成分词短语时须采用以下三个步骤：

① 去掉连词；

② 去掉状语从句的主语；

③ 把状语从句中的谓语动词变成现在分词形式，如果谓语动词是完成式，则have/has/had变成having。状语从句中的谓语形式是被动语态时，去掉verb to be即可；如果谓语是完成式的被动语态时，须把had变成它的分词形式having，其他不变。试看以下例句中三个步骤的实际应用：

When ① we ② heard ③ Hearing the sad news of the plane crash, we were very much grieved.［Hearing状语短语表时间］

When ① it ② is ③ (Being) heated, water changes into steam.［Being heated两个分词一起用时，being便应省略。heated状语短语也表时间，即Heated,water changes into steam。］

As ① he ② has ③ Having lived in San Francisco for many years, he knows the city well.［Having lived也是两个分词连用，因是完成体，Having不可省略。Having lived状语短语表原因］

Because ① they ② were ③ (Being) exhausted,the children fell asleep at once.［exhausted分词状语表原因，即Exhausted，the children...］

If ① you ② work ③ Working hard, you will succeed.［Working hard状语短语表条件］

Though ① it ② weighed ③ Weighing several hundred pounds, the piano was moved by him alone.［Weighing状语短语表让步］

Her husband was killed in the war, so that ① he ② left ③ leaving her with almost nothing but a son and a daughter.［..., leaving状语短语表结果］

I wrote Mike, and ① thanked ② thanking him for his valuable advice.［..., thanking him状语短语表伴随性，伴随性分词短语绝大多数采用两个步骤］

了解上面所讲的三个步骤便能掌握分词短语用作状语的这一重要用法。

六、分词短语用作独立成分

在实际应用中有一些常用的分词或分词短语，它们不受上面所讲的逻辑主语这一规则的约束，在日常运用中已被当作独立成分。最常见的有：

Generally speaking（总的来讲）, men can run faster than women.

Broadly speaking（大体上说），dogs are more faithful to man than cats.

Roughly speaking (=Broadly speaking), these are the best schools in California.

Judging from（从……来看）his expression, he is in a bad mood.

Mr. Harris is wonderfully active, considering（从……来考虑）his old age.

Talking of（谈到）fine arts（美术）, do you have any interest in painting?

Granted that（且认为；就是说）Tom did it, what harm is there?

Putting it mildly（说得轻一点；说得客气一点），the teacher is not conscientious enough.

在上列例句中分词短语均系独立成分，各句中的主语都不是它们的逻辑主语，但仍系正常用法，故不要和悬空分词的错误结构混淆起来。

七、分词短语用作独立结构

1. 分词短语和独立结构在形式上的区别

分词短语作状语用时，它本身没有主语，句子的主语便是它逻辑上的主语，如：Hearing the sad news, she burst into tears.主语she也是分词hearing的逻辑主语。

如果句中主语不能成为分词逻辑上的主语，这一分词便变成垂悬或荡空，如：Walking through the park, a lovely show of daffodils（黄水仙）was seen. 主语a lovely show of daffodils显然不能成为分词walking逻辑上的主语，分词walking便悬空，应改为：Walking through the path, we saw a lovely show of daffodils.

但有时候分词也可以有自己独立的逻辑主语。这种主语加分词短语的模式称为独立结构，即：

主语 (A)+分词短语+主谓结构 (C)（A和C中的主语不相同）

2. 独立结构的作用

独立结构和分词短语一样，可以用作状语表示时间、原因、条件、伴随性情况，间或可以用作同位语。独立结构也有完成式以表示明确的时间上的先后顺序。

1 　用作时间状语从句。

The shower being over, I continued my way. (=When the shower was over, ...)

All the money having been spent, we started looking for work. (=After all the money had been spent, ...)

2 　用作原因状语从句。

Nobody having any more to say, the meeting was closed. (=Since nobody had any more to say, ...)

Society having made the rule, we must conform. (=As society has made the rule, ...)

3 　用作条件状语从句。

Weather permitting, I shall come. (=If weather permits, ...)

Everything (being) taken into consideration, her plan seems more practicable. (=If everything is taken into consideration, ...)

4 　用作伴随性状语。

He rushed into the room, his face (being) covered with sweat. (=and his face was covered with sweat)

They marched down the street, their flags waving. (=and their flags were waving)

注：用作伴随性状语时，独立结构通常相等于一个并列的独立句子。

5 　用作同位语，对前面的一个名词加以补充说明。

这样用时，独立结构也相等于一个并列的独立句子。

There are two doors, one leading to the living-room, the other to the kitchen. (=There are two doors; one leads to the living-room and the other to the kitchen.)

There were 50 entrants for this piano competition, the youngest being a girl of 13. (=and the youngest was a girl of 13)

3. 状语从句变成独立结构的步骤

状语从句变成独立结构时通常要有两个步骤：

① 去掉连词。如果状语从句在句末，去掉连词后再加上逗号。

② 把状语从句中的动词变为现在分词；如果是两个并列的独立句子，则把表示次要意思的独立句子中的动词变为现在分词并把该两独立句之间的句号或分号改为逗号。试看下例中该两步骤的应用：

When ① the work was ② (being) done, we felt relieved.［being done两个分词连用时being通常省掉，The work done表时间］

After ① the job had ② having been done, we went home.［在完成体中having不能省，但having been则可一起省略。the job having been done也表时间］

The room was quiet，the students neither talked ① talking nor laughed ② laughing.［表原因］

If ① all things are ② (being) considered, you will find that there is more to gain than to lose.［All things considered表条件］

4. 使用独立结构应注意的问题

1 　独立结构起状语作用，它的位置通常放在句首，有时也放在句末；用作伴随性状语时，它的位置以放在句末者居多。从上面列举的众多例句中可看出这种情况。

2 　为了简练起见，独立结构中的being或having been往往被省略。

Everything (being) taken into consideration, his work is well done.

The work (being) done, we felt relieved.

Everything (being) ready, we started on our expedition.

The children watched the fashionable new cars passing through the village, their eyes (being) bright and eager.

The question (having been) settled, the meeting adjourned（休会）.

▶▶ 现代语法家认为还有一种由介词引出的独立结构，即：

with+宾语+现在分词表示正在发生或进行的主动意义

with+宾语+过去分词表示已完成的被动意义

I can't concentrate upon my work with the children playing so noisily outside my window.

With the first point agreed on, we turned our negotiation to another.

这种结构常见于书面语言中，实用价值很大。在译成汉语时，可把with引出的独立结构作为一个独立的句子来处理，with后面的宾语和分词作为主谓关系考虑。第一个例句可译为“孩子们在窗外闹得很厉害，我无法集中心思搞工作。”第二句可译为“第一点取得一致意见后，我们的谈判便转至另一点。”

例　His health failing, _____in 1782.

A. so Henry Lee went on leave from army

B. the army gave Henry Lee leave

C. Henry Lee went on leave from the army

D. when the army gave Henry Lee leave

［分析］题中His health failing系独立结构，=As his health was failing，来说明Henry Lee离开军队休假的原因，故应选C。

分词短语和独立结构常用于正式的书面语言中，使行文紧凑简练，在日常口语中人们通常以状语从句或并列句来代替分词短语或独立结构。

八、分词用作宾语补语

1. 作宾语补语时，分词只用在感官动词和表示“使役”或“致使”的动词后面

用作宾语补语时，现在分词表示正在进行的主动意义，过去分词则表示已完成的被动意义。

上列两点可用下列的公式来表示：

感官动词+宾语+现在分词用作宾语补语→动作正在进行，意义主动

使役/致使动词+宾语+过去分词用作宾语补语→动作已完成，意义被动

1 　用于感官动词后。

如see，watch，notice，observe，look at，hear，listen to，feel，smell，find等：

Just when I was going to take a nap, I heard someone knocking gently on（或at）the door.

I saw the train coming into the station.

People watched the boys and girls playing in the playground.

I am sorry I didn't notice you waiting.

Kenneth worked very hard. When I went to see him, I always found him poring over（专心地看）a book.

listen to the birds singing beautifully in the garden

look at the snow falling in great flakes（大雪纷飞）

As she sang, Kitty observed all the schoolmates looking at her admiringly.

Oh, I smell something burning!

As I was strolling in the quiet street, I suddenly felt someone patting me on the shoulder.

▶▶ 以上例句的现在分词表示正在发生或进行的主动动作，这些动作还没有完全结束。

The mother was glad to see her children well taken care of in the nursery.

When Eastern Michigan University informed me that I had been admitted, I felt a great load taken off my mind（我感到一桩大心事去掉了）.

Philip was about to enter the hall when he heard his name called.

When they came home, they found the house burnt down.

以上例句中的过去分词表示已完成的被动动作。

2 　用于表示“使役”或“致使”等意义的动词后面。

如set, catch, start, make, have, get, keep, leave等：

The joke set us all laughing.（……使我们大笑起来。）

Tom is a lazy boy. I often catch him dozing off in class.（……经常发现他上课打瞌睡。）

After repairing it, the mechanic managed to start the machine running again.（……又使机器开动起来。）

The Italian spoke such bad English that he could not make himself understood clearly.（……无法让别人清楚地听懂他的意思。）

Raymond, you should have your torn trousers patched.

I won't have you cleaning the room. 我不要你打扫房间。

My typewriter is out of order. I can't get it going again.

Before his wife came back, Edgar managed to get his room thoroughly cleaned and everything arranged in good order.（……把房间打扫得干干净净，一切布置得井然有序。）［everything也是to get的宾语］

I am sorry to have kept you waiting.

His equivocal remark left me wondering what he was driving at. 他的话模棱两可，弄得我不知道他是什么意思。

分词用于使役动词后面时应注意的问题：

A. 在set的宾语后通常接现在分词，不用过去分词，即set sb. doing sth.，而不说set sth. done。

The joke set all of us roaring with laughter. 这个笑话使我们哄然大笑起来。

His philosophical words set me thinking deeply. 他富于哲理性的话令我深思。

Her absence set me wondering. 她的缺席让我觉得很奇怪。

The opening of the door set the alarm bell ringing. 门一开，警铃便响了起来。

但也可以说set sb. to do sth.，这句型在意义上同make sb. do sth.：

He set the man to chop wood.

Sophia set her cat to catch cockroaches（蟑螂）.

The police set the eye-witness to write an account of what he had seen.

B. 与set刚好相反，make的宾语后面只能用过去分词，而不能用现在分词。

Can you make yourself understood in French? 你能用法语表达自己的思想吗？

The speaker could not make himself heard on account of the noise. 由于噪声大，大家听不到演讲者的讲话。

A liar cannot make himself believed. 说谎者难以为人所相信。

A writer can make his influence felt through his books.

Dr. Einstein made himself known all over the world by his Theory of Relativity. 爱因斯坦博士以他的相对论闻名于世。

make后面也不能接不定式，只能用不带to的不定式，即make sb. do sth.：

He made the men chop wood.

Sophia made her cat catch cockroaches.

The police made the eye-witness write an account of what he had seen.

3 　用在动词go后面构成固定搭配，表示“去……”。

go shopping 去购物，go walking 去散步，go skiing 去滑雪，go hiking 去徒步旅行，go swimming 去游泳，go riding 去骑马，go fishing 去钓鱼，go singing 去唱歌，go dancing 去跳舞，go hunting 去打猎，go skating 去溜冰等。

2. 用于感官动词后的现在分词和不带to不定式两者在含义上的区别

在感官动词后既可用现在分词也可用不带to不定式作为宾语补语，两者之间含义上的差别可用下列公式来表明：

感官动词+宾语+宾语补语（现在分词）→表示动作的进行，即非全过程

感官动词+宾语+宾语补语（不带to的不定式）→表示动作的完成，即全过程

I saw the bus driver getting on the bus. 我看见司机在上公共汽车。

I saw the bus driver get on the bus and drive off. 我看见司机上了公共汽车并把它开走了。

The parents watched their children climbing up the hill. 父母看到孩子们在爬山。

The parents watched their children climb up the hill and sit down on the hill-top for a rest. 父母看到孩子们爬上了山，然后在山顶上坐下来休息。

再比较下面的对话：

A: Do you hear the bell ringing at the door? 门铃在响你听见了吗？

B: Yes, I did. I heard it ring twice. 是的，我听见铃响了两下。

问句中用现在分词，表示铃响的动作正在进行中，答句中用不带to不定式，表示铃响的动作已完成，并完成了两次。

在上列公式中，如果宾语补语由表示短暂动作的动词来担任的话，有时候用现在分词结构表示的不是动作的进行，而是动作的反复，用不定式则表示一次动作，即动作完成了一次：

I heard the door slamming. 我听见门在砰砰作响。［反复动作］

I heard the door slam. 我听见门砰的一声关上了。［一次动作，已完成］

3. 过去分词用在have，like，want，wish，order等动词后面时应注意的问题

限于篇幅，只能着重论述have：

have+宾语+过去分词这一结构中，have有四种含义。

A. 表示通常“有”的意义。

We don't have much money left now. 现在我们剩下的钱不多了。

Gordon has 30 percent of his salary saved each month for a new car. 高登每月把工资的30%存起来，准备以后买一部新汽车。

B. 表示有意识的“使”、“让”，动作的执行者可能是也可能不是句子的主语，需视具体情况而定。

We pooled our wisdom and finally had the difficult technical problem solved. 我们群策群力，最终把这个技术难题解决了。［主语we是动作solved的执行者］

Lewis has his hair cut every two months. 刘易斯每两个月理发一次。［主语Lewis不是动作cut的执行者］

在表示这一意义时，have=get，在讲话时应重读。

C. 表示无意识的“遭受到”的意思时，句子的主语不是动作的执行者。

Angus had his leg broken in a football match. 安格斯的一条腿在一次足球比赛中摔断了。

King Charles had his head cut off. 查尔斯国王被砍了头。

On his first flight to Cuba the pilot was unfortunate enough to have his plane hijacked. 那位飞行员非常不幸，在飞往古巴的首次航行中，他的飞机遭到了劫持。

No one is well pleased to have his all neglected, be it ever so little. (Samula Johnson) 当一个人所有的一切，尽管是那么微不足道，都被别人否定时，他是不会对此感到很高兴的。

在表示这一意义时，have不能用get来代替，在句中也不重读。

D. 在will not（或won't）+have+宾语+过去分词这一结构中，will not (won't) have表示“拒绝接受某种情况（refuse to allow or accept a situation）”。

I will not have my house turned into a hotel. 我可不愿意把家变成旅馆。

I won't have myself treated as a commodity. 我可不愿意被别人当商品来对待。

注意，在这一结构中也可用不带to不定式或现在分词来表示一个主动意义：

I won't have you tell/telling me what to do. 我还用不着你来教我怎么做。

I won't have you make/making indiscreet remarks or criticism here. 我可不要你在这里指手画脚。

▶▶ 过去分词在like，want，wish和order这些动词后面用作宾语补语时有两个基本上相同的结构，即：

上列两个基本类同的结构的区别在于出现to be的显得更为强调，但美式英语常把to be省略，而且这种结构已普遍为讲英语的国家所接受。如：

If you want a thing done, go; if not, send.［done前之to be省略，这句话的直译是“假使你要做好一件事，就去做；假使你不想做好一件事，叫别人去做。”这句话的真正含义是“必须亲自动手才能把事情做好，叫别人做是不可靠的。”］

She wishes the noise stopped.［stopped前的to be省略］

He ordered the work started at once.［Started前的to be省略］

九、分词用作主语补语

分词通常只在两类带宾语的动词后面用作宾语补语。当那些动词转换为被动语态时，原来用作宾语补语的分词便成为主语补语。如：

I heard someone knocking gently at the door.

Someone was heard knocking gently at the door.

We found Theobald poring over a book.

Theobald was found poring over a book.

You musn't keep them waiting.

They musn't be kept waiting.

The teacher caught Tom dozing off in class.

Tom was caught dozing off in class.

His equivocal remark left me wondering what he was driving at.

I was left wondering what he was driving at by his equivocal remark.

在上面的例句中，每组第二句中的动词已转换为被动语态，现在分词的作用便由宾语补语变为主语补语。

过去分词也是如此：

They found the house burnt down.

The house was found burnt down.

Professor Richardson keeps me informed of the latest developments in genetic engineering（遗传工程/基因工程）in his country.

I am kept informed by Professor Richardson of the latest developments in genetic engineering in his country.

She left the work undone.

The work was left undone.

The police investigated the case thoroughly; they left no stone unturned.（想尽一切办法；不遗余力）

The police investigated the case thoroughly; no stone was left unturned.

The Government has not made the news known to the public yet.

The news has not been made known to the public yet.

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. Commercial banks make the most of their income from interest_____on loans and investments in stocks and bonds.

A. earn

B. earned

C. to earn

D. was earned

2. When the fire broke out, _____.

A. The building became emptying

B. the building had empties

C. the building had emptied

D. the building was made empty

3. The pearl is the only gem_____by a living creature.

A. creating

B. to create

C. us created

D. created

4. An explosion is really a sudden increase in volume_____.

A. rapid burning causes it

B. and caused by rapid buring

C. causing its burning to be rapid

D. caused by rapid burning

5. Returning to my apartment, _____.

A. my watch was missing

B. I found my watch disappeared

C. I found my watch missing

D. the watch was missed

6. “Who won the election for mayor?”

“A man_____to represent every minority group in the city.”

A. claims

B. is claimed

C. claimed

D. claiming

7. “A man was killed.”

“Where is the body of the_____man?”

A. murder

B. murdered

C. murdering

D. having murder

8. Have the courage of your convictions but be sure they are your own convictions_____.

A. which you yourself think of it

B. arrived at patiently by hard thinking

C. not coming out of others' minds

D. coming out directly of your mind

9. “What is the weather like there?”

“Hawaii has rather mild weather_____other places.”

A. comparing with

B. comparing to

C. compared with

D. compared to

10. Having been served lunch, _____.

A. the problem was discussed by the members of the committee

B. the committee members discussed the problem

C. it was discussed by the committee members the problem

D. a discussion of the problem was made by the members of the committee

11. The name Nebraska comes from the Oto Indian word“nebrathka,”_____flat water.

A. to mean

B. meaning

C. it means

D. by meaning

12. Asked if he could come to the party that night, _____.

A. nobody said anything

B. they did not get an answer from him

C. nothing was said by him

D. John nodded his head and left the room

13. Having the highest marks in his class, _____.

A. the college offered him a scholarship

B. he was offered a scholarship by the college

C. a scholarship was offered him by the college

D. a college scholarship was offered to him

14. Francis Preston Blair, Jr., _____born in Kentucky, lived and practiced law in Missouri.

A. was

B. he was

C. although

D. who he was

15. He has lots of books, _____that he is still young.

A. considering

B. considered

C. being considered

D. our considering

16. “I can't imagine how they could put on that play in high school.”

“They chose the best scenes, _____out everything that was unsuitable.”

A. and were left

B. left

C. and leave

D. leaving

17. The blast furnace burns the impurities out of the mix, _____.

A. which melts down the metal in the ore

B. melting down the metal in the ore

C. melts down the metal in the ore

D. melt down the metal in the ore

18. “Why are they taking all the equipment away?”

“The job_____, they are taking up to leave.”

A. it to done

B. did

C. was did

D. done

19. _____in the southern and midwestern United States, ragtime music reached its classic form in the 1890's.

A. To have originated

B. Originating

C. To originate

D. It originates

20. _____, the constitution of the Cherokee Nation provided for a chief executive, a senate（参议院）, and a House of Representatives（众议院）.

A. In 1827 they drafted

B. The draft in 1827

C. In 1827 was drafted

D. Drafted in 1827

21. When I returned home, I found the window open and something_____.

A. to steal

B. stealing

C. stolen

D. missed

22. Having been selected to represent the Association of American Engineers at the International Convention, _____.

A. the members applauded him

B. he gave a short acceptance speech

C. a speech had to be given by him

D. the members congratulated him

23. Mary finished the work, _____.

A. tiring and wearing out

B. tired and wear out

C. tired and worn out

D. tiring and worn out

24. There is a_____.

A. crying in the room baby

B. in the room crying baby

C. baby crying in the room

D. crying baby in the room

25. _____a good student, he never tells a lie.

A. Being

B. Be

C. Since

D. To be

26. The University of California, _____in 1868, is administered by a president and governed by a twenty-four-member board of regents（大学之董事）.

A. founded

B. has been founded

C. to have been founded

D. was founded

27. The carat_____as a unit for weighing gems derived its name from the Greek word for the carob bean（角豆荚）, a small weight.

A. still used

B. is still used

C. still is used

D. it is still used

28. Considered one of the leading poets in America today, _____.

A. a number of books and plays have also been written by Sonia Sanchez

B. Sonia Sanchez has also written a number of books and plays

C. a number of Sonia Sanchez' books and plays have been written

D. there have been a number of books and plays written by Sonia Sanchez

二、改错

1. The pancreas（胰腺）is an organ involving (A) in the digestion of (B) food and in the regulation of (C) the sugar level (D) in the bloodstream.

2. Harvard College was the first (A) institution of higher (B) learning to be establish (C) in the colonies (D).

3. Many (A) abandoned portions of the Eric Canal, covering (B) by vines and brush, are still easily traceable (C) across cornfields or through (D) orchards and thickets.

4. Commercial airline services are planned (A) to give the best (B) comfortable and relaxed flights (C) in the air (D).

5. In the past decade an embarrassed (A) number of monks have demonstrated (B) that (C) beneath their hairshirts (D)（修行者所穿之粗毛布衣）beats a desire for something besides monastic self-denial.

6. Strangers come (A) into her city now (B) notice what a clean (C) lace it (D) is.

7. Writing (A) in a terse, lucid style, the book describes (B) the author's (C) childhood experiences in Louisiana just before (D) the outbreak of the Civil War.

8. A red-hair (A) boy is needed (B) to play the part of Alfred (C) in this (D) new play.

9. Far fewer (A) sperm whales（抹香鲸）were seen (B) in the Atlantic Ocean this year as comparing (C) last year (D).

10. The actual (A) quantity of folic is required (B) in the daily (C) diet is not known (D).

11. On Sunday, after visiting (A) other interested (B) parts of the city, Mary will (C) go to the airport and fly (D) home.

12. Some (A) of the people visited (B) St. Peter's placed bouquets on (C) the altar of their favorite (D) saint.

13. The participation (A) athletes soon (B) discover that the decathlon（十项运动）offers (C) many satisfactions even though (D) it is a grueling physical and mental challenge.

14. One of the much discussing questions (A) today has to do with (B) whether or not (C) the teaching of reading should start (D) in the kindergarten.

15. Time (A) spent now will be (B) time save (C) in the years to come (D).

16. Taking literally (A), the concept may appear to be (B) psychologically naive (C) in that it fails to (D) account for the obvious fact.

17. I grew thin and so depressed (A) that, be (B) a good Catholic, I at last carried (C) my troubles to my priest (D).

18. The social studies (A), broadly spoken (B), deal with (C) man's relationship to other men (D).

19. We can supplement our own ideas with (A) information and data (B) gathering (C) from our reading, our observation, and so forth (D).

20. There was a (A) nobility about (B) this simple-minded person which (C) was most engaged (D).

21. Even if (A) Detroit could provide nonpolluted (B) cars by the original deadline to meet prescribed (C) Federal standards for clean air, the effect in big cities would be slight because only (D) new cars would be properly equipped.

22. Once (A), as (B) a young patrolman, he arrived outside the station house to find a burly (C) officer on the sidewalk was beating (D) a diminutive bondsman.

23. Caviar is generally spread on (A) toast, flavored with a few (B) drops of lemon juice, and eating as an (C) appetizer with (D) various beverages.

24. Though Lincoln knew their attitude (A), he was broad-minded (B) enough to appoint such (C) men to the important office because he was convincing (D) of their ability.

25. Controversial matters involving (A) the two groups were discussed (B); nevertheless, most (C) of the representatives remaining calm (D).

26. Among (A) the most remarkable eyes are those of the dragonfly (B), for this insect (C) has compound eyes make up (D) of tiny eyes.

27. At the turn (A) of the century, theatrical (B) agent Elizateth Marbury showed an unusual awareness of to come (C) trends in the field (D) of entertainment.

28. Situated (A) in the heart of a grain-farming and livestock-raising region (B) Abilene, Kansas, is a prosperous (C) trading and distribute (D) center.

29. The boiled (A) point of any liquid (B) is determined (C) by the pressure (D) of the surrounding gases.

30. Baroque has been (A) the term using (B) by art historians (C) for almost a century to designate (D) the dominant style of the period 1600-1750.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［B］

2.［D］

3.［D］

4.［D］

5.［C］B时态有误，应改为I found that my watch had disappeared。

6.［D］这里claiming=who claimed。

7.［B］the murdered man指“被杀害的人”，意为被动，故用过去分词。

8.［C］A项中which是of宾语，it乃多余，须删去。B项中搭配不够妥切，通常说arrive at a conclusion，an opinion，an understanding，不说arrive at one's convictions。D应改为coming directly out of your mind才妥。

9.［C］(compared with)=(when it is compared with)。it指Hawaii。

10.［B］A，C及D三项中之主语均不能作句中分词短语的逻辑主语，故皆错。

11.［B］(meaning)=(which means)。

12.［D］Asked if he could come...=when he was asked if he could come...，故主句中的主语必须也是he或为he所代表的同一个人，因此A，B和C皆不妥。D中John和he系同一人

13.［B］

14.［C］although born in Kentucky=although he was born in Kentucky。题句含有让步的意思，故A不如C好，B不合语法，D中he需去掉。

15.［A］有少数几个分词短语可用作独立成分，这时便可不考虑逻辑主语这一因素，considering便是其中一个。

16.［D］(leaving)=(and left)，表连续状态。A中were须去掉，B中left前须加and，C中leave应改为left。

17.［B］(melting down the metal in the ore)=(and melts down the metal in the ore)，表伴随性。A项中which修饰mix，句意不通，C和D则不合语法。

18.［D］The job done系独立结构，=When/After the job is done。

19.［B］ragtime music指重音落在异常地方的爵士音乐。

20.［D］其余皆不合语法。

21. C (stolen)。something和steal之间系被动关系，应用过去分词，而不能用现在分词stealing。

22. B (he gave a short acceptance speech)。其余各项选择中的主语皆不能充当句中分词短的逻辑主语，故不妥。

23.［C］作“感到劳累不堪，精疲力竭”解，含有被动意味，故用过去分词，余皆不妥。

24.［C］“哭”系主动动作，应用现在分词形式。D项的句意不通，A和B则不合语法。

25.［A］being a good student=as he is a good student，起原因状语作用。

26.［A］founded=which was founded，修饰University of California。

27.［A］still used=which is still used。

28.［B］只有B项才能充当句首过去分词considered的逻辑主语，余皆不行。

二、改错

1.［A］把involve改为involved。involve的通常句型是be involved in...，an organ involved in...=an organ which（或that）is involved in...。

2.［C］改为established。institution已被设立，故也不能用表将来的分词不定式to be established。

3.［B］改为covered。

4.［C］改为relaxing flights，意指“使人放松的飞行”，relaxed作“感到放松的”解，表被动，可以说：A relaxing flight makes one feel relaxed。

5.［A］改为embarrassing，理由见第6、第7两题中所述。

6.［A］改为coming。Strangers coming into her city now notice...=Strangers who come into her city now notice...。

7.［A］改为Written。句中主语是book，不能成为writing的逻辑主语，须把现在分词改为过去分词才妥。

8.［A］改为red-haired。

9.［C］改为compared with，“同去年比较”表被动，须用过去分词形式。

10.［B］改为which (that) is required。或去掉is只保留required，required in the daily diet分词短语作形容词修饰folic acid（叶酸）。

11.［B］改为interesting。

12.［B］改为visiting或who visited，句中谓语动词为placed。

13.［A］改为participating。participating athletes指参赛的运动员们。

14.［A］改为much discussed questions。

15.［C］改为saved=that will be saved in the years to come。

16.［A］主语concept不能充当分词taking的逻辑主语，须把A改为taken literally以表示句中被动的含义。

17.［B］改为being。being a good Catholic=as（因为）I was a good Catholic（天主教徒）。

18.［B］broadly spoken=The social studies which are broadly spoken, 句意不通，应把B项改为broadly speaking, 用作独立成分，作“广义地讲”解。

19.［C］改为gathered=which are gathered表被动意义。

20. 本句中which不指person，而是指nobility; about this simple-minded person系介词短语修饰nobility，故D项错，改为most engaging。句意是“这个思想单纯的人，身上具有一种非常动人的高贵气质。”engaged作“已订婚的；有约束性的”解，不合句意。engaging作“动人的”解，如an engaging smile（动人的微笑）这里most=very。

21.［B］改为nonpolluting。nonpolluting cars指不会污染空气的汽车。

22.［D］find和分词连用的结构是find sb. doing sth.（现在分词表主动）和find sth. done（过去分词表被动），故须把D项中的was去掉，变成find a burly officer...beating a diminutive bondsman，完全符合find sb. doing sth. 这一结构。

23.［C］改为eaten as an appetizer以表句中所表示的被动意义。

24.［D］改为convinced。be convinced of...系固定结构，作“相信……”解，如I am convinced of your ability.（我相信你的能力。）

25.［D］此句并非独立结构，因B项列明的were discussed后面是分号“;”，而不是逗号“,”。须把D改为remained calm。此题的关键在于B项后的标点符号，如把分号改为逗号，此句便成独立结构，D项也就不错了。

26.［D］改为过去分词made up，以表“由……组成”这一被动意义，即compound eyes made up of ting eyes。

27.［C］改为现在分词coming以表主动意义。coming trend=trends that were coming。

28.［D］改为distributing。a trading and distributing center作“贸易和货物的集散地”解，表主动，须用现在分词。

29.［A］改为boiling。boiling point作“沸点”解，表主动。

30.［B］改为used，表被动意义。

第十章　动名词和不定式的比较

在英语句子中，动词的地位非常重要，因为它充当句子的谓语，但同时它又受主语的限制，必须在人称和数上同主语一致，因此常称为动词的限定形式。然而动词在句子中的作用还远不止于作谓语。动词不定式、动名词、分词形式可以出现在句子中的任何一个位置上，充当句子的主语、宾语、表语、定语、补语、状语以及插入语、独立成分等。

在上一章中我们谈了分词，在本章我们将从实用及应试角度出发，着重讨论动名词和不定式在用法上的异同和它们各自的特殊用法，有时也将涉及分词。

一、用作主语、宾语、表语和同位语时在意义上的区别

动名词和不定式都可用作主语、宾语、表语和同位语，但二者在含义上存在一定的差别：

动名词表示① 笼统、泛指的意思；

② 抽象或经常性的动作；

③ 已成为过去的动作。

不定式表示① 一时性的具体或特定的动作；

② 现在或将来的动作。

▶ 用作主语

Selling fake medicine（假药）is a serious crime.［未指明哪种假药，笼统、泛指，故用动名词］

To sell my old car is difficult.［指特定的my old car，故用不定式］

Studying abroad is extremely difficult in the first few months.［未指明国家，泛指，用动名词］

To study abroad is Tom's ambition.［指Tom这一特定的人的动作，故用不定式］

▶ 用作表语

The scientific approach to a subject is grasping the essence of it.［笼统、泛指，用动名词］

My plan this semester is to write an elaborate paper on the structure of world economics.［指本学期的特定计划，故用不定式］

▶ 用作同位语

My habit, doing some reading at night, remains unchanged.［说明晚上的习惯，表示经常性，用动名词］

Our task, to attack the enemy from behind, was successfully accomplished.［表示特定某一次任务，用不定式］

但要注意，这种划分不能绝对化，有时候也有借用一般表示特定的情形：

Arguing with Fergus is no use.He is stubborn and wayward.

Preparing for the birthday party is great fun.

▶ 用作宾语

有个别几个英语动词，如like，regret，remember，hate等后面既可接动名词又可跟不定式作它们的宾语。

· like

I don't like reading novels.［泛指小说，用动名词］

I don't like to read this novel.［特指这本小说，用不定式］

· forget

I shall never forget meeting you for the first time.［指meet这一动作发生在forget之前。表示过去，用动名词］

Don't forget to preview the new lesson.［preview发生在forget之后，表示将来，用不定式］

· regret

I regret to say that I am unable to go with you.［表示现在，用不定式］

I regret causing you so much inconvenience. (=I regret that I caused（或have caused）you so much inconvenience.)［cause发生在regret之前，表过去，用动名词］

· remember

I remember meeting（或having met）him somewhere before.［表示过去，用动名词］

Please remember to hand in your exercise tomorrow.［表示将来，用不定式］

· hate

I hate to disappoint you, but it is beyond my power to help you in this matter.［接不定式表示具体一次性的或属于将来的事情］

He attaches great importance to friendship（重情义）. He hates disappointing his friends.［接动名词，表示经常性的事情］

He was sorry for not being able to help you in that matter.How he hated disappointing you.［接动名词，表示已成为过去的事情］

例　_____this experiment is not difficult.

A. Having done

B. Doing

C. To do

D. Done

［分析］表示特定的意思，该用不定式，故应选C (To do)。

例　He has forgotten_____me before.

A. to see

B. saw

C. to have seen

D. seeing

［分析］before一词指的是过去的动作，forget接动名词表示动作已经发生，故根据句意，应选D (seeing)。

例　I must remember_____John that the garden needs watering.

A. reminded

B. to remind

C. reminding

D. to be reminded of

［分析］根据句意remember之后的动作尚未发生，应接不定式，故选B (to remind)。

例　He looked embarrassed.How he_____this sort of thing!

A. hated to have to do

B. hated having to do

C. hated he does

D. hated to having to do

［分析］前句的过去时谓语looked embarrassed表示过去发生的事情，应用动名词，故选B (hated having to do)。

二、动名词和不定式作后置形式主语时应注意的问题

不定式直接置于句首用作主语这一句式在现代英语中用得不多，往往用先行词it代替不定式置于句首，把不定式置于句末。试比较：

To ignore this point would be a mistake.

It would be a mistake to ignore this point.

如要表示不定式动作的执行者，即不定式结构的逻辑主语，可用介词for+代词或名词来表示：

It is not sufficient for you to know these facts only.

It is a great pleasure for me to be here this evening.

先行词it置于句首时，间或也可用for+there+to be+名词这一结构：

It is too bad for there to be some misunderstanding between you two old friends.

动名词用作后置形式主语的情况就远远不及不定式那么普通，实际上动名词这种后置形式只限于下列名词或形容词后面。

① 在good，fun，use，bore，time等名词后面，其用法如下：

It's no good helping him.He doesn't help himself.（他自己不争气。）

It's great fun preparing for a party.

It's no use arguing with Fergus.He is stubborn and wayward（刚愎自用的）.

It's really a bore doing the humdrum（单调乏味的）routine of office work.

It's a waste of time watching such a lot of TV.

② 在difficult，interesting，foolish，better，nice，tiring等形容词后面，其用法如下：

It is difficult getting everything ready in such a short time.

It is interesting organizing a dance.

It is enjoyable living and working in a foreign country.

It is foolish talking like that in the presence of the manager.

It is better doing the job that way.

It is nice meeting you.

It is rather tiring typing so many letters at a stretch（一口气）.

③ 如果表示动名词动作的执行者，即动名词的逻辑主语，则在动名词前加上代词或名词的属格（或称所有格）。

It's difficult my getting everything ready in such a short time.

It was foolish Patrick's talking like that in the presence of the manager.

三、接动名词的动词，接不定式的动词和动名词、不定式都可接的动词

一个特定的动词后面接动名词还是不定式，抑或两者均可接，这纯然是个约定俗成的习惯用法问题。根据实际应用的规律来看，可以分为下述三类：

1. 接动名词的动词和动词词组

以下动词及动词词组后面通常接动名词：

advise, admit, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, complete, consider, delay, deny, detest, dislike, doubt, encourage, ensure, enjoy, escape, excuse, fancy, favor, finish, imagine, mind, miss, postpone, practise, prevent, quit, resist, risk, stop, suggest, understand, ...

还有cannot help，give up，keep from，leave off，put off等：

He quit gambling early in his life.

I couldn't risk missing that lecture.

2. 接不定式的动词

下列动词后面通常接不定式：

afford，agree, come on (=begin), dare, decide, desire, endeavour, except, guarantee, hope, manage, mean (=intend), offer, pretend, promise, refuse, swear, undertake, want, wish等：

I want to pay a visit to that factory.

I hope she means to do better.

3. 接动名词和不定式的动词

下列动词后面动名词和不定式均可接，有时候则需视意思而决定用动名词还是不定式：

begin, cease, continue, dislike, dread, forget, hate, intend, learn, like, need, neglect, omit, prefer, regret, remember, start, try等。

还有些动词，后面接动名词或不定式时意义上的差别较大：

· cease

The buses have ceased running.［动名词表示暂时性，含义是“公共汽车今天不开，明天将恢复行驶。”］

The buses have ceased to run.［不定式表示永久性，含义是“公共汽车将在很长时期内不会行驶，也许永远不会再恢复。”］

· stop

He stopped eating.［表示“停止吃饭”］

He stopped to eat.［表示“停止手头的工作，准备吃饭。”］

· try

The farmer tried keeping pigs and rearing poultry, but succeeded in neither.［接动名词，表示“make an experiment”，含义是“对养猪和养家禽都试着干过，但皆不成功。”］

You must try to be more diligent in your study.［接不定式，作“make an attempt（努力；试图）”解，含义是“你学习应更勤奋些。”］

· mean

What does he mean to do?［接不定式，作“打算”解］

If they don't let us know today, it will mean waiting till next week.［接动名词，作“意味着”解］

· leave off

He left off writing when he saw me enter the room.［接动名词，作“停止”解］

He left off to fish.［接不定式，作“离开某处，出发去做（某事）”解］

· go on

Shall I go on reading it out loud?［接动名词（也可看作现在分词），指继续做同一件事情］

After presenting the theory, the teacher went on to give the students some concrete examples.［接不定式，表示“做完原来的事情开始做（另一件事情）”，全句的意思是“教师在给学生们介绍了该理论后，接着便举了些具体例子加以说明。”］

例　People complain that the costs of establishing a business are (A) so much (B) that only (C) the rich can afford running (D) a company.

［分析］afford后应接不定式，故选D，改为to run。

例　 “May I help you? You've lots of things to carry.”

“Would you mind_____for me?”

A. carrying these books

B. to carry these books

C. carry these books

D. will carry these books

［分析］mind后应接动名词，故选A。

例　 “Aren't you going to ask the teacher why he gave you that grade?”

“No, I intend_____.”

A. to let rest the matter

B. the matter to be let resting

C. letting the matter to rest

D. to let the matter rest

［分析］intend后面可接不定式或动名词，但let为使役动词，它后面要接原形动词rest，故应选D。

例　 “What kind of pen do you want to have?”

“I prefer_____to that blue one.”

A. having this red pen

B. to have this red pen

C. had this red pen

D. this red having

［分析］动词prefer有两个句型：

句型1　prefer+名词或动名词+to+名词或动名词（to是介词）

I prefer meat to fish. 我比较喜欢吃肉而不喜欢吃鱼。

I prefer staying (at) home to going out in the evening.

句型2　prefer+不定式+rather than+原形动词

I prefer to stay (at) home rather than go out in the evening.

注意：这两个句型形式不一样，但意思相同。

在此题中，prefer后面有to而没有rather than，故应用句型1来解这题，该选A　(having this red pen)，即I prefer having this red pen to（having被省略）that blue one.

四、动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语

动名词和不定式都可用作宾语，但如果作宾语用的动名词或不定式短语后面再接宾语补语时，就必须先用先行词it代表动名词或不定式，而把动名词或不定式移到宾语后面去，称作逻辑宾语：

I find to understand this profound theory（不定式短语作宾语用）difficult.（宾语补语）

Do you consider trying again（动名词短语作宾语用）any good?（宾语补语）

以上两例中作宾语的动名词及不定式短语后面均跟宾语补语，这样用在语法上讲得通，但不符合习惯表达法，须用it代之充当形式宾语，然后把动名词及不定式移至宾语补语后面：

I find it（形式宾语）difficult（宾语补语）to understand this profound theory.（不定式短语用作逻辑宾语）

Do you consider it（形式宾语）any good（宾语补语）trying again?（动名词短语用作逻辑宾语）

五、动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语时的差别

从上述情况可以看出，动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语时的条件相同，唯一的差别在于，动名词用作逻辑宾语只限于少数句型，在多数情况下用不定式。

在worthwhile, useless, senseless, fun, no use, no good, any good, a bore, a waste of time等单词及词组后可用动名词作逻辑宾语：

I do not think it worthwhile going to the club every night.

Maud found it useless（或no use）advising her boyfriend to give up smoking.

Many students find it senseless arguing with Isaac because he is willful（执拗的）.

Do you think it a bore doing the same kind of work every day?

I think it a waste of time watching TV programs that cater to low tastes（迎合低级趣味的电视节目）.

The Brown couple thinks it great fun having guests for the weekend.

在上列少数单词及词组后面(worthwhile及a bore除外），用动名词比不定式更合乎习惯。worthwhile及a bore后面接动名词与接不定式同样普通：

Do you think it worthwhile discussing the problem?

Do you think it worthwhile to discuss the problem?

I think it a bore being kept waiting.

I think it a bore to be kept waiting.

不定式用作逻辑宾语极为普通，在书面及口头上均用得很多：

The monitor deems it his duty to help his classmates.

I count it a great honor to be of service to you.

The conscientious teacher made it her business to help her students through the college entrance examination.

Your valuable guidance has made it possible for me to complete this difficult dissertation（论文）.

Don't you think it better to do it this way?

I have long had it in mind to write a book on this subject. 我一直在考虑写一本关于这个题材的书。［句中介词短语in mind用作宾语补语。］

六、动名词和不定式的被动态和主动态的用法

当动名词和不定式的逻辑主语是它们所表示的动作的承受者，动名词和不定式就采用被动语态。反之，则用主动语态。动名词的被动语态和分词的被动语态形式相同，即being+过去分词；不定式的被动语态是to be+过去分词。

1. 动名词

I dislike having to work.［主语I是work这一动作的执行者，故用主动态］

I dislike being interrupted when I am speaking.［主语I是interrupted动作的承受者，故用被动态］

The housing problem is far from being settled.［主语problem承受settle这一动作，故用被动态］

Popularizing（推广）the new method is of great significance.［被省略的逻辑主语our执行popularizing这一动作，故用主动态］

2. 不定式

Kitty prefers to do a cushy（轻松的）job.［主语Kitty是do动作的执行者，用主动态］

Ferdinand prefers to be assigned heavier work to do.［主语Ferdinand是assigned动作的承受者，用被动语态］

The students went to the auditorium to hear a lecture by a famous professor.［主语students执行hear这一动作，用主动态］

* The students went to the school clinic to be inoculated（种牛痘）.［主语students承受inoculated这一动作，用被动态］

了解上述情况和例子便能正确掌握何时用动名词和不定式的被动态，何时用主动语态。现就不定式在这方面的应用补充若干实例加以比较如下：

This form is to fill in in ink.［×，主语form（表格）是不定式to fill in的承受者，不能用主动态］

This form is to be filled in in ink.［√，主语是不定式动作的承受者，故应用被动态］

但注意，在引导词there开头的结构中不定式的主动语态和被动语态都可用：

There is a lot of work to do.

There is a lot of work to be done.

There are quite a few letters to write today.

There are quite a few letters to be written today.

有时候，在这一结构中主动态和被动态在含义上有区别：

There is nothing to do.［这句含义是“没有事可干”或“没有什么可供消遣的东西或地方”，它的下文可以是I am bored］

There is nothing to be done.［这句含义是“已没有补救的办法了”，它的下文可以是“We'll have to buy another one”/］

在类似以下的结构中主动态和被动态也都可用：

Give me the names of the people to contact（或to be contacted）.［在两种语态都可用的这类结构中，强调动作的执行时用主动态，着重动作本身时则用被动态］

七、动名词和不定式的时态形式

1. 动名词的时态形式

1 　动名词的一般时形式。

当动名词表示一般性的动作，即未明确表示动作发生的时间时，或动名词的动作和谓语动词表示的动作同时发生时，则采用动名词的一般形式，即动词原形+ing：

Gordon is fond of playing football.［表示一般性动作］

When I asked him, he avoided giving me a definite answer.［与动词avoided所表示的动作同时发生］

2 　动名词的完成时形式。

当动名词的动作发生在谓语动词的动作之前时，我们通常也用动名词的一般形式；如要特别强调动名词的动作发生在前时，便采用动名词的完成形式，即having+过去分词，它的被动形式是having been+过去分词：

Eustace apologized for coming so late.

Eustace apologized for having made such a silly mistake.

When he chatted with me, Julian did not mention meeting you.

When he chatted with me, Julian did not mention having met you.

在以上例句中，动名词的两种形式都可用，表示动名词的动作发生在谓语动词的动作之前，动名词的完成形式只是表示强调而已。由此可见，如果不是出于强调的需要，通常多用动名词的一般形式代替完成形式：

I gave the bellboy（旅馆侍生）a tip for showing me to my room.

I am ashamed of losing my temper in the presence of so many people.

在以上例句中，“showing”和“losing”要比“having shown”和“having lost”更自然，更常见。当然，当动名词和谓语动词两者的动作在时间上前后极为分明时，不妨用完成形式：

The whole company was cited（全连受到嘉奖）for having performed a meritorious service in the battle.

I have no idea of his having done such a thing against you. 我不知道他竟然会做这种伤害你的事情来。

动名词被动态的完成形式或情况也是一样：

The boy likes to be alone. He doesn't mind being left at home.

Many customers complain of having been given short weight（短斤缺两）at that shop.［动名词动作明显发生在谓语动词动作之前，故用完成形式］

Dick was furious at being woken up (=having been woken up) so early.

这里要说明的是，尽管在实际应用中动名词的一般形式往往用来代替它的完成形式以表示动名词的动作已发生在谓语动词的动作之前，但在应试中，如果需要对动名词的一般式和完成式进行选择时，则应毫不犹豫地选择完成形式。

例　“I never saw you before.”“Can you recall_____with me two years ago?”

A. staying

B. to have stayed

C. to stay

D. having stayed

［分析］在上题中，动名词的动作明显发生在谓语动词的动作之前，故应选D (having stayed)，而不能选A (staying)，但在实际应用时两者皆可。

2. 不定式的时态形式

不定式的时态形式比动名词的要多，有进行式、完成式和完成进行式。

1 　不定式的一般形式。

不定式的一般形式“to+动词原形”表示动作与谓语动词所表示的动作或状态同时发生、前后紧接发生或者明显发生在谓语动词的动作或状态之后。举例如下：

Eric seems to know it. (=It seems that Eric knows it.)

We rejoiced to hear of your success. (=We rejoiced when we heard of your success.)

The Smiths have invited me to go to their party next Saturday evening.

2 　不定式的进行形式。

如果谓语动词所表示的动作或状态发生时，不定式表示的动作正在进行中，就须用不定式的进行体，即to be+现在分词：

Laura seems to be getting along very well in Paris.

I didn't expect you to be waiting for me at this late hour.

试比较下列四组例句：

It is nice to sit here with you.［坐下来时讲这句话］

It is nice to be sitting here with you.［已坐在座位上时讲这句话］

He is said to write a paper on this subject. (=It is said that he will write a paper on this subject.)

He is said to be writing a paper on this subject. (=It is said that he is writing a paper on this subject.)

Flora doesn't like to lag behind her classmates. 费劳拉不愿意落在她同学后面。

Flora doesn't like to be lagging behind her classmates. 费劳拉不愿意像现在这样落在她同学后面。

3 　不定式的完成形式。

A. 表示发生在主要动作之前的动作。

当不定式所表示的动作或状态发生在谓语动词所表示的动作之前时，就须用不定式的完成形式，即“to have+过去分词”表示动作或“to have+been”表示状态：

The child was reported to have been missing for a week. (=It was reported that the child had been missing for a week.)

You are lucky to have won the girl's heart. (=You are lucky that you have won the girl's heart.)

试比较下列两组例句：

He seems to sing very well. 看来他唱得非常好。［指现在］

He seems to have sung very well. 看来他过去歌是唱得非常好的。

There appears to be some misunderstanding between them. 看来他们之间存在某些误解。［指现在］

There appears to have been some misunderstanding between them. 看来他们之间曾经发生过一些误解。［指已发生过］

例　“What did you hear last night?”

“I seemed_____someone knock at the door”.

A. hear

B. to have heard

C. to hear

D. having heard

［分析］在该题中，不定式的动作明显发生在谓语动词的动作之前，故应选B (to have heard)，而不选C (to hear)。

B. 表示过去没有实现的愿望、期待或计划等。

不定式的完成形式常用于wanted，wished，hoped，intended，promised，planned等这些过去形式动词后面，表示过去没有实现的愿望、期待或计划。如以intended为例：

他曾打算这样做，但结果（由于某种原因）没有做。

He intended to have done so.

He had intended to do so.

He intended to do so, but he did not.

注意，过去形式intended后接完成不定式等同于过去完成式had intended接现在不定式，试比较：

He intended to come.［说明他打算要来，但来的愿望是否实现并未交代］

He had intended to come（或intended to have come）.［明确说明过去想来的愿望但未实现］

例　I had intended (A) to have written her a letter yesterday, but I forgot (B) because of the day and evening (C) appointments that I had (D).

［分析］很明显，A错，因had intended后接完成不定式to have written，造成双重完成式的语法错误，故应把A改为intended。I intended to have written...=I had intended to write。上列的其他五个动词情况相同，不再赘述。

如果不定式所表示的动作在谓语动词的动作发生之前已在进行，就须用不定式的完成进行体：

I am lucky to have been working under your guidance. 这段时间能在您指导下工作我感到很幸运。

The research is known to have been continuing for several years. 据悉，这项科研已进行了好几年。

本章的前面部分曾讨论了不定式的被动态用法，这里要补充的是，不定式的完成形式和完成进行形式的被动态是相同的，即have been+过去分词：

He is said to have translated the book into English.

The book is said to have been translated into English (by him).

八、介词+动名词结构和不定式结构的相互转换

在一定的语言环境中，某些名词、动词和形容词的后面既可用“介词+动名词”这一结构，也可不用介词而只用不定式这一结构，含义并无区别。以下是一些最为常见的转换实例：

1. 介词位于名词后面和不定式的互换

You have no reason for calling him dishonest.

=You have no reason to call him dishonest.

That is the best way of doing it.

=That is the best way to do it.

Autumn is the best time for visiting our city.

=Autumn is the best time to visit our city.

这两句意思完全相同，即：我希望你能设法解决这个问题。但在前一句中to是介词，后一句中的to是不定式符号。

I hope you can see your way to settling this matter.

=I hope you can see your way to settle this matter.

2. 介词位于动词后面和不定式的互换

Don't bother about answering this.

=Don't bother to answer this. 不必为回复这封信而费心。

You must forbear from complaining of that.

=You must forbear to complain of that. 你一定要克制自己，不要抱怨那事。

This book will help you in improving your mind.

=This book will help you to improve your mind. 这本书将帮助你提高你的思想修养。

I have persuaded him into accepting the offer.

=I have persuaded him to accept the offer. 我已说服他接受了这个差使。

The doctor has warned me against smoking again.

=The doctor has warned me not to smoke again. 医生告诫我不能再吸烟了。

3. 介词位于形容词后面和不定式的互换

This house is fit for living in.

=This house is fit to live in. 这房子适于居住。

The soup is too hot for drinking.

=The soup is too hot to drink. 这汤太烫，喝不下。

Our fuel supply is adequate for heating the house this winter.

=Our fuel supply is adequate to heat the house this winter. 我们的燃料足够今冬房屋取暖之用。

This problem is unworthy of being discussed.

=This problem is unworthy to be discussed. 这问题不值得讨论。

It is worthwhile trying this experiment.

=It is worthwhile to try this experiment.试做这个实验是值得的。

I am proud of being a teacher.

=I am proud to be a teacher. 我以自己是个教师而感到自豪。

You are fortunate in having such a good friend.

=You are fortunate to have such a good friend. 你有这样一位朋友是很幸运的。

I am quite content with living where I am.

=I am quite content to live where I am. 我很满意我现在住的情况。

有时候，在to be后面用作表语时，介词+动名词结构和介词+不定式结构也可转换而意义不变：

The best way to learn to use words is by reading a large amount of literature.

=The best way to learn to use words is to read a large amount of literature. 学习使用词汇的最好方法是阅读大量文学作品。

但同时要指出，在个别动词或形容词后面用“介词+动名词”结构或用不定式结构在含义上有差别：

Do you think of going abroad for further study? 你考虑出国深造吗？

Do you think to go abroad for further study? 你打算出国深造吗？

I am afraid of catching cold. 恐怕要伤风了。

I am afraid to catch cold. 我很怕伤风。

九、动名词和不定式的否定结构

和分词一样，动名词和不定式结构的否定式通常由动名词和不定式前加上否定词not而构成：

动名词的否定形式

I regret not having taken your advice.

I am sorry for not having kept my promise.

I can't put up with your not telling me about it.

不定式的否定形式

It will be wrong not to help a friend in need.

They prefer not to put the question on the agenda.

Mary thought it a pity not to have gone to the concert.

To try and fail is better than not to try at all.

George came in quietly in order not to disturb his brother who was writing his term paper.

否定词not的位置必须置于动名词和不定式之前，不可放在它们的后面，这是个极易疏忽的问题，但有时却会出现在试卷中：

I regret_____harder while young.

A. not to work

B. not work

C. not having worked

D. having not worked

［分析］显然，应选C。句意表示一个过去的概念，故不能选A。D不妥的原因是，not不应放在having之后。

十、动名词和不定式的逻辑主语

在实际应用中，我们有时候需要说明动名词或不定式的动作是由谁执行的，这个动作的执行者就是动名词或不定式的逻辑主语。

1. 不定式的逻辑主语

在本章开头部分，我们已说明不定式的逻辑主语是不定式前加上由for引导的介词短语所表示的：

It would be a mistake for Carl to ignore that point.

It is a great pleasure for me to be here this evening.

不定式的逻辑主语看起来很简单，极易掌握，但在实际的试题中，情况并不那么简单，应试者往往会被题句中错综的语言现象所困惑。不过，如能牢牢把握住带有不定式逻辑主语的句型中的三个要素，即：

it（形式主语）(1) … for引导的介词短语(2)+不定式(3)，题目便能迎刃而解。

例　One of the most important social graces is (A) punctuality, which means (B) arriving (C) on time. For most social engagements, it often causes inconvenience for a guest coming (D) either earlier or later than the suggested hour.

［分析］本题由两个独立分句构成。在第一分句中主语one后面接单数动词is是对的，在它的定语从句中动词means作“indicates”解，后跟动名词arriving也对，故A、B、C均不错。再看第二分句：

For most social engagements, it (1) often causes inconvenience for a guest (2) coming (3) either earlier or later than the suggested hour.

（1）（形式主语）

（2）（for介词短语）

（3）（应用不定式to come来充当逻辑主语，不能用分词形式coming）

从上面分析可以看出，题目中的D是错的，应把coming改为to come。

2. 动名词的逻辑主语

动名词的逻辑主语由动名词前加上代词或名词的属格（即所有格）来表示：

Your going there will only make matters worse.

I think it senseless Rudolf's arguing with Issac because he is awfully wilful.

Please excuse my interrupting you.

Samuel and his parents insisted on Walter's staying at their house for the weekend.

但以下五点值得注意：

① 在口语及非正式文体中，动名词前往往用代词的宾格或名词的通格来代替属格。

Please excuse me (=my) interrupting you.

Samual and his parents insisted on Walter (=Walter's) staying at their house for the weekend.

Tom's parents prevent him (=his) going out after dark.

但是，在正式文体中，动名词前的逻辑主语还是应以属格为准。如：

I certainly (A) appreciate him (B) telling us (C) about the delay in delivering (D) the materials because we had planned to begin work tomorrow.

［分析］B项中的him在口语及非正式文体中可接受，但在标准化考试中仍属误用，应改为属格his。

② 当动名词的逻辑主语是无生命名词时，便不能用属格，必须用通格。例如：

I am glad of the examination being over.［不是examination's being］

Esmond is opposed to the idea of money being everything.［不是money's being］

Is there any hope of our team winning the match?［不是our team's winning］

③ 当逻辑主语是由有生命的名词词组构成时，通常用通格而不用属格。

I don't like Yvonne and Vera speaking ill of each other.（不说Yvonne's and Vera's speaking)

I never heard of a person of character doing such a thing.（不说a person of character's doing)

④ 当逻辑主语是不定代词如someone，somebody，none，nobody，anyone，anybody或指示代词如this，that时，宜用通格。

Just when I was going to get to sleep（正要入睡时），I was awakened by somebody（通常不用somebody's）knocking on the door.

Martha objects to anyone（通常不用anyone's）smoking in her room.

I disapprove of that（不用that's）being said about the teacher. He has his own good points.

⑤ 当动名词在句中用作主语时，它前面的逻辑主语，不论在正式文体还是在口语及非正式文体中，一律用属格。

Your coming（不能用You coming）will enliven our party.

Freda's grumbling（不能用Freda grumbling）annoyed her husband.

十一、动名词和不定式作状语时用法上的区别

1. 动名词用作状语

动名词本身不能用作状语，必须接在介词后面，在一定的语言环境中才能起到状语作用：

After using the dictionary, put it in its proper place.

［用作时间状语，after using the dictionary=after you use the dictionary］

Tom was criticized for having been late several times.

［用作原因状语，for having been late several times=because he had been late several times］

Firebricks are used with the object of minimising heat losses in the boiler（把锅炉内热量的散失减少到最低限度）.

［with the object of minimising heat losses in the boiler用作目的状语=for the purpose of minimising heat losses in the boiler］

With all his boasting, Albert achieved very little.

［因With all his boasting用作让步状语=Though he boasted so much］

Leonardo is making great progress by working extremely hard.

［因by working extremely hard用作方式状语=the way he works extremely hard］

2. 不定式用作状语

和动名词不一样，不定式本身经常被用作状语，表示行为的原因、结果、目的：

I am sorry to have kept you waiting so long.［表示原因］

They went over to welcome the newcomers.［表示目的］

What have I done to make you so unhappy?［表示结果］

不定式结构表示原因、目的或结果，形式上完全相同。如何来区别它们的功能呢？最好的逻辑依据是，表原因时，不定式的动作发生在谓语动词的动作之前；表目的或结果时，不定式的动作则发生在谓语动词的动作之后。试比较：

The mother wept（后）to hear（先，表原因）the news of her son's death in the Vietnam War.

I went（先）a long way to his house only to find（后，表结果）that he had already left the city.

I went（先）to the station to inquire about（后，表目的）the times of trains.

偶尔，不定式还可用来表示条件，这样用时通常放于句首；否定不定式表示条件时，则往往置于句末：

To look at him (=If you were to look at him), you would think him a young man, but he is already over 45.

One would be callous not to feel for（同情）(=if he should not feel for) the suffering of the poor.

在上述原因、结果、目的、条件四个功能中，不定式作目的状语的使用最广。现在就不定式用作目的状语这一功能作若干补充说明：

① 不定式用作目的状语时前面可加上in order或so as以起到强调作用。

We started early in order to get there in time.

I started early so as to be in time for the first train.

② 在否定句中，需用in order not+不定式或so as not+不定式。

I am going to start now, in order not to miss the beginning of the lecture.（不说I am going to start now not to miss the beginning of the lecture.）

I listened attentively so as not to miss a single word.（不说I listened attentively not to miss a single word.）

③ 用作目的状语时，不定式结构可以置于句首，如要表示强调，前面可加in order，但不能加so as。

To realize the modernization program, we must import advanced technology from other countries.

In order to realize the modernization program, we must import advanced technology from other countries.（比To realize更为强调）

So as to realize the modernization program, we must import advanced technology from other countries.（×，因so as+不定式不能置于句首）

3. 表示目的时应用不定式

我们讲话行事都有一个目的，在英语中，这一目的通常都用不定式来表示，而不用for+动名词来表示：

Bruce is saving up to buy（不用for buying）a new car.

Leslie has phoned to say（不用for saying）that he will not be able to come to our party tomorrow evening.

掌握这一用法实用价值极大，譬如说，我们要把成语“惩前毖后”译成英语时，“惩前”这一动作的目的是为了“毖后”，就可用不定式结构：Learn from past mistakes（惩前）to avoid future ones（毖后）。重要的是，动作和它的目的位置不可颠倒，否则便会出现谬误。如：

We eat to live.（这句意思是“我们吃是为了活下去”，这是无可非议的。）

We live to eat.（这句意思是“我们生活的目的就是为了吃，”这把我们的境界降到动物的水平，显然是谬误的。）

表示动作的目的除不定式外，还可用介词for+名词：

A social welfare worker is one who works for the betterment of social conditions.

I would not go to London for（或with）the mere purpose of buying a new hat.

例　“Why was the official meeting called?”“_____new officers.”

A. Select

B. Selecting

C. To select

D. For selecting

［分析］在上题中，第二句的回答是说明召开会议的目的，该用不定式结构，故选C而不能选D，D须改为For the selection of才对。

但请注意，在实际应用中，for+动名词可用来表示用途：

三例均表示用途，不表目的，故不错。

This new machine is used for cutting steel.

These are horses for riding.

A vase is a kind of pot for holding flowers.

十二、动名词和现在分词在用法上的区别

实际上有些语法家把我们现在所称的动名词和现在分词不加区别地统称为-ing分词，而当今教学上还是将二者区别对待。它们的不同之处从本质上看有以下五点：

1. 作定语时的区别

现在分词往往表示它所修饰的词所做的动作，和它所修饰的主语之间有逻辑上的主谓关系；动名词往往表示与它所修饰的词有关的动作，和它所修饰的主语之间没有逻辑上的主谓关系。如：

the puzzling problem (the problem that puzzles people)［现在分词，表主谓关系］

the disappointing result (the result that disappoints people)［现在分词］

the boring film (the film that bores people)［现在分词］

a frightening dog (a dog that frightens people)［现在分词］

the reading room (the room for reading)［动名词，无主谓关系］

the drinking water (the water for drinking)［动名词］

a sleeping bag (a bag for sleeping)［动名词］

the operating table (table for operating)［动名词］

2. 作表语时的区别

现在分词具有形容词特征；动名词作表语时具有名词特征。另一区别是，动名词作表语时常可以和主语互换位置，现在分词则不能。如：

The film is interesting.［现在分词］

The present situation is encouraging.［现在分词］

Her job is teaching philosophy.［动名词］（可互换为Teaching philosophy is her job.）

My hobby is collecting coins.［动名词］（可互换为Collecting coins is my hobby.）

3. 现在分词可以单独作状语；动名词却不能

Hearing the news, they immediately set off for New York.［现在分词作状语］

After finishing his work, he went to the reading-room.［动名词要与介词一起作状语］

4. 现在分词可以作宾语的补足语；动名词不可以

I am sorry I have kept you waiting a long time.［现在分词作宾语补足语］

5. 动名词可以作动词或介词的宾语；现在分词不能

I'm considering changing my job.［动名词changing作现在分词considering的宾语］

They dreamed of sailing round the world.［动名词作介词的宾语］

十三、不定式作定语与分词作定语的区别

两者的区别主要体现在时间上。

现在分词作定语表示正在进行的动作或现在（或说话时）的状态。如：

The boy playing the piano is only ten. 正在弹钢琴的男孩只有10岁。

不定式作定语表示将要发生的动作。如：

The boy to play the piano in the concert is only ten. 将在音乐会上演奏钢琴的那个男孩只有10岁。

一些不定式的固定结构：so...as to...，such...as to...，enough to...，only to...和too...to...等都表示结果。如：

You are so considerate as to tell me all. 蒙你考虑如此周到，把所有情况都告诉了我。

Would you be so kind as to lend me your car? 能否帮个忙把你的汽车借我用一下？

She is such a fool as to believe what he said. 她傻到竟然对他讲的话照单全收。

The ice seems thick enough to walk on. 面上的冰看来结得非常坚实，可以在上面行走。

The child is old enough to go to school. 这孩子已到了可以上学的年龄。

Her grandfather is too old to work. 她爷爷年事已高，不能再工作了。

注意，前面所举例句“too...to...”结构表否定意义。

但是，下面几种情况“too...to...”则表示肯定意义。

A. 当too后面接接glad，pleased，happy，delighted，satisfied，ready，willing，kind，apt，good，true，easy，near，careful，well，early，delicious，eager，anxious等形容词时，“too...to...”结构表肯定意义。

Johnny is too ready to speak. 约翰尼话太多了。

He is too anxious to know the test result. 他太想知道考试结果了！

B. 当too前有用于加强语气的all，just，only，but，simply等副词时，“too...to...”表肯定意义。

I am only too glad to meet you. 见到你真是太高兴了。

They are but too pleased to hear the news. 他们听到这个消息，非常高兴。

C. 当too前面有not或never等否定词时，“too...to...”结构表肯定意义。

One is never too old to learn. 活到老学到老。

You cannot be too careful to do your homework. (=You can never be careful enough.) 你做作业越仔细越好（无论怎样仔细也不过分）。

Computer is not too difficult to learn. 计算机并不太难学。

D. 有时不定式to短语在句中作定语或真正的主语时。

There are too many problems to be solved. (to be solved作后置定语）

有很多问题有待解决。

It is too much to say that he is a fool. (to say that...作真正主语）

说他是傻子太过分了。

十四、动名词和不定式各自的特殊结构

1. 动名词的特殊结构

1 　动名词前介词的省略。

在现代英语中，动名词前的介词在以下结构被省略：

A.

Does Eric have any difficulty (in) solving his academic problems?

In those days my father earned a small income, so we had a hard time (in) making (both) ends meet.（支撑日子很困难）

The tourists had a good time (in) visiting the West Lake and other scenic spots（风景胜地）in China.

The mother had a time (in) trying to get the children to go to bed（费了很大劲才把孩子们哄睡）.

B. lose no time (in) doing sth. 立刻；赶紧；抓住时机

The doctor lost no time (in) giving the patient first aid. 医生抓紧抢救病人。

C. be busy (in) doing sth. 正忙于做事

Jude is busy (in) writing his term paper（学期论文）.

如果busy后面不是接一个动词而是接一个名词，则不用in而用其他介词：

He is busy at work now. 他现在正忙于工作。

Mrs. Robinson is busy with（或about）family cares（忙于操劳家事）.

D. spend one's time/money (in) doing sth.

Professor David spent five years (in) writing this book.

The Smiths spend a lot of money (in/on) entertaining their friends.

如果后面跟的是名词，则可用介词on，for或in（in接动作意味较强的名词）：

Sebastian spends most of his wages for（或on）medicine.

Last night we spent a few hours in a pleasant conversation.

在上面最后两例中，介词不能省略。

E. be long (in) doing sth. 干事情很慢

He is awfully long (in) getting here. 他姗姗来迟。

I hope you won't be long (in) making up your mind. 希望你能较快作出决定。

F. There is no point/use (in) doing sth.干……没有意义

There is no use (in) discussing the matter further.

There is not much point (in) arguing with him. He simply won't listen.

G. What is the use/point/good (of) doing sth. 干……有什么用

What's the use (of) talking? 空谈有什么用？

What's the good (of) bragging? 瞎吹有什么用？

What's the point (of) arguing with him? He simply won't listen. 和他争有什么用？他根本不听。

H. be through (with) doing sth.做完某事

I am through (with) asking questions. 我已把要问的问题问完了。

When he was through (with) talking, Dick got up and went to his own desk. 狄克讲完了话就站起身来，朝自己的书桌走去。

注意，在A～D四个句型中，即使就正式文体的英语来讲，介词也可省略；在E～H的后四个句型中，介词的省略则发生在口语及非正式文体的英语中，在正式书面英语中以不省略为宜。

2 　动名词以主动形式表示的被动意义。

一般讲，动名词的主动形式表示主动意义，被动形式表示被动意义。但动名词在以下少数动词后面必须采用主动形式来表示被动意义：

A. 在need，want，require，deserve，bear这五个动词后面。

My car runs out of gasolene.It needs filling（需要加汽油）.［不能用being filled］

The child is too naughty. It wants spanking（需要打一顿屁股才行）.［不能用being spanked］

The poor old man deserves looking after.［不能用being looked after］

The whole building requires cleaning.［不能用being cleaned］

His language won't bear repeating 他讲的话不堪重述.［不能用being repeated］

关于上列五个动词，有两点重要的补充：

① 这些动词，除bear外，后面也可接被动形式的不定式，意思不变：

My car runs out of gasolene.It needs to be filled.

The child is too naughty.It wants to be spanked.

The poor old man deserves to be looked after.

The whole building requires to be cleaned.

② bear作“经得起”解时，通常用于否定句中，后面的动名词采用主动形式来表示被动的意思，但有时也可用被动形式的动名词来表示被动的意思，如That won't bear being thought of（那是不堪一想的），但远远不及That won't bear thinking of普通；逢到需要对两者进行选择的考试场合时，应选后者。在His language (story) won't bear repeating及The cloth won't bear washing这两句中，习惯上只能用repeating和washing，不用being repeated和being washed。

B. 在表语形容词worth后面，句型是主语（物体）+be worth+动名词（主动形式表被动意义）。

The experiment is worth trying.［不是being tried］

The film is worth seeing.［不是being seen］

Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well.（doing不能换成being done）

▶▶ 由于worth在日常应用中出现频率较高，现再作以下几点补充说明：

① 在worth的句型中动名词需用主动形式，因为该句型中的主语和动名词具有动宾关系，即主语是动名词意义上的宾语。如：

The book is worth publishing.［book是publishing意义上的宾语，即publishing the book］

了解这一动宾关系，便能判断下列句子究竟正确还是错误：

The exhibition is worth going to see.［going to see the exhibition构成动宾关系，故此句不错］

The event is worth looking forward.［looking forward the event不能构成正确的动宾关系，故系病句，应在动名词短语looking forward后面加上介词to使之和主语event成动宾关系，即The event is worth looking forward to］

顺便提一下，在worth这一句型中，修饰worth的副词不可以用very，一般用well：

The book is well（不用very）worth reading.这本书非常值得一读。

② be worth后面通常接动名词，但可接属于钱款、时间、努力等范畴的名词。

The problem is worth careful study.

［×，因study这里虽用作名词，但不属上列范畴的名词，应改为：The problem is worth studying carefully.］

A nuclear submarine is worth more than a billion dollars. 一艘核潜艇价值十亿多美元。［对，属上列范畴］

The camera is not worth the price. 这架照相机不值这个价格。［对，理由同上］

The research is worth the time and effort (that) we have devoted to it. 这项研究计划是值得我们为它所花的时间和精力的。［对，同上］

③ be worth后也可接钱款、时间等范畴以外的某些名词如visit，try，consideration等。以下是worth的一些常見习惯表达法：

be worth+its weight in gold 非常有价值，非常有用

The work is worth its weight in gold. 这工作是个金饭碗。

That teacher of yours is worth his weight in gold. 你那位老师是不可多得的。

be worth one's salt 有能力；称职；能胜任（工作）

The work Larry did really showed that he was worth his salt. 拉莱干的工作确实表明他是个有能力的人。

be not worth+a damn (a hoot, a straw, a cent, a tinker's cuss) 毫无价值

His comments aren't worth a damn.He doesn't know anything about the subject. 他的评论毫无价值，他对这个课题一窍不通。

be not worth losing sleep over 不值得为之焦虑

Such a trifle is not worth losing sleep over. 这样的小事不值得焦虑。

How much is sb worth? 某人有多少财产？

How much is your boss worth? 你老板有多少财产？

▶▶ 这里作者从实用及应试角度出发，要提请注意的是，不要把worth和另一常用词worthy的用法混淆起来；worthy后面的动名词则采用被动态来表示被动意义。worthy的句型是：be worthy of...

be worthy of+名词

The place is worthy of a visit. 那地方值得一游。（=The place is worth a visit.）

The brave man is worthy of praise. 这个勇敢的人值得称赞。

Li Bai was a great poet (who was) worthy of the name. 李白是个名副其实的大诗人。

be worthy of+被动态动名词

The event is worthy of being remembered. 那事值得记忆。［注意：不能用主动态remembering。］

试比较：

The book is worth reading.［不能用being read］

The book is worthy of being read.［不能用reading］

be worthy+被动态不定式

The proposal is worthy to be considered.［不能用to consider］

例外：He is worthy to lead (=to take the lead) 他够资格当领导。

请再比较下面三个意思相同的例句：

This article is worthy of careful study.［接名词］

This article is worthy of being studied carefully.［接被动态动名词］

This article is worthy to be studied carefully.［接被动态不定式］

④ worth while

在上面两式中，动名词比不定式更为常用。

c. It is worth one's while+不定式

It is worth one's while to see the museum.［句中有one's 一字，故后面接不定式，不接动名词］

3 　动名词的四个特殊句型。

There is no+动名词

这个句型实际上相当于It is impossible+不定式：

There is no hiding of evil but（but这里作“除了”解）not to do it.（若要人不知，除非己莫为。）(=It is impossible to hide evil except not to do it.)

The matter is serious. There is no joking about it. 这事开不得玩笑。

There is no trusting to appearances. 外表不足信。

但偶尔也可看到这一句型的变体，即There is not any（或never any）+动名词，意思不变：

He keeps worrying me. There is not any getting away from him. 他老是缠着我，我怎么也甩不掉他。

That rascal is up to anything. There is never any telling what he will do next. 那无赖什么事情都做得出来，谁也说不准他下一步要干什么。

No+动名词

No smoking!

No parking here! 这里不准停车！

No scribbling on the wall! 不准在墙上涂写！

实际上，这些都是省略句。以No smoking为例，它的完整句子是No smoking is allowed或There is no smoking. 这一句型的句末也可以句号“.”来结尾，如：No smoking.

How about/What about+动名词或名词

用来表示征求意见：

How about going for a walk? 去散散步怎么样？

What about making an early start? 早点开始怎么样？

the+动名词+of+宾语

动名词的这一特殊结构，说得精确些，应该是：the+名词化动词+of+宾语。要掌握这一结构，我们必须先了解以下两点：

A. 动名词和名词化动词的差别。

动名词兼有动词和名词的某些特点，它既可以当主语和宾语，为形容词和代词或名词的属格所修饰，又可以有自己的宾语，并为状语所修饰，如：

My son is very fond of collecting stamps.［动名词collecting作介词of的宾语，具有名词的特点，同时自己又有宾语stamps，又具有动词特点］

名词化动词（verbal noun）是指丧失了动词特性的只起名词作用的动名词。它的特点是：没有完成时态的形式和被动态的形式，可以有自己的冠词和定语来加以修饰：

It is time we gave our room a thorough cleaning.［cleaning作动词gave的宾语，又为不定冠词a及定语thorough所修饰，在句中只起名词作用，故是名词化动词］

This is a delicate（棘手的）problem.It needs careful handling（小心处理）.［Handling作needs的宾语，又为定语careful所修饰，故也是名词化动词］

B. 掌握名词化动词的意义。

我们知道，不定式的逻辑主语由介词for+代词宾格或名词通格来表示，动名词的逻辑主语则在它前面加上代词或名词的属格来表示（在口语及非正文体中也可由代词的宾格或名词的通格来表示）。名词化动词则不一样，它有时只能带有逻辑宾语。名词化动词的逻辑宾语通常由下列句型表示出来：

the+名词化动词+of+宾语

这个句型中，of是个关键词，不可由其他介词来代替；实际上这个句型的意思等同于“及物动词+宾语”：

the setting up of modern factories (=setting up modern factories) 建立现代化工厂

the building of a reservoir (=building a reservoir) 修建一座水库

the making of steel (=making steel) 炼钢

Sand.soda, potash, lime or other substances are needed for the making of glass. 制造玻璃需要沙、碳酸钠、碳酸钾、石灰或其他材料。

The first phase of the construction project is the digging, moving and compressing of earth. 建筑工程的第一期是挖土、运土和打桩。［the digging, moving and compressing of earth是the digging of earth, the moving of earth and the compressing of earth的简略式］

How much time will you give me for the drawing up of the plan? 制订这个计划，你给我多少时间？

不过，我们要注意，逢到动词有同根名词或同形名词时，我们通常用该动词的同根名词或同形名词，而不用名词化动词：

How shall we improve the management of our factory?［management是manage的同根名词，故不用managing］

Choice（上好的）materials are used in the production of our goods.［production是produce的同根名词，故不用producing］

What is the reason for his refusal of the invitation?［refusal是refuse的同根名词，故不用refusing of the invitation，但可用his refusing the invitation］

The proper study of mankind is man.［study的动词和名词同形，故不用studying］

例　When (A) and by whom (B) the islands of the West Indies were first settled is a matter of debating (C) among (D) archaeologists.

［分析］动词有同根或同形名词时，我们通常用该动词的同根或同形名词，而不用它的名词化动词形式。在上题中，debate的动词和名词同形，故C (of debating)不妥，应改为of debate。

2. 不定式的特殊结构

1 　不定式符号“to”的省略。

一般说，英语动词的一个较为普遍的句型是“及物动词+宾语+不定式”，这种例句极多，可谓俯拾即是：

Tell Hob to come here at once.

The father won't allow his son to smoke.

但在若干少数动词，如感官动词和使役动词的宾语后面，不定式符号to则必须省去。试比较下列句型：

leave sb. to do sth.

allow sb. to do sth.

cause意思=make，但用法上不划入使役动词范畴，故to不能省略。

let sb. do sth.［因let是使役动词］

cause sb. to do sth.

make sb. do sth.［因make是使役动词］

urge sb. to do sth.

get sb. to do sth.

have sb. do sth.［因have是使役动词］

例　The policeman allows (A) people to stay (B) but he does not leave (C) them enter easily (D).

［分析］A和B都对，因allows people to stay合乎句型；C错，因leave后面的宾语不能接不带to的不定式，该把leave改为let。

不定式符号在下列情况下均予省略：

A. 在感官动词如see，watch，observe，notice，hear，listen to，feel等和使役动词如let，make，have等宾语后面，即：

感官动词（或使役动词）+宾语+不带to的不定式

感官动词宾语后面

I feel my heart beat fast.

We saw him cross the street.

I heard her go downstairs.

使役动词宾语后面

I shall have someone paint the room.

Let me try, please.

The speaker's jokes made us laugh a lot.

注意下列几种特殊情况：

注1：在约定俗成的谚语里，用作使役意义make的宾语后面往往有to，如Money makes the mare to go.（有钱能使鬼推磨。）当然，Money makes the mare go也可以，但后者反不及前者合乎习惯。

注2：make不用作使役意义时，它后面宾语的不定式不能省略to，如：People like to buy shoes made by that factory because it makes its shoes to last. 这里make作“制造”解，to last用作目的状语，等于because it makes its shoes so that they will last。（那家工厂把鞋子做得坚固耐穿。）

注3：在感官动词宾语的后面也可用现在分词，它和不带to的不定式在意义上的区别已在分词部分加以说明，这里不再赘述。

注4：感官动词和使役动词用于被动语态时，不定式符号to必须填补出来，不然便错：

He was seen to cross the street.

She was heard to go downstairs.

We were made to laugh a lot by the speaker's jokes.

不定式符号to的省略比较突出地表现在感官动词和使役动词宾语的后面：

例　“What did your mother want you to do?”

“My mother made me_____my relatives before I came to college.”

A. visiting

B. visit

C. visited

D. to visit

［分析］答案为B (visit)，made这里用作使役动词，它的宾语后面接不带to的不定式。

例　Professor Tate_____about him.

A. heard the students to talk

B. heard the talk by the students

C. heard the students' talking

D. heard the students talk

［分析］答案为D，heard为感官动词，它的宾语后面只能接不带to的不定式或现在分词。在C项中，talking用作heard的宾语，是动名词，如把属格students'改为通格students，即heard the students talking，便使talking成为现在分词，句子便能成立。

B. 在下列固定词组中用不带to的不定式。

· make believe 装作；假装

The thief tried to make believe that he was innocent. 那小偷极力装出一副无辜的样子。

· make do with sth. 用（某物）设法应付；凑合着用（某物）

We were late for supper and had to make do with bread and butter. 我们误了吃晚饭的时间，只得吃点面包和黄油将就一下。

In their experiment they made do with what little (=the little) equipment they could find. 在实验中，他们凑合着用仅有的那点设备。

· leave go of=let go of 松手；撒手

Grab the rope and don't let（或leave）go of it. 抓住这根绳子，别撒手。

By hesitating, Jonathan let（或left）go of the golden opportunity. 乔纳犹犹豫豫，结果错失良机。

· let fall 无意漏出

The teacher let fall a few hints about the examination.

· let go 放走

The police soon let go the person held in custody（被拘留的人）.

· let slip 错过

Francis let slip the golden opportunity.

C. 在下列常用结构中用不带to的不定式。

▶▶ 在would rather，had rather，would sooner，would as soon，had better，rather than，might (just) as well之后：

· had better 最好

Tommy, you had better do the homework by yourself.

It's going to rain, I think. Hadn't you better take a raincoat?

· would rather 宁愿

I would rather not leave you here.

· would rather...than... 宁愿……而不愿……

I would rather not part with the painting than sell it to someone who does not appreciate it.

rather than... 不愿……；不要……

Let's finish the work today rather than leave it off till tomorrow.

Mr. Robinson resigned rather than take part in the factory's production of fake goods（冒牌货）.［谓语动词resigned用过去式，但rather than后面的动词需用不带to的不定式take，不能改为took。］

Rather than allow the vegetables to go bad, the farmer sold them at half price.［rather than也可用于句首］

might (just) as well... 还是……好

Since it's a fine day, we might (just) as well walk.

▶▶ 在以why开头的省略疑问句中：

Why not consult a doctor?

Why worry about such trifles（小事）?

D. 不定式用作表语时，符号to的省略。

在本章开头，我们学过不定式可用作表语（又称主语补语）以表示一个特定的动作。但在特定语言环境中，具体说，当主语短语或主语从句中带有do这个动作动词时，用作表语的不定式往往被省去符号to：

All Mrs. Cooper seems to do is gossip with her neighbors.

The best way to do in the present situation is wait and see.

I could get no help from others at that time. The only thing I could do was go it alone（单干）.

All the girl did was clean the room.

不定式符号to的省略，即使在正式英语中也是允许的；当然，不省略to完全可以。

例　After a car accident, they say the thing (A) to do is buy (B) another car and try getting (C) over (D) your fear of driving.

［分析］在上题中，B是出题者一个故弄玄虚的假象，因宾语从句中的主语短语the thing to do具有动作动词do，故用作表语的不定式(to) buy前省略了to；错的应该是C，try作“试图”解，后面应接不定式，该改为try to get over...。

2 　疑问词+不定式结构。

疑问词what, where, which, who, whom, how+不定式可用作主语、宾语、表语，偶尔也可用作同位语，其中以用作宾语最为普遍：

用作宾语

I don't know who(m) to invite.

Would you tell me what to do next?

I wonder where to put these things.

Can you tell me how to get to the station?

Did you find out when to pay?

There are so many new things on display. I don't know which one to choose.

Eric hasn't decided whether to buy a new car or not.

We are doing research on how to raise the crop yield.［用作介词宾语］

用作主语

Who(m) to ask for information is what Judith wants to know.

What to do next is still a problem.

It is not yet decided whether to build a hospital here.［it是形式主语，真主语是whether to build a hospital here］

用作表语

The question is how to put the plan into practice.

The problem is where to get the fund.

用作同位语

One problem—which major to choose—worried me for a long time.

要注意的是，在正式英语里不能单以“疑问词+不定式”来代替一个疑问句。如：

不能说：How to break the news（透露坏消息）to her?

该说：How shall we break the news to her?

不能说：Who(m) to pay?

该说：Who(m) should I pay?

例　The director of this organization must know_____.

A. money management, selling, and able to satisfy the stockholders

B. how to manage money, selling his product, and be able to satisfy stockholders

C. how to manage money, sell his product, and satisfy the stockholders

D. money management, selling, the idea of being able to satisfy the stockholders

［分析］答案为C。疑问词how+三个并列的不定式，即how to manage money, (to) sell his product, and(to)satisfy the stockholders，作know的宾语。

例　“It seems we have just finished buying summer clothes.”

“I never know_____when we go on a trip.”

A. what clothes should be take

B. what clothes will I take

C. I take what clothes

D. what clothes to take

［分析］答案A错，应改为what clothes should be taken；B和C也错，都应改为what clothes I should take；D对，因what clothes to take系“疑问词+不定式”这一结构，作谓语动词know的宾语。这里要补充说明一下，疑问句+不定式也可用在只能接动名词的动词后面，如consider只能跟动名词，不可接不定式，但可说consider what to do而不能说consider what doing。

3 　以主动形式表示被动意义。

和动名词一样，不定式也可以以主动形式表示被动意义，但这仅限于to let，to blame，to seek等这几个不定式：

This flat is to let（供出租）for $200 a month.（或：This flat lets for $200 a month.）

Nobody is to blame for the accident. 这一事故谁也不能怪。

The reason for their refusal is not far to seek. 他们拒绝的理由不难找到。

注意，尽管以上例句都表示被动意义，但to let，to blame，to seek不能改为to be let，to be blamed，to be sought。

4 　It is (was)+形容词+of sb.+不定式。

这是一个带感情色彩的不定式结构，在表示好的意思时，带有“对……不胜感谢”的意思；当表示坏的意思时，则含有“……真是太……”或“真是……透了”：

It is kind of you to help me. 你能帮我，我真是很感激。

It was thoughtful of them to come and see me when I was ill. 生病时承蒙他们关心来看望，我很感激。

It was stupid of Brian to make that silly remark. 布赖恩讲了那句傻乎乎的话，真是太蠢了。

It was generous of Hob to lend Jan such a big sum of money. 霍布借给简那么大一笔钱，真是太慷慨了。

It was nasty（恶劣的）of Ernest to beat his sister. 欧尼斯特动手打他的妹妹，真是太恶劣了。

It was really careless of Lewis to break that valuable vase. 刘易斯打碎了那只价值不菲的花瓶，真是太粗心了。

关于这一特殊结构，要注意下列几点：

① 在这一结构中，it不能与表示形式主语的it等量齐观，故介词of不能以for代替。

② 这一结构也可改为“主语+be+形容词+不定式”，但感情色彩也就消失了：

You are kind to help me.

Lewis was really careless to break that valuable vase.

③ 在口语体中，这一结构也可由how引起，成为感情色彩强烈的感叹句；这样用时，it is (it was)一般被省略：

How kind (it is) of you to come and see me!

How stupid (it was) of Brian to make that silly remark!

有时候，在一定的上下文中，不定式也往往省掉：

A: Hob is going to lend Jan a big sum of money.

B: How generous (it is) of him (to lend Jan the big sum of money)!

5 　arrange for，like for，mean for后面的宾语和不定式构成主谓关系。

We have arranged for Harry to meet her at 10 o'clock.［Harry是不定式to meet her意义上的主语，即we作出安排，由Harry和她碰头］

比较：We have arranged to meet her at 10 o'clock.［We作出安排，并由we和她碰头］

I mean for Tom to do it.［Tom和不定式to do it构成主谓关系，即“我打算由汤姆来干这件事。”］

比较：I mean to do it.［由主语I来做］

I would like for you to come here once a week.［典型的美国英语］

=I would like you to come here once a week.

比较：I would like to come here once a week.［指我自己来］

例　“The photographer thought he was supposed to arrive after the guests.”

“But I meant_____early.”

A. for his coming

B. him coming

C. for him to come

D. he would come

［分析］显然，应选C，因在But I meant for him to come early这一结构中，宾语him和不定式to come early构成主谓关系。

6 　分裂不定式。

A. 带to的不定式通常是不拆开的，但有时为了避免句意含糊，可以把副词插入其间，即to+副词+动词原形。

试比较：

I have tried consciously to stop worrying about my health.［副词consciously放在不定式前，可能修饰tried，也可能修饰不定式短语to stop worrying about my health，因此句义含糊］

I have tried to stop consciously worrying about my health.［consciously放在不定式to stop后面，可能修饰to stop，也可理解为修饰动名词短语worrying about my health，句义模糊］

I have tried to consciously stop worrying about my health.［这句用分裂不定式，consciously只能修饰stop，句义便明确无疑］

以往的语法学家都主张，若无充足理由，宜尽量避免使用分裂不定式。但在现代英语中，为了避免意义上的含糊不清，分裂不定式的使用逐渐有普遍趋势。如：The manager stayed at the office to personally check the accounts.但要注意的是，在标准化考试中分裂不定式仍被认为是错误的结构：

From the top (A) of the tower, Mitch was able to clearly and easily see (B) the whole (C) city stretched (D) out below him.

在上题中B错，改为to see clearly and easily，因副词clearly和easily如放在不定式to see的后面并不造成句意上的含糊不清，故无理由非使用分裂不定式不可。

B. 不定式符号to的单独使用和它的省略。

在上下文中，为了避免使用前面出现过的动词，我们往往用不定式符号to来代替不定式，使讲话显得简练。不定式符号to的这种单独使用尤其常见于口语中：

“Would you like to join us in the game?”

“I'd love to.” (=I'd love to join you in the game.)

“Are you and Irene going to transfer to another school?”

“We hope to.” (=We hope to transfer to another school.)

I don't swim much now, but I used to a lot. (=..., but I used to swim a lot.)

注1：在名词后面，不定式符号to往往被省略：

Jocelyn will never leave home:she hasn't got the courage (to).

I will come as soon as I have got a chance (to).

注2：在动词want及would like后面，通常to不能省略：

I went to the club because I wanted to.

“Are you interested in going to college?”

“Yes, I would like to.”

但是，当want及would like用在从句中时，to则通常被省略的：

Come whenever you want. You are always a welcome guest under my roof.

You can stay here as long as you like.

注3：在情态动词have to及ought to后面，to通常不能省略：

“Why do you moonlight（兼职）?”

“I have to because I want to live on a higher plane（生活过得好一些）.”

“Ought I to finish it today?”

“Yes, you ought to.”

注4: 如不定式带有be或have，则必须保留be或have：

“Are you a doctor?”

“No, and I don't want to be.”

“Sorry I havn't finished my paper yet, Professor Smith.”

“Well, you ought to have.”(=Well, you ought to have finished your paper.)

7 　不定式用作后置修饰词时与被修饰对象结成动宾关系或主谓关系。

A. 不定式用作后置定语时和被修饰对象的动宾关系。

不定式作定语时，放在所修饰名词的后面，同时该名词又反过来充当不定式意义上的宾语（sense object），结成动宾关系；因此，不定式中的动词应该是及物动词：

I have a large family to support.［不定式to support修饰名词family, family又反过来作to support之意义上的宾语，即support a large family］

Have you anything to declare（申报）?［to declare修饰anything, anything又作to declare意义上的宾语］

如不定式中的动词是不及物动词，则应在该不及物动词后面加上介词使之成为及物动词，才能和所修饰的名词构成动宾关系：

I need a pen to write with.

Give me a sheet of paper to write on.

The nurse has four patients to look after.

注1：不定式中的及物动词有它自己的宾语时，该动词通常不与所修饰的名词结成动宾关系：

I feel doubtful about his ability to complete the task alone.

Have you got a key to unlock the door?

I need a pen container（笔筒）to hold my pens and pencils.

但有时候，也可结成动宾关系：

I'm looking for something to clean the typewriter with.［因to clean the typewriter with something是讲得通的］

注2：如果不定式中的动词是不及物动词而在意义上又不能和所修饰的名词结成动宾关系时，该动词后面就不能再加上介词：

The next man to come was Gray.

You have no occasion（没有必要）to feel alarmed.

B. 不定式用作状语时和主语的动宾关系。

在“主语+be+形容词+不定式”这一句型中，主语同时又是不定式意义上的宾语，也就是说，不定式和主语构成动宾关系：

This question is easy to answer.［主语question是不定式to answer意义上的宾语，不定式和主语构成动宾关系］

Adventurous stories are interesting to read.［Adventurous stories是to read意义上的宾语］

如果不定式中的动词是不及物动词，则应在该动词后面加上适当介词以结成动宾关系：

This cosy little room is comfortable to live in.［不定式to live in的意义上的宾语是主语this cosy little room，两者结成动宾关系］

Debates are often exciting to go to.［to go to和debates结成动宾关系］

C. 不定式用作状语时和主语的主谓关系。

有时，不定式中的及物动词有它自己的宾语，有时不定式中的不及物动词意义上已完整，不需要加上介词和句中主语结成动宾关系；逢这两种情况，主语便和不定式构成主谓关系：

Eva is a sensitive girl.She is quick to take offence（动辄生气）.

They are reluctant to take action（采取行动）.

［说明］不定式动词take分别有各自的宾语offence和action，因此和主语结成的便不再是动宾关系而是主谓关系。

Matthew is an energetic young man.He is prompt to act.

Clive is always slow to decide.

［说明］同样，在第二组例句中，不定式中的act和decide均系不及物动词，在句中意义已完整，不需加上介词和主语结成动宾关系，于是也和各自的主语构成主谓关系。

不定式和主语构成主谓关系时，句中的形容词便在相应的转换句型中变成了副词，即主语+不定式中的动词+由形容词派生的副词：

⇒ Eva is a sensitive girl.She takes offence quickly.

⇒ They take action reluctantly.

⇒ Matthew is an energetic young man.He acts promptly.

⇒ Clive always decides slowly.

这儿要补充说明一下，逢不定式和句中主语不构成主谓关系时，即句中主语不是不定式逻辑主语时，可在不定式前加上for+宾语这一介词短语来构成不定式的逻辑主语。试比较：

I am quite willing to help you.［主语I是不定式to help you的逻辑主语，意思是“我很愿意帮助你。”］

I am quite willing for my wife to help you.［介词短语for my wife是to help you的逻辑主语，即“我很愿意我妻子帮助你。”］

I would be afraid to go out alone after dark.［结构同上面第1句，意思是“我很怕天黑后单独出去。”］

I would be afraid for my daughter to go out alone after dark.［结构同上面第2句，意思是“我很怕我女儿天黑后单独出去。”］

8 　两动词间不定式符号“to”的省略。

一般说，两个谓语动词不能一起用，中间必须插入不定式符号to使第二个谓语动词成为不定式，起原因、目的或结果状语的作用。

The wife wept to hear the news of her husband's death in the war.

That night there was a storm and I woke to hear the rain lashing the windowpanes.

但在come，go和run这三个动词后面则可省掉to而直接跟另一个动词：

Come have supper with us. (=Come to have supper with us.)

Go get a doctor. (=Go to get a doctor.)

I'll go see my brother. (=I'll go to see my brother.)

这一典型的美国口语结构，有时也出现于标准化考试的Listening Comprehension中。

9 　不定式用于省略结构中。

在下列文体中，不定式可用于省略结构以表示带有条件的感叹，不定式的这种用法具有强烈的感情色彩：

Oh, to be in England now that April's there!—Browning (=Oh, how happy I should be, if I were in England now that April's there!) 哦，英格兰已是四月，要是现在我在那儿该有多好啊!—布朗宁

Oh, to be a girl again! (=Oh, how happy I should be if I were a girl again!)

Oh, for a friend to help me and advise me at this hour of need! (=Oh, how happy I should be if I had a friend to help me and advise me at this hour of need!) 在这困难时刻，要是能有一位朋友来帮助我和指导我该有多好啊！

十五、带不定式符号“to”的短语和带介词“to”的短语

在英语常用短语中，有若干在结尾处是带to的，是不定式符号to，还是介词to？这是一个需要搞清楚的问题，因为属于前者后面要用动词原形，如属后者则须接动名词或名词。现把各类考试中经常出现的带to短语分别列示如下：

1. 带有不定式符号to的短语，后接动词原形

fail to do sth. 未能……

He failed to follow my advice. 他没有听从我的劝告。

find it in one's heart（或in oneself）to do sth.（常用于否定句）忍心（做某事）

I couldn't find it in my heart to refuse. 我不忍心拒绝。

give one's ears/right arm to do sth. 付出任何代价；作出任何牺牲

He said he would give his ears to pay a visit to Westminster Abbey. 他说他无论如何要去威斯敏斯特大教堂一游。

go all out to do sth. 全力以赴；鼓足干劲

The Chinese people are going all out to realize their modernization program. 为了实现现代化的宏图，中国人民全都鼓足了干劲。

go out of one's way to do sth. 特别费心（做某事）

The employee went out of his way to please the boss. 该雇员曲意奉承老板。

Sophia and her parents went out of their way to make Ruth feel at home. 为了使露丝不受拘束感到像家里一样，索菲亚和她的父母特别花了一番心血。

have a good/great mind to do sth. 很想做（某事）

I have a good mind to speak frankly to him. 我很想找他开诚布公地谈一谈。

have the face/cheek/neck to do sth. 居然有脸做（某事）

Harold broke the thermos-bottle but he had the face to put the blame on me. 哈罗德打破了热水瓶，还居然有脸说是我打破的。

have the goodness to do sth. 劳驾（做某事）

Would you have the goodness to turn off the radio? I still have a lot of work to do. 劳驾你把收音机关上好不好?我还有好多事情要做。

have the nerve to do sth. ① 有胆量（做某事）　② 居然有脸（做某事）

I didn't think he had the nerve to climb that tall tree. 我没想到他有胆量爬那棵高树。

Imagine he had the nerve to say such a thing against us at the meeting. 你想，他居然有脸在那次会上说出那样的话来攻击我们。

make it a point to do sth. 坚持（做某事）

She makes it a point to read a new book every month. 她坚持每月读一本新书。

used to do sth.（表示过去习惯）常常；一直

Cholera, which used to cause tens of thousands of deaths every year, has now been practically wiped out. 过去霍乱每年使成千上万的人失去生命，但现在已基本被消灭了。

be about to do sth. 即将；正要

The plane is about to take off. 飞机即将起飞。

be supposed to do sth. 应该

Everybody is supposed to do his（或their）duty. 人人应该尽职。［在当代英语中用their比用his或his or her更常见］

2. 带介词to的短语，后接动名词或名词

adhere to ① 坚持；忠于　② 粘住；附着

In spite of difficulties, he adhered to his plans. 他不顾种种困难，坚持他的计划。

Do you think paint will adhere to a metal surface like this? 你认为油漆能漆得上这样的金属表面吗？

admit to 承认

He admitted to stealing the watch. 他承认那只表是他偷的。

amount to ① 总共达到；等于　② 意味着；实际上是　③ 办得成（事）（常用于否定句和疑问句）

The population of the island amounts to approximately 10,000. 该岛人口将近一万。

What he just said on the subject doesn't amount to much. 他刚才对这个问题发表的意见，实际上没有多大道理。

That young man is too lazy; he won't amount to anything. 那年轻人太懒，他是不会有出息的。

cling to ① 粘住；缠住　② 坚持

Children like to cling to their mothers. 孩子喜欢缠住他们的妈妈。

The odour clung to the room for days afterwards. 过后好几天，那气味还充斥着房间散不出去。［clung系cling的过去式］

That idea's been proved wrong; why do you still cling to it? 那个观点已被证明是错误的，你干吗还要抱住它不放呢？

confess to 承认

Jan confessed to loving Frieda. 杰恩承认是爱弗里达的。

It falls to sb.（或sb.'s lot）to do sth.（某事）落到（某人）头上

During Professor Li's illness, it fell to his assistants to carry out his duties. 李教授生病期间，他的工作由他的助手们承担。

feel up to 有力气做

I don't feel up to working overtime today. 我今天没有力气加班。

find one's (its) way to（或into）没法到达；设法

The little girl found her way to her aunt's home all by herself. 那个小女孩独自一个人摸到了她姑妈家。

Slang often finds its way into colloquial English. 俚语常常渗透到英语日常口语里来。

get down to 着手做；认真考虑或对待

Sydney got down to his work right after his vacation. 假期一过，西德尼便安下心来工作了。

Getting down to facts, I can't see anything to support what he says. 对事实进行分析后，我认为没有一点能支持他所说的那番话。

get over to sb.被（某人）懂得

What you said will eventually get over to them. 你讲的那番话他们最终会明白过来的。

get sth. over to sb.使（某人）懂得（某事）

The speaker tried to get the main idea over to the audience. 演讲者试图把要点给听众解释清楚。

get up to ① 执行；实行；从事　② 赶上；追上　③ 读到

I can't believe that Issac would get up to such dirty tricks. 我不相信艾萨克会干出这种肮脏勾当来。

At first we lagged behind, but soon got up to the others. 起初我们落后了，但很快我们赶上了别人。

What page of the novel have you got up to? 这部小说你读到哪一页？

give one's mind to sth. 专心于（某事）

The boy is now giving his mind to the making of a model plane. 那个男孩正专心致志地做他的飞机模型。

give rise to 引起（某事）；使（某事）发生

That statement, if not properly explained, might give rise to misunderstanding. 那项声明，如不加适当的解释，很可能引起误解。

give way to ① 让位于；被……所代替　② 对……让步；向……退让　③ 被（感情或诱惑）所征服

As winter gives way to spring, the days begin to lengthen. 冬去春来，白天渐渐变长了。

A deadlock was reached in the discussion when neither side would give way to the other. 隨着双方各不相让，讨论便陷入僵局。

Ethel forced herself not to give way to her emotions. 埃丝尔制住自己，不为感情所驱使。

Howard never gives way to temptation. 霍华德从来不为引诱所惑。

be given (over) to 沉溺于；醉心于；喜爱

I'm afraid they are given to exaggerating their achievements. 我怕他们太好吹嘘自己的成绩了。

keep to ① 保持……方向；不偏离　② 遵守；坚持

Keep to the right when driving! 靠右行驶！

Please keep to the point at issue. 请别偏离谈论中心。

Once you've made a promise, you should keep to it. 一旦作出诺言，务须坚守不渝。

lead to 导致；引起

This kind of discussion will certainly lead to still greater differences between the two parties. 这样的讨论必将导致双方更大的分歧。

lead up to 慢慢引到；引起；导致

The border conflict led up to an all-round war between the two countries. 边境冲突导致了两国间的全面战争。

look forward to 期待；盼望

We are looking forward to seeing you again very soon. 我们期待着很快能再见到你。

look to ① 朝向　② 依赖；指望

Our classroom building looks to the south. 我们的教室大楼是朝南的。

We should try to overcome difficulties by our own efforts and not always look to others for help. 我们应该靠自己的努力去克服困难，不要老是依赖别人的帮助。

look up to 尊敬；敬仰

They all look up to you as their teacher. 他们都尊你为老师。

make it to (a place) 成功地到达（某地）

The scout made it to the other bank in spite of the turbulent waves. 尽管波涛汹涌，那位侦察兵还是游到了对岸。

measure up to 与……相称；符合（愿望，要求等）

The young man measures up to his job in every way. 那位年轻人各方面都很称职。

object to 反对；不赞成

Do you object to smoking?

open one's mind to sth. 愿意接受（某事）

My father is a thoughtful man who is always ready to open his mind to some new idea. 我父亲是个善于思考的人，随时准备接受新的想法。

be open to ① 愿意接受（或考虑）　② 易于受到　③ 可供

All these accounts are open to inspection. 所有这些账目都可进行审查。

His remark is open to misinterpretation. 他的话容易被人曲解。

A new highway will be open to traffic here this winter. 今年冬天这里将有一条新公路通车。

The hotel is now open to business. 这家旅馆现在开始营业了。

take to ① 喜欢上　② 从事　③ 养成……的习惯；沉湎于　④ 走向；赴；借助

I tried to teach him to box, but he didn't seem to take to boxing. 我想教他学拳击，但他似乎不感兴趣。

Maugham gave up medicine and took to a literary career. 毛姆［英近代著名作家］放弃医学而从事文学生涯。

Once a person takes to smoking, it's usually difficult to cut it out. 一个人一旦吸上烟，再想戒往往是困难的。

Thousands of people took to the streets to welcome the returning combat heroes. 成千上万的人涌上街头，欢迎归来的战斗英雄们。

When the ship was wrecked, the passengers on board took to the life boats. 轮船遇难时，船上的旅客们登上了救生艇。

testify to 为……作证明

I can testify to his innocence. 我可以证明他是无辜的。

trust to 依靠

While reading, don't just trust to your memory, but jot down notes in your notebook. 看书时不要单纯依靠记忆力，要在记录本上记些笔记。

turn to ① 求助于；依靠　② 转而从事于

In writing I often turn to the encyclopedia for information. 写东西时，我常求助于百科全书，查找资料。

After she left the university, she became a teacher, but she later turned to writing. 她大学毕业后当了教师，但后来转而从事写作。

wake to ① 开始意识到　② 醒来（面对、听到、看到等）

At last we woke to the possibilities of the danger of war. 最后我们开始意识到战争可能带来的危害。

On the morning of New Year's Day, people woke to the sound of firecrackers. 在新年早晨，人们醒来就听到鞭炮声。

warm to ① 爱好；对……感兴趣　② 同情；对……表示亲热

After working in the bank for a few weeks, Bertha began to warm to her job. 在银行里干了几个星期后，贝莎对自己的工作发生了兴趣。

Wallace said that although his heart warmed to me, he couldn't help me. 华莱士说他对我是爱莫能助。

wise up to 知道；了解

Don't be in such a hurry. You'll wise up to what's going on here in good time. 别这么急，到时你会了解这儿的情况的。

yield to 让步于；屈服于

The dye will not yield to soap or soda. 这种染料用肥皂或碱水决不会褪色。

Owen said he would give up smoking, but he ended up yielding to temptation and took a cigarette. 欧文说他要戒烟，但终究还是经不起诱惑，又抽上了。

stand to ① 遵守（诺言）；坚持（原则）　② 合乎（情理，逻辑）

I will stand to my duty. 我一定忠于职守。

The manager stands to the principle of appointing people on their merits. 经理坚持任人唯贤的原则。

What he said stands to reason/logic. 他讲的话合乎情理/逻辑。

stand up to ① （材料）经得起（磨损，高温等）　② 勇敢地面对；抵抗

This kind of alloy can stand up to high temperature. 这种合金能耐高温。

The boy stood up to the barking dog. 那男孩站在狂吠的狗面前，毫无惧色。

stick to 忠于；坚持

He sticks to what he said before. 他还是坚持自己以前说过的话。

We'll stick to the job until it gets finished. 我们将坚持把那件事干完。

subscribe to ① 订阅；订购　② 同意；赞成

We've subscribed to that journal for many years. 那份杂志我们订阅了好多年了。

We all subscribe to the resolution adopted at the meeting. 我们都赞成会议通过的决议。

succeed to 继承

According to the late King's will, his second son will succeed to the throne. 根据已故国王的遗嘱，他的次子将继承王位。

succumb to ① 为……所诱惑　② 屈服于；屈从于　③ 死于（病，创伤）

Roger declared he would not succumb to temptation. 罗吉尔声称他决不受诱惑。

My fiance isn't the sort of person to succumb to hardships. 我的未婚夫可不是那种在艰苦面前低头的人。

A few days later the old man succumbed to pneumonia. 几天后那位老年人死于肺炎。

take kindly to sth. 赞同（某事）（用于疑问句、否定句和感叹句）

Will your parents take kindly to the idea of your marrying that poor young man? 你父母同意你嫁给那个穷小子吗？

I don't think the factory director will take kindly to that suggestion. 我认为厂长不会赞同那个建议的。

pander to 迎合；怂恿

Since he was an only child, his parents pandered to his every whim. 由于他是独子，父母对他总是百依百顺。

These articles only pander to low tastes and therefore are not to be used in our periodical. 这几篇文章只是迎合低级趣味，因而我们的刊物不准备采用了。

pertain to 属于；与……有关

Her remarks did not seem to pertain to the question. 她讲的话似乎跟这个问题无关。

He said he was interested in anything pertaining to photography. 他说凡是跟摄影有关的东西，他都感兴趣。

play up to ① 向某人（献媚）；奉承（某人）　② 利用（弱点等）

He is a person who would always play up to his superiors. 他是个老是拍上司马屁的人。

They played up to her vanity and finally won her over to their side. 他们利用她的爱好虚荣，最终把她争取过去了。

point to ① 指向；面向　② 暗示；表明

Not far from there, you'll see a signpost pointing to the town you want to go to. 离那里不远，你就可以看见一个路标，指向你要去的那个城镇。

There shouldn't be any more doubts because numerous facts point to the same conclusion. 大量事实都表明同样的结论，所以不应该再有什么怀疑了。

put one's mind to sth. 全神贯注地做（某事）；致力做（某事）

You can write a good thesis if only you put your mind to it. 你只要用心去写，就一定能把论文写好。

relate to和……有关

We are only concerned with things which relate to ourselves. 我们只是关心与我们有关的事情。

run to ① 达到；伸展到；发展到　② 丰富得足以（做某事）

The novel runs to over 800 pages. 这部小说长达八百多页。

The budget would not run to banquets like these. 这预算不够用来举办像这样的酒席。

say yes to 同意

Did she say yes to your proposal? 她答应你求婚了吗？

see to 注意；处理；照料

While my wife was doing the washing, I saw to the cooking. 我妻子洗衣服时，我负责烧饭。

I'll see to the problem at once. 那个问题我马上去处理。

be acclimated to 习惯于（新环境）

Those country boys are now acclimated to working in the office. 那些来自乡下的小伙子现在已习惯于室内办公了。

be accustomed to 习惯于

I am accustomed to taking a constitutional walk every evening. 我习惯于每天黄昏进行一次增强体质的健康散步。

be addicted to 沉溺；嗜好

While Mr. Priestley is addicted to smoking, Mrs. Priestley is addicted to reading detective novels. 普里斯特利先生嗜好吸烟而普里斯特利夫人迷于侦探小说。

be adjusted to 调节到适用于

You can't see through the telescope until it is adjusted to your eyes. 你把望远镜调节到适于你的目光后，才能看得清楚。

These desks and seats can be adjusted to height of any child. 这些桌椅可以随儿童的身高而调节。

be annexed to 附加在……上

Happiness is not always annexed to wealth. 有了财富并不一定就有幸福。

be committed to 对……承担责任；对……表态

I don't want to be committed to anything until I know more about it. 未了解更多的情况以前，我不愿对任何事情表态。

be converted to 改信（某一宗教）

John used to be a Christian but he was converted to Buddhism two years ago. 约翰以前一直是基督教徒，但两年前改信佛教了。

be dedicated to 致力于；献身于

All her life she was dedicated to helping the poor. 她毕生致力于帮助穷人。

be devoted to 献身于；专心致志于

The Brown couple are very much devoted to each other. 布朗夫妇非常恩爱。

Social workers should be devoted to the welfare of society. 社会工作者应献身于社会福利工作。

be equal to ① 胜任的　② 等于；相同

I'm sure she'll be equal to performing her duty. 我相信她会胜任她的工作。

Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another. 与同一事物相同之物彼此之间也相同。

be faithful to 忠于；恪守

He is faithful to his promise. 他恪守诺言。

be familiar to 为……所熟悉

The subject is familiar to him. 这课题他是熟悉的。

be opposed to 反对

Diligent students are opposed to cheating in examinations. 用功的学生是反对在考试中作弊的。

be pertinent to 与……有关的

What he said is not pertinent to the subject under discussion. 他说的跟眼下讨论的题目毫不相干。

be preferable to 比……更可取的；比……更好的

The first method is preferable to the second one. 第一种方法比第二种方法更好些。

be reduced to 沦为；降为

After a series of natural disasters occurred in that area, many people were reduced to begging in the streets. 该地区经历了一连串自然灾害后，许多人沦为在街上行乞。

We are reduced to eating margarine. 我们的生活已下降为只能吃麦淇淋了。

be related to 同……有关

Eugene is distantly related to me. 尤金同我是远亲。

be sentenced to 被判（什么刑）

He was sentenced to five years in prison/life imprisonment/death. 他被判五年徒刑/无期徒刑/死刑。

be subject to ① 受制于……的　② 易受……的；常遭……的　③ 有待……的；须经……的；有……可能

All citizens are subject to the laws of the land. 所有公民都受本国的法律约束。

Rubens has been subject to bouts of rheumatism for many years. 鲁本斯患风湿性病已好多年了。

Be cool-headed!Don't be subject to fits of passion. 冷静些！不要老是感情冲动。

The treaty is subject to ratification. 该条约须经批准。

be used to 习惯于

Have you got used to the way of living here now? 你现在对这儿的生活方式习惯了吗？

I'm not used to being spoken to in that rude way. 我不习惯别人用那样粗暴的态度对我讲话。

注意，有个别带to的短语后面既可接动词原形也可跟动名词，且意义不变，如：

entitle sb. to 使某人有权利

Your attainments entitle you to enjoy/enjoying high respect. 你的成就使你有权利受到人们高度的尊敬。

see one's way (clear) to 设法

I hope you can see your way (clear) to settle/settling this matter. 我希望你能设法解决这一问题。

在实际应用中，该短语后面接不定式比接动名词更普通些。

例　Although many women's colleges (A) have been coeducational (B), other universities remain committed to keep (C) their facilities separate (D).

［分析］C错。remain committed to=continue to be committed to。在这一习语中to是介词，后应接动名词，把to keep改为to keeping。

例　“What's your plan for tomorrow?”

“I_____Judy tomorrow?”

A. suppose to see

B. am supposed to see

C. am supposing to see

D. am supposed to seeing

［分析］答案为B。因be supposed后跟不定式，不能接动名词。

例　I didn't get used to_____at that coffee shop.

A. eat the steaks

B. the cooking steaks

C. the steaks

D. have the steaks cooked

［分析］答案为C。be/get used to后面接动名词或名词，不能跟不定式。B也是名词短语，但cooking steaks文理上讲不通，故也不对。

例　Why do you object to_____the direction?

A. following

B. follow

C. have follow

D. have been followed

［分析］答案为A。object to后接动名词，不能接不定式。

▶ 同时，也请注意be used to (doing) sth.和be used to do sth. 在意义上和用法上的区别：

be used to (doing) sth.

to是介词，作“对……已习惯”解，通常以人作主语。

be used to do sth.

to是不定式符号，作“被用来作……”解，较多以物作主语。下面是一道很多应试者失分的标准化考题。学员如能记住上述两者间的区别，便能迎刃而解：

例　Inland canals are used to shipping (A) farm and factory goods (B) to nearby (C) towns or (D) seaports.

［分析］在该题中主语是Inland canals，不是人；如果理解为“内地运河已习惯于运输农产品及工业产品……”是讲不通的，应解释为“内地运河被用来运输农产品及工业产品至……”，故A错，应改为动词原形ship。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. Many people favor_____more nuclear power plants.

A. to build

B. built

C. build

D. building

2. When I was in the casino, I was considering_____.

A. to gamble

B. gambling

C. gamble

D. gambles

3. It seems very difficult_____.

A. to stop the child to cry

B. restraining the child to cry

C. to keep the child from crying

D. holding the child's crying

4. Professor Tate_____about him.

A. heard the students to talk

B. heard the talk by the students

C. heard the students' talking

D. heard the students talk

5. “Why were you so late for work today?”

“_____to the office was very slow this morning because of the traffic.”

A. Driving

B. To drive

C. I drove

D. That I drove

6. John admitted that it's always difficult_____.

A. for him being on time

B. being on time for him

C. for him to be on time

D. on time for him

7. “Did the judges ask you many questions?”

“Yes, and_____.”

A. they had difficulty being answered

B. they were difficult to answer

C. to answer them was difficulty

D. answering them being difficulty

8. Because of the complexity of the modern machine, most offices require secretaries_____.

A. to have specified training

B. specified in training

C. to train specifiedly

D. training specified

9. “Were you ever able to give the Johnsons the message?”

“Yes. I finally succeeded_____by phone.”

A. to reaching them

B. of reaching them

C. to reach them

D. in reaching them

10. John said that he had run in order_____.

A. that the catch the bus

B. that he can catch the bus

C. to catch the bus

D. to the bus he could catch

11. “Where did he go?”

“He went to another store_____.”

A. to buy slacks

B. for buying slacks

C. buy slacks

D. buying slacks

12. The capacity of a locomotive has a part_____.

A. that train size is determined

B. in determining the size of a train

C. to determine train size

D. the size of a train is determined by

13. The company manager may enable the men who tend the machines_____a large panorama of possibilities.

A. to see

B. see

C. seeing

D. seen

14. I believe_____very largely due to mistaken views of the world.

A. this unhappiness are

B. to be this unhappiness

C. this be unhappiness

D. this unhappiness to be

15. _____bricks, workers press clay into blocks and bake them to the requisite hardness in a kiln.

A. Being made

B. The making of

C. To make

D. Made

16. The timid mother_____that they are never safe.

A. causes her children feel

B. causes her children feeling

C. causes her children to feel

D. feels her children cause

17. “Is Randy sick?”

“Yes, _____all night in the rain caused him to catch a cold.”

A. he worked

B. him to work

C. he working

D. his working

18. “Why didn't you inform me of the meeting to be held?”

“I'm sorry to have forgotten about_____you.”

A. phoning

B. to phone

C. phoning to

D. phone to

19. “I'm hungry, and I want to eat this loaf of bread.”

“What! It is not good_____.”

A. for eating

B. to be eaten

C. to eat

D. eating

20. I am glad to_____.

A. happily receive you

B. doing that for you

C. received you happily

D. receive you at the party

21. “Why was your cousin put in jail?”

“_____arrest is a crime, you know.”

A. Resisting

B. The resisting

C. Resisting to

D. Resisting of

22. _____if he is willing to fit in with the plans of the group.

A. There is no objection on him joining the party

B. There is no objection to him joining the party

C. No objection will be raised upon him joining the party

D. There is no objection to his joining the party

23. “I'll help you whenever you need me.”

“Good. I'd like_____me tomorrow.”

A. you helping

B. that you will help

C. you to help

D. that you help

24. “What are we going to do?”

“No, but I don't feel_____tonight.”

A. like reading

B. like to read

C. like to be read

D. like I'm going to read

25. She must be looking forward as much to his return as he himself is to_____her.

A. see

B. have seen

C. seeing

D. having seen

26. “Tom wants me to ask you_____.”

“Yes, I'll go with you.”

A. go with me

B. going with

C. to go with me

D. to going with me

27. I_____brushing my teeth twice a day.

A. am in the habit of

B. make it a rule of

C. make a custom to

D. used to be

28. “Did he miss his stop?”

“The bus was so crowded that he had a hard time_____.”

A. got off

B. getting off

C. to get off

D. get off

29. “Has Jim decided to argue with the instructor about his grades?”“No, he said he would_____.”

A. let the matter resting

B. let rest the matter

C. let the matter rest

D. let matter to rest

30. He had much difficulty in_____.

A. telling the first item apart from the second of the two

B. finding the manner of difference between item one and two

C. telling the difference between the two items

D. try to separate the difference of the two items.

31. “Why aren't you happy?”

“I don't like the idea_____.”

A. in getting up early

B. of getting up early

C. for getting up early

D. to get up early

32. “What did Peggy come here for?”

“She said she would appreciate_____you come to her party.”

A. have

B. to have

C. had

D. having

33. “Any body will help me!”

“Would you mind quitting_____?”

A. to shout

B. shouted

C. shout

D. shouting

34. The coffee is very cold; it needs_____.

A. hot

B. to heating

C. to be heated

D. to be hotted

35. “What do you expect me to do?”

“The house needs_____.”

A. to be paint

B. to painting

C. painting

D. painted

36. “What happens to your shoes?”

“They want_____.”

A. to mend

B. mending

C. mended

D. mend

37. “I never wrote that letter.”

“Why do you have do deny_____that letter?”

A. writing

B. to write

C. write

D. written

38. “My baby has an infection.”

“Did the doctor find it difficult_____?”

A. in treating

B. treating

C. for treating

D. to treat

39. “Was it difficult?”

“Well, I anticipated_____difficulty, but there was none.”

A. to have

B. to have the

C. having

D. having the

40. “I'm very tired.”

“We really should stop_____and go to bed.”

A. to study

B. from studying

C. of studying

D. studying

41. “Did you find out who had stolen my watch?”

“That child didn't admit_____.”

A. to have done that

B. doing that

C. had done that

D. having done that

42. “Did you have trouble with your car this morning?”

“Yes, but I finally managed_____.”

A. to get it started

B. to get starting it

C. it to get started

D. getting started it

43. _____into the room after the gong sounds.

A. Our teacher won't leave us come

B. Our teacher won't let us come

C. Our teacher refuses to leave us come

D. Our teacher won't leave us enter

44. I'd rather you_____anything about it for the time being.

A. do

B. didn't do

C. don't

D. didn't

45. _____to find stars in pairs.

A. It is very common

B. Being very common

C. Very common is

D. That is very common

46. The Homestead Act of 1862_____to acquire land at a small cost.

A. made possible

B. made it possible

C. made the possibility

D. possibly made

47. The total influence of literature upon the course of human history_____.

A. an evaluation is difficult

B. is difficult to evaluate

C. is difficult to evaluate it

D. it is difficult to evaluate

48. Early settlers needed trees, so they sent back to Europe for seedlings_____around their houses.

A. to plant

B. and planted

C. and plants

D. which planted

49. It displeases my parents when Richard and I stay out late every night. My parents don't approve_____.

A. of me and Richard staying out late every night

B. of Richard and me staying out late every night

C. of Richard's and my staying out late every night

D. when Richard and me stay out late every night

50. Billie Holiday's reputation as a great jazz-blues singer rests on her ability_____emotional depth to her songs.

A. be giving

B. are given

C. being given

D. to give

51. _____by transferring the blame to others is often called scapegoating.

A. Eliminate problems

B. The eliminated problems

C. Eliminating problems

D. Problems are eliminated

52. The Cubists were concerned with how_____a given subject from different points of view simultaneously.

A. represented

B. do they represent

C. to represent

D. representing

53. Anesthetics are used_____insensitivity to pain during surgical operations.

A. the cause

B. to cause

C. cause of

D. causing

54. Over the centuries, various theories have been advanced_____.

A. the origin of alphabetic writing is explained

B. of explaining the origin of alphabetic writing

C. the explanation of the origin of alphabetic writing

D. to explain the origin of alphabetic writing

二、改错

1. The (A) purpose of description is (B) to have the reader possesses (C) the sense perceptions of something real or imaginary (D).

2. My counselor suggested (A) that I make my professor to (B) change my grade since (C) I was sick the day of the exam (D).

3. For twelve years (A), Spanish censorship did not allow (B) Lorca's name to be mentioned orhis (C) works form being (D) published.

4. Tom calling (A) Marie made her (B) angry, so (C) she hung up (D) on him.

5. Dairy farm (A) is carried on (B) in (C) all parts (D) of the United States.

6. I had hoped to have learned (A) French before my trip to Paris (B), but I did not have (C) any extra money (D) for a course.

7. The embarrassed professor (A) pleaded not guilty to (B) the charge of drive while intoxicated (D).

8. Scientists measure the hardness (A) of a material (B) by comparatively (C) with a table of ten well-known (D) metals.

9. Structures in (A) areas that have had earthquakes are built (B) for withstanding (C) shocks (D).

10. By facing (A) a problem before (B) it becomes insurmountable (C), we can take a giant step toward resolve (D) it.

11. He quickly (A) stepped on the brakes, and his car came to (B) a stop just in (C) time to be avoiding (D) an accident.

12. Aurelia did not have (A) time to go (B) to the concert last night because she was so busy to prepare (C) for her trip (D) to Brazil and Chile.

13. No doubt you have always had (A) expectations (B), and I desire that (C) you continue expect (D).

14. Charlie assured his (A) wife that there was no (B) danger, but (C) she could not help but worry (D).

15. Mr. Brown often wore (A) a heavy coat (B) because he was not used to live (C) in such (D) a cold climate.

16. Civility is not (A) a sign of weakness and (B) sincerity is always (C) subject to prove (D).

17. He said that things would turn out (A) to be more satisfactory (B) if only we could stop thinking (C) for a while about what (D) we were going to do.

18. Do you mind opening (A) the door and to let (B) the guests sit (C) comfortably on the chairs (D) ?

19. You would become irritated (A) if you watched (B) the correspondence to pile up (C) on your desk day by day (D).

20. Imagine my surprise (A) when (B) I saw one man in the car pulling out (C) a pocket book and begin to read (D).

21. You should make the other (A) fellow to feel important (B), if you want to get along with him and have him like (C) you, because that is the way to do it (D).

22. Physicist and astronomer (A) Sarah Frances Whiting's fascinating (B) with experimental (C) science began in childhood (D).

23. The taxi driver (A) told the man (B) to don't allow (C) his disobedient son to hang out (D) of the window.

24. The girls were sorry (A) to miss (B) the singers when (C) they arrived at (D) the airport.

25. Because they were unaware of (A) his interest (B) in the building, they did not understand why he felt so bad (C) about it's being (D) condemned.

26. The senator's legislative record was too liberal (A) for please (B) his constituents; moreover (C), they did not like his choice (D) of a running mate.

27. The natives, who were used to get (A) most of their living (B) from the sea, seldom if ever (C) ventured inland to search for (D) food.

28. In Mesopotamia kings were regarded as (A) the servants of the gods (B), but in Egypt, on the other hand (C), the pharaoh was thought he was (D) divine.

29. It was (A) very kind for you (B) to take (C) me to (D) the post-office.

30. There is not denying (A) the fact that (B) counterattack by moderate member (C) countries reflected (D) their fear.

31. I've often heard (A) talking (B) of the parties given (C) by the dean, but never attended (D) one.

32. Before (A) the invention of the clock (B), people had to reliable (C) on the celestial bodies to tell time (D).

33. A major issue (A) at Constitutional Convention of 1787 was the decision (B) concerning the manner (C) of election (D) the President.

34. The desire (A) to make a profit (B) motivates business executives organizing (C) and operate their firms efficiently (D).

35. Acquire (A) education is the principal way of gaining (B) status in a culture that generally stresses achievement (C), skillfulness, and upward (D) mobility.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［D］

2.［B］

3.［C］A中to cry应改为from crying。

4.［D］符合hear somebody do something这一感官动词的句型。

5.［A］表过去发生的事情，故不能用C项中的不定式To drive。

6.［C］

7.［B］

8.［A］其余皆不合语法。

9.［D］

10.［C］A应改为that he might catch the bus，B中can应改为could。

11.［A］不定式短语表目的。

12.［B］C合乎语法但不如B合乎习惯，因part通常和in连用。

13.［A］enable句型为enable somebody to do something，如去掉定语从句who tend the machine，便是enable the men to see a large panorama of possibilities。

14.［D］believe的句型是believe sb./sth.to be...。A中are须改为is，这样用时believe接从句，后面省去连词that；B和C不合语法。

15.［C］不定式To make bricks置于句首，用作目的状语。其余皆不合语法。

16.［C］cause的句型是cause sb. to do sth.。

17.［D］动名词用作主语时，它前面的属格代词或属格名词不能以宾格代词或通格名词代替。

18.［A］phone sb.和phone to sb.都可以，但在美国英语中phone sb.，更普通，故宜选A。

19.［C］不定式to eat作副词修饰good，不定式作副词时通常用主动语态表被动意义。

20.［D］be glad to+不定式系常用结构。

21.［A］动名词短语作主语。resist系及物动词，后不能再加介词，故C和D皆错。

22.［D］动词短语object to中，to是介词，后接名词或动名词；其名词objection也和介词to连用，故选D。

23.［C］like的句型是like sb. to do sth.。

24.［A］feel like+动名词，作“想……”解，相等于be inclined+不定式。

25.［C］look forward to+动名词或名词，as he himself is to seeing her系as he himself is looking forward to seeing her之省略式。

26.［C］

27.［A］be in the habit of作“有……的习惯”解，如I am in the habit of reading the newspaper at breakfast。B应改为make it a rule to brush my teeth...D应改为am used to。

28.［B］have a hard time (in) doing sth.系固定结构。

29.［C］

30.［C］have difficulty (in) doing sth.系固定结构。A项中应去掉apart及of the two。

31.［B］idea后接介词of。

32.［D］动词appreciate接动名词。

33.［D］动词quit接动名词。

34.［C］B项中须去掉to。

35.［C］A项中的paint须改为painted。

36.［B］C项中的mended前须加to be。

37.［A］动词deny后接动名词。

38.［D］find it difficult（hard，easy等）+不定式系一常用结构，其中it作形式宾语，不定式作真宾语。

39.［C］动词anticipate后接动名词。

40.［D］stop doing sth.作“停止做某事”解；stop to do sth.意为“把原来在做的事情停下来而做另外的事情”解，故按句意不能选A。

41.［D］问句的从句中用过去完成时had stolen，故D比B更妥。

42.［A］

43.［B］A中won't leave us come应改为won't allow us to come。C中leave us come应改为let us come。D中leave us enter应改为permit us to enter。

44.［B］I'd rather可接从句，从句用过去时态则表现在或将来。

45.［A］it是形式主语，真主语是不定式短语to find stars in pairs。

46.［B］其中it为形式宾语，真宾语为不定式短语to acquire...Homestead Act【美史】宅地法案。1862年美国国会通过该法案，凡连续耕种公有地5年的农户只需缴纳规定的证件费，即可获得160英亩公有地的所有权。

47.［B］在类似这句的结构中，主要influence是不定式to evaluate的意义上的宾语（sense object），故C中to evaluate后之it须去掉。

48.［A］作定语修饰seedings。B中planted后应加上them。C中时态不对，并漏掉宾语them。D中which和planted之间需加主语they。

49.［B］动名词意义上的主语要用所有格形式，但如果该意义上的主语为两个或以上并列的名词或代名词时，则用受格，即代词用宾格，名词用通格，不用所有格。如people laughed at my sister and me falling off the bike，不用...sister's and my falling off...

50.［D］

51.［C］作主语。

52.［C］疑问词+不定式可用作主语或宾语（包括介词宾语），how to present充当with的宾语。

53.［B］表目的。

54.［D］用作目的状语。

二、改错

1.［C］改为动词原形posses，因have作使役动词时，其句型是have sb. do sth，宾语只可接不带to之不定式。

2.［B］改为change；make作使役动词时，其宾语后面也须跟不带to之不定式。

3.［D］改为to be，allow为普通动词，其句型是allow sb. to do sth.或allow sth. to be done。

4.［A］改为Tom's calling，动名词作主语时，其意义上的主语如为名词时，不能用通格代替属格，如为代词时也不能用宾格来代替属格。

5.［A］改为farming。carry on作“进行；继续”解，后面通常接表示活动的宾语。如carry on a conversation（business，a heroic fight，a political movement，a correspondence等）。dairy farm指制酪场，是一个工作单位，不是一项活动，故不妥，而且farm又是可数名词，以单数形式出现时前面须采用冠词。

6.［A］改为to learn。had hoped to learn French意为原指望学法文，由于某种原因未能学习。I had hoped to learn French.=I hoped to have learned French. I had hoped to have learned French则犯双重完成体的结构错误。

7.［C］改为of driving。

8.［C］改为comparing。“by+动名词”通常用来表示方式方法。

9.［C］改为to withstand，不定式表目的。

10.［D］改为resolving。

11.［D］改为to avoid。句中不定式to avoid的动作发生在came to a stop之后，不是同步，故不能用进行时的不定式。

12.［C］改为preparing。

13.［D］改为to expect。

14.［D］去掉but并把worry改为worrying。could not help worrying=could not but worry。cannot help but+动词原形系不正式的口语体，在标准化结构部分的考试中作错误处理。

15.［C］改为to living。

16.［D］改为to proving。be subject to这一结构中to是介词。

17.［C］改为stop to think，作“停下来思考一下”解。

18.［B］改为letting，与opening并列为mind的宾语。

19.［C］改为pile up，因watched系感官动词。

20.［C］改为pull out，表pull out动作完成之后才开始read。pulling out表动作在继续中，未完成，意指在pulling out a pocket book这一动作还在继续时即开始read，情理上讲不通。

21.［B］改为feel important，因前面有使役动词make。

22.［B］改为fascination，动词具有同根或同形名词时通常不用动名词形式。

23.［C］改为not to allow，否定词not须放在不定式、动名词和分词之前。

24.［B］改为to have missed，不定式所表示的missed的动作发生在谓语动词之前。

25.［D］改为its being。

26.［B］改为to please，A和B构成too...to...结构。

27.［A］改为used to getting，be used to后接名词或动名词。

28.［D］改为to be，构成be thought to be...这一句型。

29.［B］改为of you，It+be+形容词+of sb.+不定式系代词it之带有感情色彩的结构。

30.［A］改为is no denying。There is no+动名词+宾语=It is impossible+不定式+宾语。

31.［B］改为动词原形talk。

32.［C］改为rely。had to接动词原形，reliable是形容词。

33.［D］改为electing。

34.［C］改为to organize，使符合motivate sb. to do sth.这一句型；同时，to organize和operate构成不定式平行结构。

35.［A］改为Acquiring。动名词短语Acquiring education作主语。

第十一章　荡空结构

一、荡空结构的概念

我们从分词部分已获悉，分词短语相当于状语从句，故分词短语有其逻辑主语，它的逻辑主语通常就是主句的主语。如：

Walking through the park, we saw a lovely show of daffodils.

在上例中，主句的主语是we，故walking through the park=As we walked through the park；因此，该分词短语的逻辑主语就是主句的主语we。如果分词短语的逻辑主语不是主句的主语，这样的分词短语便成为荡空分词结构（独立结构除外）：

Walking through the park, the daffodils made a lovely sight.

荡空结构在语法及修辞上都被列为病句。

二、荡空结构的种类

1. 荡空分词结构

Getting off the bus, my ankle was sprained（我脚踝扭伤了）.

Entering the meeting-room, nobody was found.

主语ankle及nobody都不能分别成为“Getting off the bus”和“Entering”的逻辑主语。改正这种荡空结构的方法有两种：

① 把分词短语扩展成状语从句，主句结构不动，如：

As we/When we got off the bus, my ankle was sprained.

As we/When we entered the meeting-room, nobody was found in it.

② 保留分词短语，改变主句结构（被动语态改为主动语态或由主动语态改为被动语态），使结构改变后的主语能成为分词的逻辑主语。

Getting off the bus, I sprained my ankle.

Entering the meeting-room, I found nobody in it.

有时候，带有分词短语的主句，其谓语动词系不及物动词，后无宾语；逢到这种情况，改变主句结构时就不能采用改变语态的办法，需按具体的语言环境作灵活处理。如：

Looking up the sky, the sun went under a cloud.

在上例中，主语sun 不可能是 Looking up 分词短语的逻辑主语，而主句无宾语，故变动主句结构时要加上适当主谓，可以这样说：

Looking up the sky, I (He) saw the sun go under a cloud.［saw系感官动词，故其宾语后接不带to之不定式go］

2. 荡空动名词结构

动名词作介词宾语时，它的逻辑主语也是主句的主语：

After putting down my newspaper, I walked over to the window and looked out.

在上例中，动名词短语After putting down my newspaper=After I put down my newspaper，它的逻辑主语就是主句的主语I。如果主句的主语不能成为动名词短语的逻辑主语，该动名词短语便成为无依着的荡空动名词结构。如：

By installing a birdbath（置于花园或庭院中的浴鸟池）, the birds were given a source of water.

主语birds不可能自己设立一个供它们戏水或饮水用的浴鸟池，故不能成为动名词短语installing a birdbath的逻辑主语，应调整主句的结构，使主语也能起到承担该动名词短语的逻辑主语的作用，换句话说，应改变主句的语态：

By installing a birdbath, we gave the birds a source of water.

我们在动名词和不定式部分已学过，如要表示动名词自己本身的逻辑主语，可在动名词前加上相应的代词或名词的属格，这样就不需改变主句的结构：

By our installing a birdbath, the birds were given a source of water.

由此可见，改正荡空动名词结构的方法也是两个：一是改变主句结构，使其主语在情理上能成为动名词的逻辑主语，另一是在动名词前加上相应的代词或名词的属格，使动名词有自己的逻辑主语；这样，主句的结构保持不变，也可避免动名词的荡空错误。试再看一例：

From attending class, the principles of chemistry were made clear.

显然，主语principles在情理上是不能充当动名词短语attending class的逻辑主语的，应改正如下：

From attending class, we made the principles of chemistry clear.

或：From our attending class, the principles of chemistry were made clear.

3. 荡空不定式结构

不定式短语置于句首作目的状语时，也有一个逻辑主语的问题，即主句的主语在逻辑上必须是不定式短语的意义上的主语：

To admit air（为了让新鲜空气进来）, I opened the window wide.

主语I是不定式短语to admit air的逻辑主语，这是不定式置于句首，用作目的状语的正常结构。如果主句的主语在情理上不能充当不定式短语的逻辑主语，该不定式便成为错误的荡空不定式结构：

To admit air, the window was opened wide.

主语window成为不定式短语to admit air的逻辑主语在道理上绝不能成立，故该不定式短语便荡空，无依着。避免荡空不定式的方法便是改变主句的结构，通常都是在语态上作相对变化，但有时候也需作其他方式的改动。请看以下两例：

To apply, an application form must be filled out.

申请表格自身是不能申请的，故to apply便成荡空不定式结构，应把主句从被动语态转变为主动语态，这样，有了一个人称主语便可以兼任不定式to apply的逻辑主语，使其有所依着：

To apply, you/we must fill out an application form.［fill out (=fill in) an application form］

To learn French cooking, a lot of practice is necessary.

同样，实践本身不会学习，只有人才会这样做；因此to learn也是荡空不定式结构，由于主句无宾语，故不能在语态上进行转化，只能根据句意调整主句结构，使之具有适当主语，同时充当不定式to learn的逻辑主语：

To learn French cooking, you/we need a lot of practice（或one needs a lot of practice）.

4. 荡空省略从句结构

在when，while，though等连词引导的从句中，其主语及相应的动词，尤其是verb to be通常都可以省略，如果该主语和主句的主语或宾语相同时。

1 　连词when引导的时间状语从句中主谓的省略。

He was fond of playing on the beach when a child (=when he was a child).

A fortress is most vulnerable when attacked from within (=when it is attacked from within). 堡垒最容易从内部攻破。

I shall not fail to help you when necessary (=when it is necessary for me to help you).［me和主语I系同一人］

2 　连词while引导的状语从句中主谓的省略。

While ready to help him (=While I was ready to help him), I wondered what he needed most. 我虽然愿意帮助他，却不知道他最需要什么。

I got acquainted with him while on a visit to New York (=while I was on a visit to New York). 我是在访问纽约时认识他的。

3 　连词till及until引导的状语从句中主谓的省略。

I did not notice it till too late (=till it was too late for me to notice it). 等我注意到这事时已经晚了。［me和I系同一人］

People do not know their defects until confronted with failure (=until they are confronted with failure). 人们面临失败时才认识到自己的缺点。

This must be kept till called for (=till it is called for). 这东西必须保存到有人来取的时候。（it和this系同一事物）

4 　where或wherever引导的状语从句中主谓的省略。

The river is smooth where deep (=where it is deep). 河深的地方水面平静。［it指river］

Improve your composition wherever possible (=wherever it is possible for you to do so). 你的作文凡能修改之处就要修改。

5 　连词though，although，even if，however，whether引导的让步状语从句中主谓的省略。

Although the youngest of the class (=Although he was the youngest of the class), he captured all the prizes. 虽然他是全班年龄最小的，却囊括了全部奖项。

The relationship between our two countries was essentially good, even if progressing slowly (=even if it was progressing slowly). 我们两国的关系基本上是好的，即使进展缓慢。

Each individual gain, however small (=however small it may be), raises the general level and makes the next step easier. 每一个别的收获，不论是多么微小，都能提高整体水平并且使下一步更容易些。

Every language has its peculiarities; they are established by usage, and whether right or wrong(=whether they are right or wrong), they must be complied with. 每种语言都有它的特点，这些特点是在习惯使用中形成的，不论是对或错都得遵守。

6 　since引导的原因状语从句中主谓的省略。

It is a useless, since impossible (=since it is an impossible), proposal. 这提议既然行不通，也就没有用了。

He is a more dangerous, since an unknown (=since he is an unknown), foe. 他既然是隐蔽的敌人，那就更危险了。

7 　连词than，as引导的比较状语从句中主谓的省略。

Grace is more shy than unsocial (=than she is unsocial). 格莱丝与其说不喜欢社交，不如说很羞怯。

My father is better than when I wrote to you last (=than he was when I wrote to you last). 我父亲的身体比我上次给你去信时好一些了。

My delight can be more easily conceived than described (=than it can be easily described). 我的高兴难以言表。

Life must be measured rather by depth than by length (=than it must be measured by length). 生命不应以长度来衡量，而应以深度来衡量。

Correct speech is less a matter of grammatical rules than of clear thinking (=than it is a matter of clear thinking). 正确的讲话与其说是语法规则的问题，还不如说是思路是否清晰的问题。

The matter concerns you as much as me (=as it concerns me). 这件事关系到你，同样也关系到我。

His novels are as popular now as then (=as they were then). 他的小说现在和过去一样风行。

8 　连词as，as if，as though引导的方式状语从句中主谓的省略。

Mr. Smith, as always (=as he is always), is regarded as an exemplary teacher. 人们和往常一样，始终把史密斯先生看成是模范的教师。

John, as compared with his brother (=as he is compared with his brother), is smaller in stature, but more active. 约翰和他兄弟比起来，个子较小，但更活跃一些。

The town as seen (=as it is seen) from the top of the mountain is a wonderful sight. 从山顶俯视那城镇，真是一幅奇景。

The ground shook as with an earthquake (=as it would shake with an earthquake). 地面摇动就像地震时一样。

The girl looks as if afraid of nothing (=as if she were afraid of nothing). 这女孩看来什么都不怕似的。

Flowers danced in the gentle breeze as if giving encouragement to the peasants working in the fields (=as if they were giving encouragement to the peasants working in the fields). 花儿在微风中摇摆，像是在鼓舞田间干活的农民似的。

She opened her lips as if to say something (=as if she were going to say something). 她动了动嘴唇，像要说什么话似的。

He shaded his eyes as though dazzled by the light (=as though he were dazzled by the light). 他把眼睛捂了起来，就像那光线使他睁不开眼似的。

9 　连词if，unless引导的条件从句中主谓的省略。

She is seventy, if a day (=if she is a day old). 她肯定满70岁了。

The army is 10,000 strong, if a man (=if the army is a man strong). 这支军队人数一定不下一万。（strong用作形容词可作“达到一定人数”解，置于数词后面，如the club is 30 strong.俱乐部会员30人。）

I shall go there by four, if not sooner (=if I do not go there sooner). 我四点以前到那里，如果不能更早一点到那儿的话。

Can you lend me your car?If not(=If you cannot lend me your car), please notify me beforehand. 你能把你的汽车借给我吗?要是不能，请事先告诉我一下。

The sun's heat evaporates water, and forms cloud; if cloud is blown to a cooler place, or to a mountain, rain falls; if to a warmer place (=if it is blown to a warmer place), it disappears. 太阳的热把水蒸发成云，如果云被吹到较凉的地方或山上去，天就会下雨；如果被吹到较暖的地方，云就会消散。

Don't give advice unless asked (=unless you are asked).

以上以较大的篇幅列举了关于省略从句结构方面的例子，主要理由是这一句式在实际应用及考试中时有出现，作者想通过大量实例加深对这部分内容的理解。有时候，在口语中也使用这一省略从句结构，如Don't talk while eating，eating前you are被省略了。如果状语从句中的主语不是指主句中的主语或宾语，则不能省略，不然便成无依着的荡空省略从句。如：

While running down the stairs, the clock struck twelve.

对于这种荡空省略从句，改正的办法也是两个：

① 在省略从句中补上适当的主谓结构：

While I was running down the stairs, the clock struck twelve.［补上主谓］

② 省略从句不变，改变主句的主语并作其他相应的更动：

While running down the stairs, I heard the clock strike twelve.［heard的宾语后面应接不带to的不定式，故把struck相应改为strike］

试再看一例：

Though tired from running, our gym period ended with calisthenics（软体操）.

⇒ a. Though we were tired from running, our gym period ended with calisthenics.［补上主谓结构we were］

⇒ b. Though tired from running, we ended our gym period with calisthenics.［改变主句主语］

Exercises

一、改变下列各句的主句结构，使分词短语不再荡空

1. Making funny faces, the circus opened with the clowns.

2. Walking home from the movies, the street lights turned on.

3. Strung up on the Christmas tree, we were enchanted with the many-colored lights.

4. Impressed with his qualifications, Paul was hired by the printing firm.

5. Answering the telephone, no one was on the line.

二、改变下列各句的主句结构，使动名词短语不再荡空

1. By leaning out the window, the full moon appeared in the sky.

2. From reading the timetable, no more trains were scheduled to depart today.

3. By comparing the plays of Marlowe and Shakespeare, Elizabethan literature can be better appreciated.

4. By studying throughout the night, the examination was passed.

5. From speaking with Giancarlo, the correct pronunciation of Italian was understood by the students.

三、改变下列各句的主句结构，使不定式短语不再荡空

1. To plan your vacation, some books on Morocco should be read.

2. To start the car, the accelerator must be depressed twice.

3. To design the building, many consultants were hired by the architect.

4. To cross the bridge, the railing should be held on to.

5. To train for the Olympics, dieting was necessary for the athlete.

四、改变下列各句的主句结构，使省略从句不再荡空

1. While studying Chemistry, the barking dog disturbed me.

2. When crossing the Atlantic, a ship or plane may be taken.

3. When learning to spell English words, spelling rules should be memorized.

4. Although unexpected, we found their visit to our home to be enjoyable.

5. After working long hours, my bed was a welcome sight.

五、多项选择

1. Wood furniture does not depreciate in value_____properly handled and protected.

A. if

B. has

C. and

D. that

2. _____at temperatures above 1,250℃, clay fuses and becomes non-porous stone ware or porcelain.

A. When fired

B. It is fired

C. Firing

D. When firing it

3. To help a friend solve the problem troubling him, _____.

A. a friend should be made known of his difficult situation

B. a man should be equipped with the kind of knowledge required

C. nothing is better than the offering of one's money

D. keeping one's promises is most important

4. By planning a composition carefully, _____.

A. much time can be saved

B. there can save much time

C. one can save much time

D. much of time can be saved

5. Entering Chicago from the west, _____.

A. we saw a whole network of stockyards

B. a whole network of stockyards was seen

C. stockyards in a whole network were in sight

D. appeared the whole network of stockyards

6. When only a small boy, _____.

A. my father took me with him to Denver

B. I went with my father to Denver

C. I was taken to Denver with my father

D. My father went with me to Denver

7. To run efficiently, _____.

A. the machine must be properly oiled

B. a proper oiling is needed

C. proper oiling should be given to machine

D. it is necessary to oil the machine properly

8. Walking through the main gate of the park, _____.

A. the swimming pool was seen ahead of me

B. ahead of me was the swimming pool

C. I have been seeing the swimming pool just ahead

D. I saw the swimming pool just ahead

六、改错

1. After finishing (A) Roots, the one-hundred-year (B) history of a black American family, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded (C) author Alex Haley a special citation for (D) literary excellence.

2. To remove stains from (A) permanent press clothing, carefully soaking (B) in cold water before washing (C) with one's (D) regular detergent.

3. Found (A) in Tanzania by Mary leaky (B), some archaeologists estimated that the tree-million-year-old (C) fossils were the oldest (D) human remains to be discovered.

4. By migrating to a warmer climate (A) every fall (B), survival is assured (C) for another year (D).

5. Saddened by the actor's (A) sudden death, a memorial fund will be established (B) so that (C) family and friends can make (D) donations in his name to The American Cancer Society.

6. To prevent cavities, dental floss should be used (A) daily (B) after brushing (C) one's (D) teeth.

7. Trying (A) to pay (B) for a purchase with cash, salespersons often (C) ask for credit cards instead (D).

8. After reviewing (A) the curriculum, several (B) significant changes were (C) made in (D) traditional business programs at Harvard University.

9. By reading (A) the instruction carefully (B), mistakes on the examinations (C) can be avoided (D).

10. Attempting (A) to smuggle drugs into the country, customs officials apprehended (B) them, and took (C) them to police headquarters for questioning (D).

Keys

一、改变下列各句的主句结构，使分词短语不再荡空

1. Making funny faces, the clowns opened the circus.

2. Walking home from the movies, we saw the street lights turn on.

3. Strung up on the Christmas tree, the many-colored lights were enchanting.

4. Impressed with his qualifications, the printing firm hired Paul.

5. Answering the telephone, I heard no one on the line.

二、改变下列各句的主句结构，使动名词短语不再荡空

1. By leaning out the window, we saw the full moon in the sky.

2. From reading the timetable, we saw that no more trains were scheduled to depart today.

3. By comparing the plays of Marlowe and Shakespeare, we can better appreciate Elizabethan literature.

4. By studying throughout the night, we/they passed the examination.

5. From speaking with Giancario, the students understood the correct pronunciation of Italian.

三、改变下列各句的主句结构，使不定式短语不再荡空

1. To plan your vacation, you should read some books on Morocco.

2. To start the car, you must depress the accelerator twice.

3. To design the building, the architect hired many consultants.

4. To cross the bridge, you/we should hold on to the railing.

5. To train for the Olympics, the athlete needed dieting.

四、改变下列各句的主句结构，使省略从句不再荡空

1. While studying chemistry, I was disturbed by the barking dog.

2. When crossing the Atlantic, you/we may take a ship or plane.

3. When learning to spell English words, you/we should memorize spelling rules.

4. Although unexpected, their visit to our home was found to be enjoyable.

5. After working long hours, I found that my bed was a welcome sight (or: I found my bed a welcome sight).

五、多项选择

1.［A］if后面省略it is，it指wood furniture。

2.［A］When fired=when (it is) fired，it指clay。

3.［B］主语a man同时也作不定式短语To help a friend... 的逻辑主语。

4.［C］

5.［A］主语we充当分词短语Entering Chicago 的逻辑主语。B、C及D中的主语均不能作置于句首分词的逻辑主语，故不妥。

6.［B］因When only a small boy=When (I was) only a small boy。C中主语也是I，表示“我和父亲一起被人带到丹佛去”，句意不通。

7.［A］（the machine must be properly oiled），主语machine兼作句首不定式To return的逻辑主语，其余皆不能，故不妥。

8.［D］（I saw the swimming pool just ahead），主语I也充当分词Walking 的逻辑主语。C中时态不妥。

六、改错

1.［A］主语Committee不能作动名词finishing的逻辑主语，该动词便荡空，把A改为After he finished Roots，he指该书作者Alex Haley。A也可改为After Roots was finished；但这样改后，Roots和同位语the one-hundred-year history of a black American family相隔较远，故不如第一式改法好。

2.［B］改为one carefully soaks it。主语one兼作句首不定式短语To remove stains的逻辑主语，it指clothing。

3.［A］主语archeologists不能作句首过去分词Found的逻辑主语，故该分词荡空。A应该为After they were found...，they指fossils。

4.［C］主语survival不能作动名词migrating的逻辑主语，把C改为migratory birds are assured of survival。

5.［B］改为people will establish a memorial fund。

6.［A］改为one should use dental floss，主语one便能兼作句首不定式短语To prevent cavities的逻辑主语。

7.［A］因主语salespersons不可能作句首分词Trying的逻辑主语，否则便闹天大笑话，把A改为When customers try。

8.［A］主语changes不能成为动名词reviewing的逻辑主语，需在动名词前补上代表changes的所有格代词，即把A改为their reviewing，或改为they reviewed。

9.［A］主语mistakes不能成为动名词reading的逻辑主语，需在动名词reading前补上their。

10.［A］应改为When smugglers attempted。

第十二章　形容词

一、定语形容词和表语形容词

1. 绝大部分的形容词既可用作定语又可用作表语

Sophia is pretty.［表语］

Sophia is a pretty girl.［定语］

a bad habit［定语］

I feel bad about missing your visit.［表语］你来时我不在，我觉得很遗憾。

但有少数形容词只能用作定语放在名词前，即用作前置形容词，常见的有：daily，weekly，monthly，former（前者），latter（后者），woolen（羊毛的）。如可以说“My weekly pay is $150.”但不可说“My pay is weekly.”因weekly不能用作表语，应改为“I am paid weekly.”［在此句中，weekly用作状语］可以说a woolen coat，但不可说“My coat is woolen.”应改为“My coat is made of wool.”

还有少数形容词只能用作表语，位置放在be的后面。表语形容词一般都是以字母a开头，常见的有：afraid，alive，alone，alike，ashamed，awake及aware；也有不是以a开头的，如content（满意的）和unable。如：

（×）He is an alive man.

（⇒）He is a living man或He is alive.

（×）an alone person

（⇒）a lone person或He is alone.［不能说He is lone，因lone是定语形容词，不能用作表语］

（×）an asleep child

（⇒）a sleeping child或The child is asleep.

（×）They are of an alike shape.

（⇒）They are of a like shape［like可作定语形容词，作“相同的”解］或They are alike in shape.

（×）a well man

（⇒）a healthy man或He is well.

（×）an afraid man

（⇒）a frightened man或He is afraid.

（×）an ill person

（⇒）a sick person或He is ill/sick. ill不作“生病”解时，可用作定语，如ill news（坏消息），ill luck（厄运）及an ill wind（逆风）。

注意，按英语习惯用法，表语形容词一般不用very修饰，应用much或very much或用习惯搭配的副词来加以修饰。如：

（×）He is very asleep.

（⇒）He is fast asleep或He is sound asleep.

（×）He is very awake.

（⇒）He is wide awake.

（×）He is very aware of his danger.

（⇒）He is fully aware/quite aware of his danger. 但有例外，我们说“I'm very well.”不说“I'm much well.”或“I'm very much well.”

2. 来自法语和拉丁语的定语形容词

一些来自法文及拉丁文系统的定语形容词在其固定搭配中则用作后置修饰语。如：

· poet laureate（复：poets laureate）桂冠诗人［laureate在其他场合则用作前置修饰语，如a laureate crown 月桂皇冠，a laureate concert 音乐比赛获奖者演出的音乐会］

· China proper 中国本土

· the city proper（不包括郊区的）市区本身

· the dictionary proper 辞典正文

· heir apparent（复：heirs apparent）（法律）当然继承人

· God Almighty 全能的神（指基督教的上帝）［也可用Almighty God，但不及God Almighty普遍］

3. 一些习惯表达法

通常说next Sunday，Monday，etc.前无介词，但当next置于Sunday，Monday，etc.之后时，前面需用介词on。试比较：

足球比赛定于下星期二两点钟举行。

The football match is next Tuesday at 2 o'clock.

The football match is on Tuesday next at 2 o'clock.

▶▶ honor bright系口头用语，形容词bright置于名词honor之后，两词连用相当于一个副词，即truly；honestly。如：

I finished all my homework, honor bright. 我真的把功课都做好了。

It's definitely not so, honor bright. 这事绝对不是这样，我可以发誓。

请再看以下对话：

A: Mike owns a highly profitable business, earning about $800,000 a year. 迈克开了一家获利丰厚的商行，一年要赚80万美元左右。

B: Honor Bright? 真的吗？

A: Honor Bright. 那还能假？

▶▶ content和contented均作“感到满意的”解，在习惯上，content用作表语形容词，而contented则用作定语。如：

He is content with his promotion. 他对自己的晋升感到满意。

A contented person is happy with his status quo. 对现状知足的人便能常乐。

二、形容词并列用作定语时的位置

有时一个名词前有好几个不同种类定语同时修饰该名词，这时就出现定语形容词的位置问题。一般讲，其先后的排列顺序如下：

1. 表大小的与表形状的形容词并列

表示大小的形容词与表示形状的形容词并列时，大小在前，形状在后。

a large（大小）square（形状）table

a medium-sized（大小）oblong（形状）（长方形）dining-room

2. 表大小、形状和颜色的形容词并列

表示大小、形状（包括长短、高低）和颜色的形容词并列时，大小在前，形状次之，颜色最后。

a little（大小）red（颜色）can（罐头）

low（形状）grey（颜色）walls

3. 表年龄、新旧与表颜色的形容词并列

表示年龄、新旧与颜色的形容词并列，年龄或新旧在先，颜色在后。

a new（新旧）green（颜色）coat

an old（新旧）black（颜色）car

4. 表年龄、新旧、颜色的与表国籍、地区、出处的形容词并列

表示年龄、新旧、颜色等形容词与表示国籍、地区、出处的形容词并列时，通常是国籍、地区、出处在后，其他形容词在前。

a short young Japanese（国籍）businessman

5. 限定词与形容词并列

如果名词前除上述各类形容词外还有this, that, these, those等限定词，表性质或状态的一般描绘性形容词、数量形容词（指基数词和序数词）以及表示材料的形容词（包括用作形容词的材料名词），这时形容词的词序通常如下：

限定词 (1) → 数量形容词（序数前，基数后） (2) → 性状形容词 (3) → 大小、长短、高低等形体 (4) → 新旧 (5) → 颜色 (6) → 国籍 (7) → 材料 (8)

例如：

those（限定）beautiful（性状）round（形体）multi-colored（颜色）Chinese（国籍）cloisonne（景泰蓝）（材料）vases during my first（序数）ten（基数）days in England

例　“Do you like the Chinese food served in American restaurants?”

“It's not bad but I prefer_____.”

A. Chinese food authentically

B. Chinese authentic food

C. food Chinese authentically

D. authentic Chinese food

［分析］authentic表性状，Chinese表国籍，authentic应在前使Chinese更靠近名词food，故选D项，而不能选B项。A和C两项皆不通。

三、形容词的级

形容词有三级变化，即原级、比较级和最高级，以表示形容词说明的性质在程度上的不同。

1. 原级形容词

1 　原级形容词的概念。

原级形容词，即形容词的原来形式，用来表示双方在程度上“相等”或“一样”，其肯定式句型为“be as+原级形容词+as”，否定式句型为“be not so（或as）+原级形容词+as”：

Nancy is as busy as Nelly.

There are as many students in your class as in ours.

Harry is not so（或as）strong as Horatio.

在正式文体中：

A. 上列否定式句型可为“be less+原级形容词+than”所代替。

Harry is less strong than Horatio.

Nancy is less busy than Nelly.

B. less...than用于不可数名词，同not as much...as。

Andrew has got less work than I have. (=He has not got as much work as I have.)

C. fewer...than用于复数可数名词，同not as many...as。

Herbert has got fewer books than I have. (=He has not got as many books as I have.)

在谈到某一特定事物的量时，not much/many要比little/few更为常用：

“There is not much whisky in this bottle.”比“There is little whisky in this bottle.”普遍。

“There are not many people in the shop”.比“There are few people in the shop.”普通。

要着重表示数量少的概念时，可使用very little/very few：

There are very few foreign magazines in the reading-room.

There is very little information on this subject.

a little及a few表示肯定；a little用于不可数名词；a few用于复数可数名词前。little与few前如无a，则表示否定。

2 　原级形容词的两个特殊结构。

A. as...as can be，意为“极其”，“最为”，表示无以复加的程度（the highest degree possible）。

It is as plain as plain can be. 这事是极其明显的。

Our managing director is as wise as wise can be. 我们的总经理英明得不得了。

That fellow is as bad as bad can be. 那家伙坏透啦。

注意（1）在应用这一结构时，可省去第一个as或省去can be，（2）can be有时也可用need be 代替：

Mark is（省去as）proud as proud can be.

Mark is as proud as proud（省去can be）.

Mr. Calloway is（省去as）rich as rich can be.

Mr. Calloway is as rich as rich（省去can be）.

Tom was as fine a chap as need be. 汤姆是个要多么好就有多么好的小伙子。

B. no less...than...，作“同样地”解，同as...as，以比较级的形式来表示原级的意思。

Sally is no less charming than Jeans. (=Sally is as charming as Jeans.)

As a fitter（钳工）, Bob is no less skilled than you. (=As a fitter, Bob is as skilled as you.)

Alex is no less active than he used to be. (=Alex is as active as he used to be.)

例　Our native language is a part of our natural heritage, a personal possession_____.

A. no more than our own as the geography of our birthplace

B. no less than our own as the geography of our birthplace

C. not so little our own than the geography of our birthplace

D. no less our own than the geography of our birthplace

［分析］题中a personal possession是our natural heritage的同位语，它前面省略了which is，故应选D。a personal possession no less our own than the geography of our birthplace=a personal possession (which is) as our own as the geography of our birthplace。

2. 形容词比较级和最高级的构成

1 　单音节形容词加词尾-er及-est。

tall → taller → tallest

注1：以e结尾的单音节形容词加-r及-st，如large，larger，largest。

注2：以一个辅音字母结尾的词将该辅音字母双写，再加-er及-est，如big，bigger，biggest;thin，thinner，thinnest。

2 　三音节及三音节以上的形容词在其前面加more及most。

如beautiful，more beautiful，most beautiful。

3 　双音节形容词有的加词尾-er及-est，有的在前面加more及most。

这是一个难点，但如能掌握以下几个规则，这一难点便会迎刃而解：

A. 重音在第一音节的双音节形容词前面加more及most。

'famous

more famous

most famous

'useful

more useful

most useful

B. 重音在第二音节的双音节形容词在其词尾加-er及-est。

如词尾已有e，则加-r及-st即可，如po'lite，politer，politest；re'mote，remoter，remotest。

C. 在下列情况下，即使重音在第一音节上，双音节形容词一律在词尾加-er及-est。

以-er结尾

clever

cleverer

cleverest

bitter

bitterer

bitterest

以-ow结尾

narrow

narrower

narrowest

shallow

shallower

shallowest

以-le结尾

simple

simpler

simplest

noble

nobler

noblest

able

abler

ablest

以-y结尾者［把y改为i，再加-er及-est］

busy

busier

busiest

easy

easier

easiest

happy

happier

happiest

运用以上的规则便能基本上掌握双音节形容词的级的变化，这对实际应用及考试均有很大帮助。如下面有关双音节形容词级的变化的一道题目：

例　The grain of rye is longer (A) and slender (B) than (C) that (D) of wheat.

很明显，B错，slender是以-er结尾的双音节形容词，应改为比较级slenderer。

▶▶ 这里要说明两点：

① 上列形容词级的变化规律，虽然运用于大部分形容词，但在实际应用时有些例外。如：

原级

比较级

最高级

real

（单音节）

不是realer

而是more real

不是realest

而是most real

glad

（单音节）

不是gladder

而是more glad

不是gladdest

而是most glad

pleased

（单音节）

不是pleaseder

而是more pleased

不是pleasedest

而是most pleased

fond

（单音节）

不是fonder

而是more fond

不是fondest

而是most fond

tired

（单音节）

不是tireder

而是more tired

不是tiredest

而是most tired

wicked

（二音节，重音在第一音节）

不是more wicked

而是wickeder

不是most wicked

而是wickedest

common

（双音节，重音在第一音节）

不是more common

而是commoner

不是most common

而是commonest

但在现代英语的日常运用中有一种多用more及most的倾向。如：

common

more common

most common

able

more able

most able

polite

more polite

most polite

② 在日常用语中还有以下几个特殊的比较级和最高级值得注意：

原级

比较级

最高级

good/well

better

best

bad/ill

worse

worst

many/much

more

most

little

less

least

far

farther, further

farthest furthest

old

older, elder

oldest, eldest

注1：作为far的比较级，farther和farthest要比further和furthest普通得多。furthest现在已用得极少，further现在主要用作原级形容词，作“进一步”解，如：

We are waiting for further notice.

go abroad for further study（出国深造）

注2：older和oldest表示年龄及时间或年代上的长久；elder及eldest则表示兄弟姐妹之间的长幼关系：

Laura is older than Louisa.

It is the oldest building in our college.

My elder brother is two years older than I.

但在现代美国英语中older (oldest) brother/sister用来代表elder (eldest) brother/sister。

3. 形容词比较级的用法

1 　用于二者之间在程度、大小、高低、好坏等方面的比较。

句型1　be+形容词比较级+than...

This is more important than that.

Hugh is stronger than Eugene.

句型2　be+less+形容词+than...

This is less important than that. 这不及那重要。

Eugene is less strong than Hugh. 尤金不及修强壮。

本句型从否定角度来进行两者之间的比较，在实际应用中远不及句型1普遍。

句型3　be+the+形容词比较级+of the two［此句型中有定冠词the，并以介词of代替连词than］

This is the more important of the two.

Hugh is the stronger of the two young men.

2 　在日常应用中，形容词比较级有以下几个句型。

句型1　比较级+and+比较级越来越……

When spring comes, the weather gets warmer and warmer. 春天来了，天气越来越暖和。

The situation is becoming more and more favorable to us. 形势正在变得越来越有利于我们。

句型2　the+比较级...，the+比较级

在这一结构中，第一个the用作关系副词，相当于by how much，引导从句；第二个the用作指示副词，相当于by so much引导主句；这一结构的意思相当于汉语的“越……越……”如：

The busier I am, the happier I feel. 越忙越有劲。

The more people we have, the better it will be. 人越多越好。

注1：在第二个the引导的主句中，可用现在时（如上例1）或一般将来时（如上例2），现在时比将来时更为强调。

注2：指示副词the引导的主句中，主谓也可采用部分倒置。如：

The busier I am, the happier do I feel.

The more people we have, the better will it be.

这一结构有一变体，即“主谓+比较级…，the+比较级…”，在处理英译中时，第二部分须先译。如“An object（物体）appears smaller, the farther it is.”句意为（一个物体离得越远，它显得越小）。

句型3　all the+比较级更加

Failure is the mother of success. You will be all the better for your failure.

As a result, poor people became all the poorer. 因而，穷的更穷。

4. 形容词原级和比较级的同时使用

形容词的原级形式为as...as，比较级的形式为：比较级+than。有时，因句意需要，同一个句子里要同时采用形容词的原级和比较级两种形式，这时人们往往会疏忽，不是漏掉第二个as，就是漏写than，造成结构上的错误。如：

Life in our country is as happy, if not happier than, in your country.［×漏掉第二个as］

Life in our country is as happy as, if not happier, in your country.［×happier后漏写than］

正确的结构应是：

Life in our country is as happy as, if not happier than, in your country.

或Life in our country is as happy as in your country, if not happier (than in your country).

这一结构的关键在于第二个as和比较级形容词后面的than都不可省略，带比较级的if从句置于句末时，则than可省略。

例　In his time, he enjoyed a reputation_____.

A. greater, if not as great as Mozart's

B. as great, if not greater, as Mozart's

C. as great as, if not greater than, Mozart's

D. as great as Mozart's, if not great

［分析］A中greater后应加上than，第二个as后应加上逗号。B中漏掉第二个as，比较级形容词greater后需加上than，同时去掉Mozart's前之as。D中if not great中之great应改为比较级greater。if not greater置于句末，后面便可省略（than Mozart's）。故正确选择应是C。

5. 形容词最高级的用法

形容词最高级用于三者或三者以上。

句型1　be+the+最高级+介词短语

Iron is the most useful of all metals.

The most important event in San Francisco's history was the disastrous earthquake of 1906.

句型2　be+the+序数词+最高级形容词+单数名词+介词短语

The Changjiang is the third longest river in the world.

Texas is the second largest state in the United States.

最高级形容词的前面通常要加定冠词the，但当用作表语并不和他人他物比较时，则前面不加定冠词the：

I am busiest at this time of the month.

Vegetables are best when they are fresh.

The housing problem is most serious in this city.

句型3　be at one's (its)+最高级形容词

The primrose is at its best now.

Gladys is at her worst（情绪最坏）; her application for a scholarship was not granted.

This painting shows Goya at his best. 这幅画是戈雅的最佳作品。

Yronne is at her happiest in her writing of lyric poems. 伊芳写抒情诗最拿手。

句型4　one of the+最高级形容词+复数名词

Mabel is one of the most diligent girl students here.

四、形容词的一些特殊用法

1. most

most用在三音节及部分双音节形容词前表示最高级时，前面要加定冠词the，但有时它用在形容词前不表示最高级而表示very的意思；这时，most前面不可加the。如形容词后面跟名词，则需加不定冠词a：

It is a most (=very) moving report.［形容词moving后有名词］

He is most (=very) polite to me.［形容词polite后无名词，故most前不用冠词］

2. enough

enough用作形容词时有以下两个特殊用法：

1 　可接不可数名词和复数名词，位置可放在它所修饰名词之前或后。

enough均修饰不可数名词manpower，一个置其前，一个置其后，意思相同，皆指“我们有足够的人力搞这一项目。”

We have enough manpower for the project.

We have manpower enough for the project.

enough修饰复数可数名词，位置也是前后均可。

Are there enough seats for all?

Are there seats enough for all?

2 　be+单数名词（前无冠词）+enough+不定式。

She was fool enough to marry that playboy（花花公子）.

在上面结构特殊的例句中，fool并不是指具体的人，而是表示该词所含有的那种素质，实际上等于该词的形容词foolish，即She was foolish enough to marry that playboy. enough 的这一结构有其独特的表现力，现再举数例如下：

Are you man enough to take this difficult job?

（man=manly指男子汉气概）

I am not scholar enough to read this inscription.

（scholar=scholarly，意指“我的学识不够，还看不懂这个碑文。”）

I am not poet enough to have such sentiments.

（poet=poetic，意指“我诗意不够，没能产生那种情绪。”）

有一个谚语用mud和enough构成：If you throw mud enough, some of it will stick.

毁谤重复多次，就会有人相信。

在日常生活中enough常用作名词，如：

Four children are enough of a burden.

有四个孩子，担子够重的了。

You are always so good to me. I really can't say enough about your help and loving kindness

你总是对我这么好。你的帮助和恩情我实在是说也说不完。

在《水浒》中武松醉打恶霸蒋门神一段脍炙人口，武松对打倒在地的蒋门神说，“叫饶，我就不再打你！”英文就可用enough来表达：Cry“enough”, and I'll stop beating you.

enough用作副词时的结构将在下一章“副词”中谈论。

3. the+形容词（包括分词形容词）

the+形容词表示一类人或一类事物：

the rich 有钱人

the young 青年

the oppressed 被压迫的人

the dying 生命垂危的人

the poor 贫穷的人

the blind 盲人

the exploited 被剥削的人

the wretched 可怜的人

the many 多数人

the deaf 聋子

the wounded 受伤的人

the departed 死者

the few 少数人

the deceased 死者

the killed 死了的人

the impossible 不可能办到的事情

the old 老年人；旧的事物

the living 活着的人

the aged, the weak, the sick and the disabled 老弱病残

the+形容词或分词起到名词作用，故又称名词化的形容词，在句中作主语或宾语。由于这一句型表示一类人或一类事物，故后面通常接复数动词：

The aged（老年人）are well looked after here.

有少数词则接单数动词。如：

The deceased（死者）was my uncle.

在哲学论著中，the+形容词表示抽象概念。如：

the true, the good and the beautiful 真善美

get rid of the stale and take in the fresh 吐故纳新

这样用时，后面通常接单数动词。如：

The unexpected（意外情况）often happens.

The beautiful is not always the same as the good.

掌握the+形容词这一名词化形容词的用法有助于写作上的灵活性。如Never speak ill of people behind their backs.（不要在人的背后讲他们的坏话。）从语法及用字角度上看，此句可说无懈可击，但如采用the+形容词这一结构，该句便可改为“Never speak ill of the absent.”句意不变，但字数却明显减少，行文也显得简练。

例　What (A) is remote from common (B) appearance is (C) always welcomed to vulgar. (D)

［分析］vulgar是形容词，作“庸俗的；趣味低级的”解，应把D改为by the vulgar（庸俗的人；趣味不高雅的人），句意是“奇装异服总是合乎那些趣味低级的人的胃口。”

4. 形容词修饰形容词

形容词只能修饰名词，但在一些固定的形容词词组中，形容词则被用来修饰另一个形容词：

icy cold 冰冷［不用icily cold］

tight shut 紧闭［不用tightly］

dead drunk 酩酊大醉［不用deadly］

red hot 炽热［不用redly］

dead asleep 酣睡［不用deadly］

wide open 敞开［不用widely］

5. 动词+形容词

动词为副词所修饰，但在实际应用中产生一些“动词+形容词”的固定词组；在这些固定词组中，不能把形容词改为副词。常见的有：

come alive 活跃起来

go barefoot 光着脚走路

come clean 变得清洁

go wild 变野

fall silent 安静起来

go over big 大受欢迎；非常成功

fall unconscious 失去知觉

grow wild 野生

go crazy 发狂

run wild 放荡；蔓延

go mad 发疯

run loose 放纵，听凭

在上列这些固定词组中，所有动词实际上都是特殊连系动词，可以参照第六章第二小节“特殊连系动词”。

6. 运用比较级或最高级形容词的常见习语

at most 至多；充其量

It won't take too long to get there, two hours at most.

at least 至少

You should read one book a month at least.

not in the least 一点也不

The book is not in the least difficult.

to say the least of it 至少可以如此说

It was rather an unsatisfactory trip, to say the least of it.

least of all 最不；尤其不

I like that novel least of all. 我最不喜欢那本小说。

Nobody ought to complain; he least of all, who has received so much kindness. 人人都不该抱怨，他尤其不应该，他已得到如此多的照顾。

for better or for worse/for better for worse 不论好坏

At the wedding, they promised to live together for better or for worse. 在婚礼上，他俩承诺苦乐与共，忠贞不渝。

if the worst comes to the worst 万一发生最坏的情况；万不得已时

If the worst comes to the worst, we can always start all over again. 万不得已时，我们总还可以再从头干起嘛！

none the better 并不见好

The patient had been given many an injection, but he felt none the better for it. 这个病人打过好多针了，但并不见好。

none the less 仍然

He is old, none the less he works like a young man.

none the worse 还是；仍旧

I like this child none the worse for being a bit naughty. 我并不因为这孩子有点顽皮就不喜欢他。

for the better 好转

His state of health has changed for the better recently. 近来他的健康状况好转了。

for the worse 变坏，恶化

His condition changed for the worse, so we decided to send him to the hospital. 他的病情恶化，我们决定把他送进医院。

put one's best foot forward 尽最快速度走路；全力以赴

If you want to get there by nightfall, you'll have to put your best foot forward.

Let's put our best foot forward and finish the design before the weekend.［注意，our后面之foot仍用单数，不可用feet］

make the most/best of sth. 尽量利用；充分利用

The workers in this factory make the most of their scrap iron. 该厂工人充分利用废铁。

He makes the best of his opportunities to learn. 他抓住一切机会学习。

to the best of one's ability 尽力地

I will carry out your instructions to the best of my ability. 我将尽力执行你的指示。

to the best of my belief 在我看来

To the best of my belief, it will take him at least two weeks to do the job. 照我看来，他做这事至少要两周。

to the best of my knowledge=to my knowledge 据我所知

To the best of my knowledge, he is still living in New Jersey.

to the best of my memory/recollection 就我记忆所及

“To the best of my memory, the accident happened around five o'clock,”the witness said. 证人说，“就我所记得，该事故发生在五点左右。”

五、易混淆的形容词

1. 一些主客观意义易混淆的形容词

从意义上讲，英语中有若干成对的形容词，其中一个表示主观意义，即“（自己）感到……”，感觉来自自身。另一个表示客观意义，即“令人/使人感到……”，感觉来自外界，两者在使用时不可混淆。试比较下列各对形容词：

成对的分词形容词

从以上的实例中可以看出，表示客观意义的形容词具有一个明显的语义特征，即“使役性”（causative）特征，相等于汉语“使人……”或“令人……”的含义。由此可见，英语中以现在分词形式出现的形容词大都表示客观意义，以过去形式出现的形容词多半表示主观意义。

但有少数几个现在分词形容词不具备使役性含义，而是表示主观意义：

an understanding smile 会心的微笑

a knowing glance 会意的眼色

a demanding teacher 要求严格的老师

a calculating person 处处为自己打算的人

有些个别形容词既能表示主观意义，又能表示客观意义。如：

主观意义

客观意义

acceptive

愿意接受的

We are acceptive of new ideas.

可令人接受的

Your suggestion is acceptive.

doubtful

对……抱怀疑的

The doctor is doubtful of the patient's recovery.

难以预测的

This is a doubtful battle. 这是一场胜负难测的战役。

suspicious

多疑的；有疑心病的；对……感到怀疑的

The savages were at first suspicious of the strangers. 那些野蛮人最初对那些陌生人很怀疑。

令人怀疑的；可疑的

A man is hanging about our house in a suspicious manner. 有个人行迹可疑地在我们屋子的周围徘徊。

difficult

刁难人的

He is a difficult person to get along with.

他为人刁难，难以相处。

令人感到困难的；很难的

The higher mathematics is difficult.

高等数学很难。

例　Ladybugs are desirous (A) in the garden (B) because most (C) kinds eat aphids and other (D) harmful insects.

［分析］A是错的，因desirous这一形容词表主观意义，应改为表示客观意义的相对形容词desirable，或改为desired与are构成被动语态。

2. 意义极容易混淆的形容词

beneficial 有裨益的，有用的，有利的

beneficent 行善的，慈善的，有益的

Sunshine and rain are beneficial to the crops in the fields. 日光和雨水有益于田间作物。

When my mother was alive, she was beneficent to the poor. 我母亲在世时，她对穷人很慈善。

childish 孩子气的，幼稚的，童稚的

childlike（孩子般）天真无邪的

Some people are childish with age. 有些人随着年龄老而变得天真。

I quite appreciate his childlike directness of speech. 我很赏识他说话像孩子般的直截了当。

comparable 可比较的，比得上的，类似的

comparative 比较的，相对而言的，相对的

His achievements are comparable with/to the best. 他的成绩可与最优秀的相比。

A fire is comparable with the sun; both give light and heat. 火可以和太阳相比，两者都发光和热。

What do you think of the comparative merits of the two plans? 你认为这两个计划的相对优点怎么样？

We are making a comparative study of the educational systems of China and the USA. 我们正在对中美两国的教育制度进行比较研究。

economic 经济的，经济上的，经济学的，合算的，有利可图的

economical 实惠的，节约的，简练的（文体）

Overseas Chinese are paying a great deal of attention to the rapid economic growth of their motherland. 海外赤子非常关注祖国经济的迅速增长。

What has actually gone wrong with the economic system the world over during the last ten years? 过去10年中全世界的经济制度究竟出了什么问题？

Mrs. Wang thinks of herself as an economical housewife. 王太太认为自己是个节俭的家庭主妇。

One should be economical of one's time and energy. 一个人应该节省时间和精力。

Engines of this brand are fairly economical of fuel. 这种牌子的发动机相当节省燃料。

The girl is pretty, but is economical of smiles. 姑娘长得很美，但她很少笑。

healthy 健康的

healthful 有益于健康的

We regularly go in for healthy recreation of body and mind. 我们定期搞些健康的身心娱乐活动。

Every one of us should live a healthful way of life. 我们每个人应过有益于健康的生活方式。

ingenious 精巧的，巧妙的，新颖独特的，心灵手巧的

ingenuous 单纯的，天真的，真诚的

His ingenious cynical essays are quite popular among readers. 他极有创意的愤世嫉俗的小品文很受读者的欢迎。

We have blazed ingenious ways of saving energy. 我们已开辟出节约能源的巧妙方法。

An interviewee should give ingenuous answers to all the questions asked by the interviewer. 被面试者应老老实实地回答主持面试的人所提的一切问题。

intelligent 聪明的，有才智的，悟性强的

intelligible 易懂的，易理解的

Irene is a decidedly intelligent woman. 艾琳是一位绝顶聪明的女人。

An intelligent person knows their own limitations. 一个聪明的人有自知之明。

注：person可指男性或女性，过去都用his or her来指代person，显得啰嗦，当代英语一概用包括两性的their来指代，其他包括男女两性的代词也按此用法处理。如：

Everyone brought his or her partner to the party.（正式英语，已显过时）

Everyone brought their partner to the party.（当代英语）

译文相同：所有人都携眷参加聚会。

We should manage to explain in full detail the process of operating the new machine so that it would be intelligible to an outsider. 我们应设法详尽地说明操作该新机器的过程，以便外行人也能看懂。

Make sure that your memos are intelligible.

务必使你的备忘录明白易懂。

practical 实际的，实用的，切实可行的，有见识的

practicable 行得通的，可行的，（道路）可通行的

Yours is actually a practical suggestion. 你的建议倒是个切实可行的建议。

He is a practical person. He never spends his time and money foolishly. 他是个有头脑的人，他从不虚度光阴，也不胡乱花钱。

My husband is a man with a practical mind. He can't understand his son's ardent desire to be a pianist. 我丈夫这人讲究实际，不能理解儿子想当钢琴家的热切愿望。

We hit on practicable measures for the solution of our financial troubles. 我们灵机一动想到了切实可行的措施来解决我们财务方面的困难。

regretful 令人惋惜的，遗憾的，后悔的

regrettable 令人遗憾的，使人悔恨的，可惜的

All of us feel deeply regretful that the negotiation should have ended like that. 谈判竟然会弄到那样的结局，我们大家都深感遗憾。

Are you regretful for what you have done? 你后悔你自己所做的事吗？

It is nothing regrettable to quit such a thankless job. 辞掉这样吃力不讨好的工作一点也不令人遗憾。

sensible 明智的，理智的，通情达理的，知道的，意识到的

sensitive 敏感的，体恤人的，善解人意的，对（音乐，画画）有悟性的

I am deeply sensible of my indebtedness to your loving-kindness as long as I live. 在我有生之年我深深忘不了我对你的一番恩情的感激之情。

You can rest assured that he is sensible of your kindness. 你可以放心，他是知道你的好意的。

The apoplectic is speechless but still sensible. 那中风病人不能讲话，但仍有知觉。

Asthmatic patients are especially sensitive to odour. 哮喘病人对气味特别过敏。

With a sensitive heart, she dissolved in tears on hearing the bad news. 她心肠很软，一听到那坏消息，她泪流满面地哭起来。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. He looks at us sadly with his eyes_____as her grandmother's.

A. a good place in a size as large

B. of large size

C. so large

D. as large

2. Some students in the university took part in the seminar on television, but this semester_____attended.

A. many students than ever before

B. more students than ever before

C. most students that ever before

D. ever before many more students

3. Of the two cars that the Smiths have, the Plymouth is, without any question, _____to run.

A. the cheapest

B. cheapest

C. cheaper

D. the cheaper

4. The industrial trend is in the direction of more machines and_____people.

A. less

B. lesser

C. few

D. fewer

5. _____of all of the 1980 presidential candidates was Ronald Reagan.

A. The richest

B. The richer

C. They mostly richly

D. The rich

6. All factors considered, the opinion is that the net cost of goods produced will be_____.

A. many higher

B. lowest

C. about same

D. somewhat higher

7. Dr. Lane has a larger practice than_____.

A. everyone along with his line

B. anyone else in his profession

C. anyone engaged in this occupation

D. one who also is in such a job

8. This kind of tea is different_____.

A. and better than the other

B. and it is also better

C. but also better than others

D. from the other, and better

9. On enough logical reasons, the fewer seeds, _____.

A. the less plants grow

B. the fewer plants

C. the less plants

D. the plants the fewer

10. In studies Frank is brighter_____.

A. but not so reliable as Henry

B. and not necessary reliable as Henry

C. than Henry, but not so reliable

D. and not as reliable as Henry

11. “Do you think Kowalski will make a good president?”

“He is just_____Richer to lead.”

A. as qualified as

B. as equally qualified as

C. the same qualified as

D. most qualified that

12. Every doctor in the hospital says that John is_____.

A. more sick than a week ago

B. more seriously sick than before

C. much worse than a week ago

D. more heavily sick than before

13. Please write out the answers to the questions at the end of_____.

A. Eighth Chapter

B. Eight Chapter

C. Chapter Eight

D. Chapter the Eight

14. Three times two is_____two times three.

A. the same with

B. the same like

C. the same as

D. the same alike

15. When he was asked, the coach expressed the opinion that_____.

A. for older people swimming is a better exercise than rowing

B. to swim is a better exercise than to row for older people

C. older people should swim rather than to row for exercise

D. swimming is a better exercise for old people than to row

16. Minneapolis is now_____of these two competing cities.

A. the largest

B. the large

C. the larger

D. the more large

17. The Roman senate house, known as the Curia, was smaller than_____.

A. the Athenian one like it

B. a similar one the Athenians had

C. the Athenian building of the same type

D. its Athenian counterpart

18. If the mayor were good, there would be_____crimes in this city.

A. less

B. fewer

C. few

D. many

19. Hemingway's style is_____.

A. more complicated as it appears

B. more complicated than it appears to be

C. much more complicated as it is to be

D. as complicated than it appears to be

20. “The exam was very stiff.”

“Now don't begin making excuses. Other boys_____have passed.”

A. not cleverer like you

B. no cleverer than you

C. as clever not like you

D. clever not than you

21. The crowd was much larger_____.

A. than that at last year's Tulane game

B. as it were

C. in such a way to be compared

D. than the one at last year's Tulane game

22. “Who fought?”

“The United States fought in_____.”

A. the World War Second

B. World War the Two

C. Second World War

D. the Second World War

23. “Did the medicine make you feel better?”

“No. _____, the worse I feel.”

A. When I take more medicine

B. The more medicine I take

C. Taking more medicine

D. More medicine taken

24. Characters in realistic literature tend to be more complex than_____.

A. romantic literature

B. those in romantic literature

C. those are romantic literature

D. romantic literature is

二、改错

1. After (A) the critics see the two plays, they will, as a result of their (B) experience and background, be able to judge which is the most (C) effective and moving (D).

2. A recent pool has indicated (A) that Harold is considered brighter (B) than any student (C) in the senior class (D) at the South Palmetto High School.

3. Of the three plants (A) Amy had (B) in her apartment, only the ivy, which is the hardier (C), lived through the winter (D).

4. Your friend is much (A) more (B) worthier (C) of your consideration than are those (D) strangers.

5. We are of the (A) opinion that those in charge of the postal delivery fully realize (B) the importance of distributing the correspondence addressed (C) to the business houses with the little (D) possible delay.

6. More moderate as (A) Robespiere, Talleyrand left France during (B) the Jacobin regime, prospered in the United States as a land speculator (C), and returned to Paris under (D) the Directory.

7. Microwave oven thermometers are (A) more costlier (B) than other (C) kinds (D) of oven thermometers.

8. Although (A) I expected something differently (B), I was still surprised (C) by what (D) he said.

9. The clerk showed (A) us all of the shoes that he had (B), but we decided to take the last pair because (C) it was the most cheap (D).

10. As (A) two nuclei move closer together, their mutual (B) electrostatic potential energy becomes (C) more large (D) and more positive.

11. The drawings (A) of the old masters (B) are among the treasuredest (C) works in museums (D).

12. The more (A) fearsome of all the (B) animals in (C) the Western (D) Hemisphere is the grizzly bear.

13. It was generally agreed (A) that the young lady had great (B) promise as an actress and that (C) she acted as good as (D) experienced professionals.

14. During (A) the seventeenth century the most (B) colonists were primarily concerned with (C) economics (D) and defense.

15. Generally (A) speaking, tax returns must be filed annually (B), but in few cases (C) they must be submitted every six months (D).

16. Adult (A) great (B) blue herons stand (C) four feet tallest (D).

17. The Medal of Honor is the highest (A) award military (B) for courage that can (C) be given to any individual (D) in the United States.

18. By destroying (A) harmful germs, disinfectants stop (B) decay from becoming (C) progressively worst (D).

19. Even though (A) she was crippled by (B) polio as a younger child (C), Wilma Rudolph won gold medals in the track and field events (D) of the 1960 Rome Olympics.

20. Very old dolls may have remained intact solely because (A) they were fashioned (B) from substances (C) durable (D) than cloth.

21. Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun (A) and the bigger (B) planet of the solar system, with a diameter approximately (C) eleven times that (D) of the Earth.

22. Reptiles are widely distributed (A) all over the world, but are much (B) abundant in warm regions and are virtually (C) absent beyond (D) the treeline in the arctic.

23. The life expectancy of blacks in 1850 was shorter than white Americans (A), yet it was (B) much longer than (C) the life expectancy of United States city dwellers (D).

24. Unlike many other industrial countries (A), the inflation rate in the United States has (B) for some time (C) been less than (D) 12 percent a year.

25. During the course of the game, the young captain has the task to keep a respectable (A) distance behind his chief and devotes (B) his energies to the task of not winning and at the same time not losing (C) too easily (D).

三、将下列括号内的形容词用原级、比较级或最高级填空

1. Put your_____(good) foot forward.

2. Of the two girls I am coaching, I find Mabel the_____(clever).

3. This book is by far the_____(difficult) of the five.

4. There are_____(few) people in a village than in a town.

5. Not many countries are as_____(hot) as India.

6. A baby eats_____(little) food than an adult.

7. He is the_____(generous) man I have ever met.

8. Under such circumstances, you had_____(good) leave the place at once.

9. To the_____(good) of my knowledge, Jane has never been to Rome.

10. I can't go any_____(far); I am very tired.

11. A duck can swim_____(well) than a hen.

12. Mr. Fox is the_____(cunning) man I have ever met.

13. Because of the heavy rain, the football match is postponed until_____(far) notice.

14. She has married him for_____(good) or for_____(bad).

15. Let us hope for the_____(good) but be prepared for the_____(bad).

16. Gold is_____(little) useful than iron.

17. Singapore is_____(far) away from the South Pole than from the North Pole.

18. My father is_____(old) than my mother.

19. Joseph has four sisters, and she is the_____(old) child of her parents.

20. Mercury is one of the_____(heavy) metals.

21. He sprang upon his enemy as_____(fiercely) as a tiger.

22. I hope you are none the_____(bad) for your accident.

23. If the_____(bad) comes to the_____(bad), we can only surrender.

24. This is the_____(late) edition of the book.

25. The ferry has two decks. The_____(up) one is much cleaner than the lower one.

26. Judy is one of the_____(diligent) girls in our class.

27. Her voice got_____(weak) and_____(weak), and finally she breathed her last.

28. Could you be a little_____(considerate), please?

29. I think this is the_____(good) I can do for you at the moment.

30. I think I can pay only 30 dollars at_____(much).

31. I am sure that the dog will be much_____(happy) in its new home.

32. Who is the_____(pretty) — Mary, Susan or Jane?

33. Which do you like_____(well), an apple or an orange?

34. The_____(cheap) shoes are not usually the best ones.

35. A boy runs_____(quickly) than an old man.

36. My fountain-pen holds_____(much) ink than yours.

37. Jane sings_____(badly) than Mary.

38. The thief ran_____(fast) than the policeman.

四、把下列句子中的画线部分用相应的形容词代之

1. John often makes mistakes in grammar.

2. Uncle Tom told us a story of an adventure.

3. The old man gave me a look of suspicion.

4. It is a mistake made through carelessness.

5. Mr. Smith is a man who deserves everybody's respect.

6. The landing on the moon is an attempt never made before in the history of mankind.

7. The boy was blind from birth.

8. Mr. Parker is a teacher by profession.

9. He is a man who can neither read nor write.

10. We had a journey of comfort.

11. This is a fact admitting of no denial.

12. Your answer is capable of two meanings.

13. This is a magazine published monthly.

14. The library is a building consisting of four storeys.

15. The place is virtually impossible of access.

五、把下列句子中画线的错误部分用相应、正确的形容词改正过来

1. George is always respect to his parents and friends.

2. One stormy night, a stranger came to our house. He looked fairly respect.

3. They worked in a space air room.

4. It is very considered of you to provide me with a blanket in this freeze weather.

5. A free nation is tolerate toward all religious beliefs.

6. As time went by, the grief became tolerate.

7. Eva was grace in manners, but corruption at heart.

8. This remedy is effect for chronically asthma.

9. Gregory is often forget of his duties.

10. There was nothing out of the ordinary in him（他无出众之处）. He had a forget face.

11. It is a presumption attempt on the part of the science men to try to land on Mars.

12. Nutrition food does not usually taste well.

13. The ail woman felt nerve when she was brought to the blood scene.

14. Main Street is a very desire location for large department stores.

15. The actor has always been desire of being famous.

16. I should like to have a word with you now if it is convenience to you.

17. That country has broken off all diplomat relations with Russia.

18. One need not be riches to feel happiness.

19. All the characters in this book are imagination.

20. The imagination child made up fairy stories.

21. The scenery was so breath-take and the atmosphere so other-world.

22. Can't anything more practice be done to improve the deteriorate situation?

23. Uncle Tom told us an amusement story yesterday.

24. The ship was barely perception in the fog.

25. He is a perception reader of poetry.

26. It is not advice to listen to an inexperience man.

27. It is very fool of you to buy that use car.

28. Martha has a persuasion manner.

29. Children are more persuasion than adults.

30. That trouble hag (=ugly old woman) is as talk as a magpie（鹊）.

31.“Alas”is a word which is expression of sadness.

32. Love, hatred, and grief are expression emotions.

33. But for your time advice we would have been trapped by that treachery man.

34. Tom is frankly, honesty, and helpful.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［D］

2.［B］

3.［D］表示两者间进行比较的句型中，如以of the two...代替than...时，则需在比较级形容词前用定冠词the，故选D，不选C。

4.［D］

5.［A］

6.［D］A中many应改为much；B中lowest应改为比较级lower；C中same前要加the。

7.［B］和同行业中任何其他人进行比较时，须把自己排除在外，故应用anyone else或any other person，else或other不可漏掉。

8.［D］better后省略than the other。

9.［B］...the fewer seeds，the fewer plants这一结构也可写为...the fewer the seeds，the fewer the plants。less不能接复数名词，故C错。

10.［C］but not so reliable后省掉as Henry。

11.［A］B中equally须删掉；C宜改为the same as或as qualified as；D不合语法。

12.［C］A中more sick应改为sicker，因sick是单音节形容词。

13.［C］A中序数词Eighth前须加the；B中基数词Eight应放在名词Chapter后面。D不合语法。正常的结构是“名词+基数词”（前无定冠词the），或“the+序数词+名词”。如World War One（前无冠词）或the First World War。

14.［C］the same 用作形容词时后接as。如Your bike is the same as mine.

15.［A］swimming纯粹起名词作用，表示一种运动的项目；不定式to swim则含有动作意味，不宜用来表示运动的项目，故B项不如A项好。

16.［C］

17.［D］从历史的角度看，罗马的senate house（参议院议场）是模仿雅典建筑而造的，因而B项和C项中说雅典用similar或same type建筑显然不合历史实情。A应改为the Athenian senate house。counterpart 极相似的人或物；副本。

18.［B］

19.［B］

20.［B］

21.［A］that指the crowd。D中the one不能用来指集体名词。

22.［D］B中定冠词the该删掉，即World War Two。

23.［B］

24.［B］比较（comparison）应在同类的两者中进行，故应选B (those in romantic literature)，those代表characters（人物）。

二、改错

1.［C］在两者（the two plays）中进行比较时，须用比较级，故把C改为more。

2.［C］句意表明Harold也是senior class（高年级班级）中的一位学生，和别人比较时需把自己除外，故把C改为any other student。

3.［C］句意表明three plants，比较时需用最高级，故把C改为the hardiest。

4.［B］more不能用来修饰比较级形容词和副词，把more删掉即可。

5.［D］介词后带possible的结构是：介词+the+最高级形容词+possible+名词。在这一结构中possible也可置于最后。如at the earliest possible date（尽可能早地）或at the earliest date possible。故把D改为least，即with the least possible delay（尽可能一点也不耽搁），或with the least delay possible。

6.［A］改为As moderate as。

7.［D］改为costly。形容词costly的比较级为more costly。

8.［B］改为different。在something，anything，everything，nothing四个词后皆用形容词。

9.［D］cheap为单音节形容词，其最高级为cheapest，故把D改为the cheapest。

10.［D］改为larger。

11.［C］改为most treasured。treasured系两音节分词形容词，重音在第一音节，并且不以-er，-ow，-le或-y结尾，故其比较级及最高级前面加more，most。

12.［A］句中all the animals明确表明两者以上，故把A改为most。

13.［D］good不能用作副词来修饰动词acted，应改为as well as。

14.［B］most作形容词时前面不可用冠词，故把B中之the去掉。be concerned with作“研究”解。

15.［C］in few cases表示“在极少情况下”的否定含义，不合句意，故应改为in a few cases，作“在有些情况下”解，表示肯定的含义，这样才合句意。tax returns所得税申报表。

16.［D］表度量时long，high，tall，wide等形容词用原级。如He is five foot（或feet）tall。The building is ten-storey high。The river is 100 kilometers long.故把D改为tall。

17.［B］形容词作定语时通常放在名词前面，故把B改为military award。Medal of Honor荣誉勋章（以美国国会名义赠与军人的最高勋章，由总统颁奖）。

18.［D］progressively+比较级形容词系比较级的强调结构，如become progressively more serious=become more and more serious。故把D中的最高级worst改为比较级worse，becoming progressively worse=becoming worse and worse。disinfectant消毒药水；消毒剂。

19.［C］改为young child，因此句无比较含义，不能用比较级。（polio=poliomyelitis小儿麻痹症；track and field events田径赛项目。）

20.［D］durable后出现than，故把D改为more durable。

21.［B］太阳系（solar system）中的行星（planet）很多，远远超过两个以上，故应把比较级改为最高级biggest。

22.［B］题句含有“爬虫在暖和地区更多”的比较意味，故应把B改为more，more+原级形容词构成比较级。

23.［A］比较须在同类的两者中进行，故应把A改为than that of White Americans，that=the life expectancy。

24.［A］介词like和unlike含有同类中比较的意思，故需把A改为Unlike that of many other industrial countries，that=the inflation rate。

25.［A］respectable作“值得或应该受到人们尊敬”解，表示客观意义，故a respectable distance意义上讲不通，应改为a respectful distance，意为“保持一段距离以示尊敬”，表示主观意义。

三、将下列括号内的形容词用原级、比较级或最高级填空

1. best。put one's best foot forward系习惯用语，作“尽最大努力”解。

2. cleverer。指两者，故用比较级。

3. most difficult，指三者以上，而用最高级。

4. fewer

5. hot

6. less

7. most generous

8. better。had better作情态动词处理，后接动词原形，作“最好……”解。

9. best。to the best of one's knowledge系习惯用语，作“就我所知”解。

10. farther（或：further）

11. better

12. most cunning

13. further: till (until) further notice作“在另行通知之前”解。

14. better；worse。marry sb. for better or (for) worse作“与某人结婚，苦乐与共永矢不渝”解。

15. best；worst

16. less

17. farther

18. older

19. eldest。表长幼辈分时用elder（比较级）和eldest（最高级），不用older，oldest。

20. heaviest。mercury：汞，水银

21. fiercely

22. worse

23. worst; worst

24. latest。the latest edition 最新的版本

25. upper。ferry 渡船

26. most diligent

27. weaker；weaker

28. more considerate

29. best

30. most。at most系习语，作“至多”解。

31. happier。much用来修饰比较级形容词。

32. prettiest。Mary，Susan or Jane系三人，故用最高级prettiest。

33. better。an apple or an orange指两者，故用比较级。

34. cheapest，和best相呼应。

35. more quickly

36. more

37. worse

38. faster

四、把下列句子中的画线部分用相应的形容词代之

1. grammatical mistakes

2. an adventurous story

3. a suspicious look

4. a careless mistake

5. a respectable man

6. an unprecedented attempt

7. born blind

8. a professional teacher

9. an illiterate man

10. a comfortable journey

11. an undeniable fact

12. ambiguous

13. a monthly magazine

14. a four-storey building

15. inaccessible

五、把下列句子中画线的错误部分用相应、正确的形容词改正过来

1. respectful

2. respectable

3. spacious；airy

4. considerate；freezing

5. tolerant

6. tolerable

7. graceful；corrupt（或corrupted）

8. effective；chronical

9. forgetful

10. forgettable

11. presumptuous；scientific

12. Nutritious；good

13. ailing；nervous；bloody

14. desirable

15. desirous

16. convenient

17. diplomatic

18. rich；happy

19. imaginary

20. imaginative

21. breath-taking；other-worldly

22. practical；deteriorating

23. amusing

24. perceptible

25. perceptive

26. advisable；inexperienced

27. foolish；used

28. persuasive

29. persuasible；persuadable

30. troublesome；talkative

31. expressive

32. expressible

33. timely；treacherous

34. frank；honest

第十三章　副词

一、副词的功能

形容词修饰名词，副词则用以修饰动词、形容词及其他副词；副词还可修饰介词短语及整个句子：

1 　修饰动词。

Leonard is working hard this semester.

You always misunderstand me.

2 　修饰形容词。

The engine is very quiet.

I am terribly tired.

3 　修饰副词。

The engine runs very quietly.

He went terribly quickly.

4 　修饰介词短语。

He left shortly after lunch time.

It is right on top of the cupboard.

5 　修饰整个句子。

Surely, I will help you.

Actually, I can't come.

二、副词的分类

· 时间副词，如now, today, yesterday, lately, then, soon, shortly, ago等。

· 地点副词，如here, there, above, below, downstairs, upstairs, abroad等。

· 程度副词：表示动作进行的程度或表示形容词、副词性质状态的程度，如little, much, very, quite, so, too, rather, fairly, almost, enough等。

· 频率副词：表示发生的频率程度，如sometimes, occasionally, often, usually, always, frequently, constantly, seldom, rarely等。

· 方式副词：表示动作发生或进行的方式，如fast, quickly, slowly, suddenly, carefully, well, properly, politely, roughly等。

· 疑问副词、连接副词和关系副词

疑问副词how, when, where, why是用来引起一个特殊疑问句的。有：

How are you getting along with your studies?

When do you get up in the morning?

Where did you come by (=obtain) it?

Why was he late?

连接副词也是这四个词how, when, where, why，但它们在句子中的语法功能却不一样，它们用来引导主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句。

That is where you are mistaken.［引导表语从句］那就是你的错误所在。

I should like to know how old he is.［引导宾语从句］

When they will come has not been made public yet.［引导主语从句］他们什么时候来还未公布。

关系副词有when，where，why，用来引导一个定语从句。

这里要说明一下，上列每个词都能引导主语、宾语或表语这三类从句。

三、副词的位置

副词应尽量放在靠近它所修饰的词，位置不妥便会造成意义上的模棱两可，含糊不清。掌握这一原则不仅能使我们清晰明确地表达我们的意思，而且还有助于应付英语测试。副词在句中的位置大致可分以下几类：

1. 修饰形容词或其他副词时的位置

修饰形容词或其他副词时，副词通常放在它们的前面：

The book is rather difficult for beginners.

Issac speaks Chinese very fluently.

2. 修饰实义动词时副词的位置

修饰实义动词时，通常放在该动词后或该动词宾语的后面：

The letter arrived unexpectedly.

Eve left the room quietly.

3. 程度副词及频度副词的位置

程度副词及频度副词通常在（1）实义动词前；（2）情态动词或助动词同实义动词的中间；（3）verb to be的后面。

My father always goes to bed late.［实义动词前］

You must not always go to bed so late.［情态动词和实义动词的中间］

Hob is always late for his lessons.［在verb to be后面］

例　“My husband bought a Scrabble game.”“How nice.We_____.”

A. play often that game too

B. often play that game, too

C. also that game play often

D. play also that game often

［分析］频度副词often应置于实义动词play之前，故须选B。（注：Scrabble game系一种拼字游戏。）

4. 修饰整个句子的副词的位置

有一类副词用来修饰整个句子，通常放在句子前面并用逗号分开：

Personally, I don't approve of the plan.

Generally, we encourage students to think independently.

Luckily, Frances wasn't injured.

Obviously, the members of the committee are divided on this problem among themselves.

5. 疑问副词的位置

疑问副词通常也置于句首：

Where can I find some information on this subject?

When did he finish it?

6. 几个副词同时出现在同一个句中时它们位置的先后

有时候几个副词同时出现在同一个句子中，它们的位置是：

1 　方式副词+地点副词+时间副词（或把时间副词置于句首）。

She sat quietly（方式）in the room（地点）for an hour.（时间）

Jean played the piano wonderfully（方式）at the school concert（地点）last night.（时间）

（或Last night,（时间置句首）Jean played the piano wonderfully at the school concert.）

例　After the funeral, the residents of the apartment building_____.

A. sent faithfully flowers each week to the cemetery

B. sent to the cemetery each week flowers faithfully

C. sent flowers faithfully to the cemetery each week

D. sent each week faithfully to the cemetery flowers

［分析］应选C，因C符合方式副词、地点副词和时间副词这一合乎习惯的顺序排列。当然，在没有方式副词的情况下，排列顺序便为地点副词在先，时间副词在后。

2 　在go，run，drive等动作动词后面，地点副词或状语通常置于方式副词前面，这是因为这些动词与地点副词关系甚为密切。

They went to school（地点）hurriedly（方式）after breakfast.（时间）［went是动作动词］

He went to the market（地点）alone（方式）this morning.（时间）

3 　两个或两个以上同类的副词或副词短语一起用时，一般讲，具体的在前，笼统的在后，或小的时间单位在前，大的在后。

Tourists are coming to Hong Kong（具体）from all corners of the world.（笼统）

Come to see me at 3 o'clock（小的时间单位）in the afternoon.（大的时间单位）（小和大指相对而言）

4 　两个方式副词一起用时，短的在前长的在后，中间用and或but连起来。

He spoke slowly（短）and sensibly.（长）

例　The life span of a sunfish is short, _____ten years.

A. more seldom than

B. more than seldom

C. seldom more than

D. seldom than more

［分析］我们已知程度副词及频率词通常都放在verb to be后面。上列例句实际上由两句合并而成，即The life span of a sunfish is short.It is seldom more than ten years.（注意seldom放在is后面。）由于it代表life span，便可去掉it is，并成一句：The life span of a sunfish is short, seldom more than ten years.故应选C。

在结构部分试题中，有关副词的出现率最高的是副词+形容词，副词+动词（或动词+副词），副词+分词或副词+副词这四类模式。试看以下三道有关副词的题目：

（a）I have been waiting (A) for (B) you for near (C) two hours. (D)

C错，应改为nearly修饰形容词two。

（b）The girl taken to (A) the ballet for the first time watched curious (B) as (C) the dancers cavorted about on (D) their toes.（cavort：原指鱼在海面上的跳跃翻腾动作；也可指芭蕾舞的跳跃动作）

B错，应改为curiously修饰watched。

（c）After her husband was despatched to Vietnam, Mrs. Haluerson's ears became keen (A) attuned (B) for the rattle of the front door whenever (C) the postman dropped a letter into (D) the box.

A错，应改为keenly修饰分词attuned。

关于否定副词或否定副词短语置于句首时主谓倒装这一问题将在专门谈论倒装的章节中加以讨论。

四、副词的级

副词的比较级与最高级的变化规则和用法与形容词类同，但是在副词的最高级前可以省掉定冠词the：

He worked harder than his brother but his sister worked (the) hardest of them all.

五、副词的构成

1. 大多数副词由形容词或分词在词尾加-ly构成

2. 几点值得注意的问题

1 　以-le结尾的形容词将le改为-ly即可。

simple→simply

subtle→subtly

horrible→horribly

suitable→suitably

possible→possibly

例外：whole→wholly

noble→nobly

2 　以-ic结尾的形容词先加-al，然后再加-ly。

economic→economically

systematic→systematically

tragic→tragically

dramatic→dramatically

heroic→heroically

例外：public→publicly

3 　以-y结尾，-y前为辅音字母的形容词先把y改为i然后加-ly。

happy→happily

heavy→heavily

easy→easily

cosy→cosily

noisy→noisily

hearty→heartily

4 　形容词加-ly构成副词，而名词加上-ly则变成形容词。

brother → brotherly 兄弟似的

love → lovely 可爱的

child → childly 孩子似的

man → manly 男子汉气概的

cost → costly 昂贵的

master → masterly 高明的；熟练的

father → fatherly 父亲似的

mother → motherly 慈母般的

friend → friendly 友好的

scholar → scholarly 学者风度的

heaven → heavenly 天堂的；极美好的

5 　有些个别的名词兼有形容词词性，因此加上-ly后变成副词。

part（名词）：Only part of the story is true.

part（形容词）：make part payments（部分付款）；a part truth（部分真理）

partly（副词）：It was made partly of wood and partly of metal.（它一部分是由木头一部分是由金属制成的。）

individual（名词）：the rights of the individual（个人的权利）

individual（形容词）：an individual style of speaking（独特的讲话风格）

individually（副词）：The manager addressed each person in his office individually.（经理对他办公室里的每个人作个别谈话。）

6 　以-ly结尾的同形的形容词和副词。

有些名词加上-ly后既可作形容词又可作副词：

weekly（形容词）：weekly wage（周薪），weekly magazine（周刊）

weekly（副词）：He is paid weekly. 他按周领薪。

monthly（形容词）：a monthly magazine 月刊

monthly（副词）：He comes here monthly. 他每月来这里一次。

quarterly（形容词）：quarterly payments 按季付款息

quarterly（副词）：Interest is compounded quarterly. 利息以每季度复利计算。

yearly（形容词）：a yearly salary（年薪）

yearly（副词）：He is paid $30,000 yearly. 他年薪30,000美元。

hourly（形容词）：an hourly service of train. 每小时一班的火车

hourly（副词）：The medicine should be taken hourly. 此药应每小时服一次。

leisurely（形容词）：leisurely movements 不慌不忙的动作

leisurely（副词）：work leisurely 悠闲地工作

六、副词enough，too，none，never，not，not...and和not...too的特殊用法

1. enough

用作副词的enough修饰形容词、其他副词或动词时，它只能置于那些词的后面。试比较：

▶▶ enough作后置副词修饰形容词时要注意场合，不是所有场合都能用；这里有一条规则必须遵循，凡是可用“so...as to ...（不定式）”的场合都可用enough，不能用“so ...as to...（不定式）”的场合则不该用enough。试比较：

Our country is now so strong as to be able to resist aggression. 讲得通，便可用enough：Our country is now strong enough to resist aggression.

I am so glad as to see you. 这句话是说不通的，故便不能改用enough：I am glad enough to see you.［×，宜用：I'm very glad to see you.］

因此，enough并不能用于所有的形容词后面。在应用“形容词+enough”这一结构而感到吃不准时，便可用“so...as to...”来验证以保万无一失。一般讲，通常后面可采用enough的形容词有bad，brave，careless，clever，courageous，cruel，dangerous，foolish，good，high，honest，imprudent，kind，large，long，low，old，old-fashioned，patient，poor，prudent，rich，sensible，shrewd，silly，strong，tall，weak，well，wide，wise，young等。

▶▶ enough用于形容词后一般起强调作用，但也不尽然，有时须视上下文而定。试比较下面两组实例：

Tong is ready to accept the offer.

Tong is ready enough to accept the offer.［ready enough作“very ready”解，故意思比第一句例子强］

You are lucky to have such a daughter.［无enough，意指“你有这样一个女儿真有福气。”］

You are lucky enough to have such a daughter.［有enough则含有“你幸亏有这样一个女儿”这一层意思］

试再比较下面两组结构略为复杂的例句：

Oliver is a decent enough clerk.

Oliver is a decent clerk enough.

上组第一句中的enough是副词，修饰形容词decent。第二句中enough是形容词，修饰名词词组decent clerk。该两例句都对，意思相同，指“奥利弗是个十分正派的职员。”

Laura is a kind-hearted enough girl.

Laura is a kind-hearted girl enough.

同样，上面第一句中的enough（副词）修饰合成形容词kind-hearted。第二句中，enough用作形容词，修饰名词词组kind-hearted girl。两句内容相同，意指“劳拉是个心地非常厚道的姑娘。”

▶▶ “young enough+不定式”和“old enough+不定式”是两个常用搭配，但下面两句句子的含义差异值得斟酌：

Lauren is old enough to get married.

Lauren is young enough to get married.

上面第一句很简单，即“劳伦已到了结婚的年龄了。”第二句绝不可望文生义，理解为“劳伦年纪已轻到足可以结婚了。”这样理解不啻把Milky Way译为“牛奶路”一样，贻笑大方。Lauren is young enough to get married的含义是“劳伦（年龄在50～60岁前后）还够年轻可以结婚。”

2. too

1 　（1）too通常用于句末，但在美国英语中too有时也可用于句首。

They will go to the lecture; too, I shall go.

Too, my plan will make a lot of money.

2 　“too+形容词+a(n)+单数名词”结构。

It is too small a house to live in.（这房子太小住不下。）但请注意，在这一结构中不能把a(n)移在too之前，即不能说 a too small house，也不可把单数名词改用复数名词，如不能说These are too small rooms to serve for classrooms.

3 　“too...+不定式”结构。

“too...+不定式”这一结构中不定式修饰前面的too，故具有否定意义，如“No one is too old to learn.”直译的意思是“没有人会年纪大到不能学习的地步。”即“活到老学到老。”但应用这一结构时要注意以下两点：

① ，不定式便不修饰too而是修饰ready和apt，因此不定式不含否定意思，这时too相当于very。如：

She is too ready to speak. (=She is very talkative.) 她话太多。

A person who is too ready to promise is not a trustworthy friend. 轻诺者不是一个可靠的朋友。

Beginners are too apt to make mistakes. 初学者极易弄错。

We are too apt to overlook our own faults. 我们很容易忽视自己的过错。

② too 前面有only，all或but时，其后的不定式也没有否定意思。如：

We shall be only too pleased to help you. 我们非常乐意帮你。

Some people are all too satisfied to take the opinions of others without the pain of thought themselves. 有些人一味满足于接受别人的意见，自己懒得动脑子去想。

She knew but too well to hold her tongue. 她十分清楚以不说为妙。

［but too=only too］

4 　“主语+be+too+形容词+不定式”这一结构应用时的注意点。

① 当不定式是及物动词而其宾语和句中主语属同一人/物时，不定式便和主语构成动宾关系，其宾语需省略。如：

The soup is too hot to drink.［to drink是及物动词，宾语it指soup，属同一物，to drink和soup构成动宾关系，it必须省略］

② 不定式也可换用被动式，即The soup is too hot to be drunk. 但被动式不及主动式那么常用。

③ 不定式也可改用for+主动式动名词（不能用被动式）或for+名词。如：

The soup is too hot for drinking.（√）

The soup is too hot for being drunk.（×）

The scenery is too beautiful for words.（√）风景美得非言语所能形容。

The woman is too fat for beauty，（√）该女子（脸蛋虽长得不错但）身子太胖就不美了。

5

如：You have given me two too many. 你多给了我两个了。

You have given me two too few. 你少给了我两个了。

注意：如说“多（给）了一个”时则应在one后加上相关的名词+too many，如：

You have given me one apple too many. 多给了我一个苹果了。

There is one word too many in this sentence。这个句子多了一个字。

如果不放上相关名词，one too many则是一个习语，作“胜过，非……所能敌”解。如：

The shoplifter tried to escape from the shopwalker，but the shopwalker was one too many for him. 该商店货物扒手试图从铺面巡视员手中脱逃，但他不是那铺面巡视员的对手。

one too many也可换用one too much。

6 　Too too will in two. 此句无谓语动词，乍看之下令人费解，但却是个谚语，意思是“过分亲密的朋友会吵嘴。”

3. none

none在现代英语里可用作副词，意思同not...at all。如：

I slept none last night.=I did not sleep at all last night.

none和too连用时可作为一个副词看待，作“毫不，毫无”解，后接形容词或副词。如：

We are none too sure about him. 对他这个人我们一点也拿不准。

You did it none too diplomatically. 这事你办得一点也不妥当。

4. never

在正式英语中never一般不用于hope，remember，intend，expect，plan等动词之前；如：

I never hope to see her again.

⇒ 宜改作I hope never to see her again或I do not hope ever to see her again.

I never remember seeing you before.

⇒ 宜改为I do not remember ever seeing you before.

I never intend to do it again.

⇒ 宜改为I intend never to do it again或I do not intend ever to do it again.

I never expect to meet him again.

⇒ 宜改为I expect never to meet him again或I do not expect ever to meet him again.

We never plan to produce those products again.

⇒ 宜改为We plan never to produce those products again或We do not plan ever to produce those products again.

5. never的一些常见习用语

① seldom or never 难得；绝无仅有

We seldom or never go to the movies. 我们难得去看一场电影。

注：seldom or never有一个同义习语，是seldom, if ever，如my husband is a busy bee. He seldom, if ever, has a holiday. 我先生是个大忙人，他难得有一天休息。

② never have a dull moment 从来没有乏味的时候

My boyfriend is a witty talker. When I am with him, I never have a dull moment. 我男友谈话很有风趣，和他在一起，我从来不感到乏味。

never hear the end of it 说个没完

Don't let your wife know about it or you'll never hear the end of it. 别让你太太知道这件事，要不她就会总是对你提及此事说个没完。

③ Never is a long word“决不”二字不要轻易出口

A: He will be a happy man who calls you wife. 谁讨你做老婆一定会很幸福。

B: You'd better give up the idea altogether. I'll never marry you. 你还是死了这条心吧。我决不会嫁给你的。

A: Never is a long word, little one. 话别说得那么绝嘛，小姑娘。

④ never come to much 绝不会有大作为

As a novelist, he'll never come to much; he does not possess an unbounded and vigorous imagination. 他作为小说家绝不会有什么大作为的，他不具有无限广阔和活泼旺盛的想像力。

6. not

在回答“Will they come to help clean the house tomorrow?”等类似的疑问句时，not可直接用于谓语动词后的简略否定式答句中。如：

又如：

A: Will they come to stay for the weekend?

B: I hope not.=(I hope they will not come to stay for the weekend.)

与上列用于简略式否定句中的not相反的则是副词so，如I hope/think/suppose/believe/expect, etc. so. 但这里作者想提供读者一个有关so的口头习用语，即I told you so. 当不愉快的事情发生后，常会用这句话来提醒对方，意思是：我曾事先提醒过你，要你当心可你不听。相等于“不听好人言，吃亏在眼前”。要注意两点：① 必须用过去时told，不能用tell，② so也可省，但不省则意思更为强调。

▶▶ “...does not (doesn't) have to...+不定式”这一结构相等于汉语“……无须非要……才能……”，如：

One doesn't have to get rich to be happy. 人无须非要有钱才能快乐。

Reform and the open policy give every one of us an equal opportunity, so you don't have to go abroad to seek personal development. 改革开放给我们每一个人均等的机会，因此你无须非要出国才能谋求个人发展。

▶▶ 在生活中人难免在发火中会说过头话，听的人常会受不了；事后，为了息事宁人，我们常可这样说，“Don't take it to heart;it was his voice that spoke and not his spirit. 别在意；他只是嘴上说说，那不是他的心里话。”

▶▶ 在觥筹交错，对方敬酒须应酬但又不胜酒力时可说“Not a full cup, please!（请不要把杯子斟满！）”

7. not和and连用时的特殊意义

not和and连用时表示部分否定，作“不都……”解。如：

He cannot read and write.=He can read, but he cannot write. 他不是看和写都能的。（即“看得懂但写不来”）

注：须补充说明的是，在现代英语中英美人认为不识字必定写不来，故他们往往用cannot read and write 来替代cannot read or write，即他是个文盲。

He is not rich and kind.=He is rich but he is not kind. 他为富不仁。

从上例中可看出，not和and连用时，否定发生在谓语的第二部分，即and后面的部分予以否定。

但注意，not和or连用时则表示全部否定。如：

The novel is not interesting or instructive.

=The novel is neither interesting nor instructive. 这本小说既无趣味又无教育意义。

试比较下面两个例句：

Audrey does not speak French clearly and correctly.［表示法语讲得很清楚但不正确］

Audrey does not speak French clearly or correctly.［表示法语讲得既不清楚又不正确］

例　The people (A) of the village were (B) so poor that they had not enough (C) to eat and wear. (D)

［分析］D错。“吃不饱，穿不暖”这一讲法在英语及汉语中吻合，故应把D改为to eat or wear，因在前面C中出现not。

注意，也不要把not...and和not...as well as混淆。not...and...表示的部分否定含义落实在第二部分，即and后面。not...as well as...表示的部分否定意义则在第一部分，即not后面，as well as后面不表示否定。如：

I shall not make a reply（否定）as well as you.（不否定）

=I shall not make a reply, but you will make a reply.

I have not heard from Mr. Brown（否定）as well as from Mr. Smith.（不否定）

=I have heard from Mr. Smith, but I have not heard from Mr. Brown.

8. cannot和too连用时的特殊意义

cannot和too连用时绝不能按“不能……太……”来理解；它们连用时构成一个特殊结构，表示一种极为强烈的肯定意义，类似汉语的“再……也不嫌过分”或“越……越……”如：

You cannot be too careful in doing this experiment. 做这一实验你越仔细越好。

This is a very useful book. I cannot recommend it too strongly. 这是本非常实用的书，我得竭力推荐它。

We cannot too resolutely urge the U.N. Security Council to adopt the draft resolution. 我们得十分坚决地敦促联合国安理会采纳这一决议草案。

I cannot see you too often. 我真想时时见到你。

cannot...too...这一特殊结构有以下一些变体，即结构稍有变化但意思不变：

① can never...too

One can never have too many books. 书再多也不嫌多。

② cannot...over...

Their selfless help to us cannot be overrated. 他们对我们的无私援助是难以估计的。

③ be impossible to...over...

It is impossible to overpraise his work. 我们再怎样称赞他的工作也不算过分。

④ be difficult...too...

That fellow has made careless mistakes time and again.It will be difficult to speak to him too severely. 那家伙粗枝大叶，一而再再而三地犯错误。对他讲话要越重越好。

⑤ cannot...enough

I cannot thank you enough for your great kindness. 对你的盛情美意，我感激不尽。

⑥ cannot...sufficient...

You cannot take sufficient care. 你需十分小心。

⑦ no...can...too...

No man can have too many friends. 朋友越多越好。

No man can have too much money. 钱再多也不嫌多。

注意：只有cannot和too连用（包括这一结构的变体）才具有这一极为强调的肯定意义。如把这一结构中的cannot改用must not或may not，便无这一含义。试比较：

You cannot smoke too much. 你吸烟再多也不嫌多。

You must not smoke too much. 你切不可烟吸得太多。

You may not smoke too much. 意思同上面第二句例句，但较客气婉和。

例　The success of a corneal transplant depends on (A) its placement (B) in the recipient's eye, (C) so that cannot be (D) oversupplied by the patient's blood vessels.

［分析］显然D错。so that系连词，前面有逗号时通常引导结果状语从句；D项中cannot前漏掉主语，应补上主语it代表its placement in the recipient's eye（病体眼球的位置）。但so that it cannot be oversupplied by the patient's blood vessels的意思便成为“这样，病人的血管对受体眼球的位置供血再多也不嫌多。”而题句的确切意思则是“角膜移植的成功与否取决于受体眼球中移植的位置，致使病人的血管不会对该移植的位置供血过多。”故确切的改法应是把D改为it may not be”，因may和not连用不构成上述的特殊意思。

9. 和not有关的常见习语

◑ as likely as not 很可能

As likely as not, they have got the information.

◑ as often as not 往往，多半

As often as not, the buses are late on foggy days. 公共汽车在雾天往往脱班。

◑ as soon as not 还是愿意

I would as soon stay here as not. 我可还是愿意待在这儿。

◑ Don't tell me...（表示惊讶或惊恐）不至于……吧

Don't tell me you've fallen in love with that frivolous girl. 你总不至于爱上了那个轻佻的姑娘吧。

Don't tell me you've forgotten that. 你还不至于把那个忘记了吧。

◑ more often than not 往往，多半

More often than not patients recover. 病人总能恢复健康。

◑ not all that...（that 用作副词）并不特别地……，不那么太……

A: How was the concert? 那场音乐会怎么样？

B: Not all that good. 并不特别好。

◑ not dry behind the ears=wet behind the ears（美俚）乳臭未干的，未见过世面的

He is not dry behind the ears if he believes their story. 如果他相信他们所说的，那他真是太嫩了。

◑ not lose in the telling（指事情）不因叙述而失真

You can be assured that on his lips the story did not lose in the telling. 你可放心，此事从他嘴里说出来不会失真。

◑ not that I know of 据我所知并非如此，据我所知没有

A: Is there anybody else there? 那里还有别人吗？

B: Not that I know of. 据我所知没有。

◑ not to mention 更不必说

The hotel's sports activities included boating and fishing, not to mention swimming, tennis and golf. 该旅馆的体育活动包括划船和钓鱼，更不用说游泳、网球和高尔夫球了。

◑ not to say... 即使不说是……

Their language was irreverent, not to say blasphemous. 他们使用的语言，即使不说是渎神，至少也是不虔敬的。

◑ You can't lose 你必然获利

You can't lose if you buy this stock. 你买这只股票包你赚钱。

◑ You don't say. 不会吧！真的吗？

You don't say和Don't tell me...是两句极为普遍的美国口语体习语，在电影中也时常听到。如“A Song to Remember”《一曲难忘》中便有：

M. Chopin（肖邦）：He's been going to secret meetings. 他近来常去参加秘密集会。

Elsner：You don't say. 不会吧。

You don't say可加上so，语气便更强调。

七、用法上易混淆的副词和形容词

1. such和so用法上的区别

such和so在实际应用上容易混淆。such是形容词，such a (an)用于单数可数名词前，如such a fool，such an interesting story。such（无冠词）用于不可数名词前或复数可数名词前。如such patience，such fools。

so是副词，后面跟形容词或副词，如“You are so clever.”so有一个特殊结构，即so+形容词+a(n)+单数名词。这个结构带有文学性，如I have never before met so gentle a person.

注意，这个so的特殊结构中的名词不能改为复数形式，即不能说I have never before met so gentle people，但可以把so改为such，便成为：I have never before met such gentle people.

so与such后面都可跟that从句，这种句子有时被称为结果从句。如：

It was so cold that we had to stop the game.

She made such a good meal that we all ate far too much.

2. very和much用法上的区别

1 　very修饰形容词、副词，much（或very much）修饰动词。

I am very fond of music.［very修饰形容词fond，不能改用much］

He speaks very carefully.［very修饰副词carefully，不能改用much］

Modernization is much talked about these days.［much修饰动词词组talked about，不能改用very］

I like music very much.［very much修饰动词like，不能改用very一词］

2 　very修饰原级形容词和副词，much修饰比较级和最高级的形容词及副词。

My work is very good.［very修饰原级形容词］

My health is much better now.［much修饰比较级形容词］

This is much the best.［much修饰最高级形容词。本句中much不能改用very，但可换用by far］

Thomas runs very fast, but Michael runs much faster than Thomas.

例　The photographs of Mars taken by satellite are_____than those taken from the earth.

A. clearest

B. very clearer

C. much clearer

D. more clearer

［分析］上题的句意是“通过卫星所拍摄的火星照片要比从地球上所拍摄的火星照片清晰得多。”此句所表示的是两类火星照片之间的比较，需用比较级，故A项用最高级形容词不妥。very不能修饰比较级，因而正确的选择是C (much clearer）。more后面只能跟原级形容词或副词，从而构成比较级，故D也错。

3. too much...和much too...的区别

too much...后接不可数名词。如too much money（time，misunderstanding，etc.）；much too...后接原级形容词或副词。如：It's much too cold here./You sleep much too late.

例　“Let's take a walk before we start to study.”

“Oh, I think it's_____for walking.”

A. much too hot

B. very much hot

C. too much heat

D. very much heat

［分析］应选A。B中very much须改为too或much too。

4. also，too和either的区别

1 　also和too用于肯定句。also通常用于正式场合，too较常用，语气较轻。either则用于否定句。

They also（或too）agreed with us.

They agreed with us also（或too）.

Julie is not a Christian（基督徒）；Mary is not a Christian, either.

2 　在口语体中常把also等同于and also；too则不能。

We gave the boy a toy, also (=and also) some chocolates to eat on the way.

Mr. Morse became manager, also (=and also) general director（董事长）of the company.

5. 副词not和形容词no在一些常见结构中意思上的差别

① not more than=at most 至多

I have not more than 100 yuan on me. 我身边至多只有100元［含有也许不满100元之意］。

no more than=only

I have no more than 100 yuan on me. 我身边只有100元［含有仅100元而已，很少］。

② not less than 至少

I have not less than 500 yuan on me. 我身边至少有500元［含有也许不止500元］。

no less than 不少于

I have no less than 500 yuan on me. 我身边带的不少于500元［含有500元之多］。

③ You are not stronger than my friend Joseph.

你并不比我的朋友约瑟夫更强壮［含有两个人都很强壮］。

You are no stronger than my friend Joseph.

你并不比我的朋友约瑟夫强些［含有两个人都体弱］。

④ He is not a painter. 他不是位画家。［会画一点儿，但不是画家］

He is no painter. 他根本画不来。

⑤ He is not a connoisseur of works of art.

他不是位艺术品鉴赏家［懂一点儿，但远远不到“家”的程度］。

He is no connoisseur of works of art

他对艺术品鉴赏一窍不通。

⑥ He is not a scholar. 他不是学者。［有点儿学问，但不到学者的程度］

He is no scholar. 他字也识得不多。

⑦ It is not a trifling matter. 这不是件小事情。

It is no trifling matter. 这可是件大事情了。

⑧ He is not a fool. 他不是傻瓜。

He is no fool.他可精明得很。

6. 同形的形容词和副词

在英语中有若干形容词和副词，形式相同但功能却不同。如“a fast car”和“The car goes fast.”第一个fast修饰car，是形容词：第二个fast修饰goes，是副词。这些同形形容词及副词，有的意义没有差异，有的则差异较大。现把较为常见的此类词列表如下：

bloody (adj.)

You bloody fool.You didn't look where you were going. 你这该死的蠢货，走路也不看一看。

bloody (adv.)：

He is bloody drunk. 他烂醉如泥。

cheap (adj.)：

Fresh vegetables are cheap in summer. 夏天，新鲜的蔬菜很便宜。

cheap (adv.)：

buy cheap and sell dear 贱买贵卖

clean (adj.)：

He is clean from blemish. 他毫无缺点。

clean (adv.)：cleanly

Sorry I didn't turn up, I clean forgot. 对不起，我没能到场。我忘得一干二净。

The prisoner got clean away.（clean用作副词，作“completely”解）犯人逃得无影无踪了。

The butcher's knife cut cleanly through the meat. 屠夫干净利落地用刀割下一块肉。

clear (adj.)：

a clear mind 清晰的头脑

It is clear (=obvious) that it is going to rain. 天显然要下雨。

clear (adv.)：意为not touching（不接触），通常与of连用，如：

Stand clear of the gates! 离大门远一点站着！

It is sometimes impossible to keep clear of difficulties. 有时逃避困难是不可能的。

He threw her clear across=(right across) the room. 他一下子把她摔到了房间的另一边。（指房间内）

注：clearly作“distinctly（清楚地）”或“obviously（明显地）”解。

I can't see clearly (=distinctly) without my glasses. 不戴眼镜我看不清楚。

close (adj.)：

They keep in close contact with each other. 他们彼此联系很紧密。

close friend 密友

close (adv.)：

Come close (=near); I want to tell you something. 靠近些，我想告诉你一些事情。

They sit close together. 他们紧靠着坐。

在过去分词之前则用closely这一形式，如：They are closely related. 他们是近亲。

dead (adj.)：

dead water 死水

dead laws 已废除的法律

dead letters 无法投递的信

dead (adv.)

用在某些固定词组中，作“exactly”或“completely”解。如：

He is dead right. 他完全正确。

I am dead tired. 我极为疲倦。

He is dead asleep. 他在酣睡。

dead sure/certain 完全可以肯定

dead drunk 酩酊大醉

※ 注意deadly同样可作形容词，作“fatal（致命的）”解：

a deadly poison 烈性毒药

a deadly weapon 致命凶器

a deadly enemy 死敌

He is insidious and deadly. 他阴险毒辣。

deadly作“致命的”解时，其副词形式要用fatally。如：

She was fatally injured in the collapse. 她在房屋倒塌时受到致命伤。

deadly也可用作副词，作“如死地”或“非常地”解：

She went deadly pale at the news. 听到这个消息，她的脸色变得死一般地苍白。

The lecture is deadly dull. 这个讲座极其乏味。

direct (adj.)：

a direct dye 直接染料

a direct tax 直接税

a direct route to a place 去某处的捷径

direct current 直流电

direct (adv.)：

在谈到旅途及时间时，direct往往用来代替directly，如：

The plane goes direct from London to Houston without stopping. 这班航机从伦敦直飞休斯敦，中途不停。

easy (adj.)：

easy work 轻松的工作

an easy pace 从容不迫的步子

easy (adv.)：

在某些习语中easy用作副词代替easily，如：

Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得快。

There is not much coffee left, so let's go easy on it. 咖啡不多了，我们省着点喝吧。

Since you are still a young boy, we'll go easy on you. 因你还是个孩子，我们就饶了你。（或：放你一码）。

Take it easy. There is still enough time. 别急，还有时间。

It is easier said than done. 说来容易做起来难。

fair (adj.)：

fair treatment 公正的待遇

fair play 公正的游戏；公平的手段

a fair copy 誊清

fair (adv.)：

用于固定短语中，如play fair；fight fair；fair and square：

It would not be playing fair if you were to break your promise at the last minute. 如在最后关头失信的话，那就不近情理了。

Let's settle this quarrel fair and square. 咱们公平合理地解决这一争端吧。

※ 在固定词组之外，一般用副词fairly：

I think I was fairly treated by the police. 我觉得警方待我很公平。

fairly还可以用作“quite”或“rather”解：

He is a fairly good actor. 他是一个相当好的演员。

fast (adj.)：

a fast worker 手脚快的工人

Take a fast hold of it. 把这东西握紧。

fast colors 不褪的颜色

a fast life 放荡的生活

fast (adv.)：

speak fast 讲话快

run fast 跑得快

rain fast 雨下得急

be fast asleep 熟睡

live fast 生活放荡

hold（或stick）fast to principle 坚持原则

He played fast and loose with the girl's affections. 他忽冷忽热地玩弄这个女孩的感情。

注意，无fastly这一副词形式，通常以quickly，swiftly或at great speed代之。

fine (adj.)：

a fine scholar 优秀的学者

a fine view 美好的景色

fine wire 细的金属线

fine distinctions 细微的区别

Fine feathers make fine birds. 人要衣装，佛要金装。

Well, not to put too fine a point on it，the book is not worth reading at all.唔，坦率地说，这本书压根儿就不值得一读。

fine (adv.)：

用作副词作“well”解。如：

That suits me fine. 那很适合我。

You are doing fine. 你干得不错。

Don't cut it too fine. 时间不要算得太紧。

finely这一副词形式用得较少，常见的有：

The temple has been finely restored. 庙宇修复得很好。

Nancy moves finely. 南茜举止优雅。

The meat was cut finely. 肉切得很细。

flat (adj.)：

flat floor 平整的地板

a flat lie 弥天大谎

a flat plate 浅的盘子

lay a city flat 把城市夷为平地

feel flat 感觉无聊

knock a person flat 把某人打倒在地

a flat refusal 断然的拒绝

a flat tire 没有气的车胎

The market is flat 市面萧条。

fall flat on the ground 直挺挺地倒在地上

flat (adv.)：

用作副词，作“断然地；绝对地”解，在音乐领域里作“降半音地”解。如：

go flat against orders 断然抗命

He is flat broke. 他完全破产了。

He told me flat he could not comply with my request. 他斩钉截铁地告诉我，他不能答应我的要求。

sing flat 以低半音唱

flatly这一副词形式作“断然地；绝对地；完全地”解。

He is flatly opposed to the suggestion. 他坚决反对这个提议。

He flatly refused to join us. 他断然拒绝加入我们的行列。

free (adj.)：

free trade 自由贸易

free time 空余的时间

You need not pay—it is free 你不用付钱，这是免费的.

free medical care公费医疗

free (adv.)：

作“without payment”解，freely作“without limit or restriction”解。

试比较：

You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like. 无论何时，只要你愿意，都可以在我的饭店免费就餐。

You can speak freely in front of George—he knows everything. 你可以在乔治面前畅所欲言——他无所不知。

hard (adj.)：

a hard kind of wood 一种硬木

be hard on a person 对某人严厉或苛刻

hard questions/words 难题/难字

a hard line 强硬路线

have a hard time 经历一段艰难时期

a hard heart 冷酷的心/硬心肠

a hard blow 一个严重的打击

a hard father/master 严父/严师

hard (adv.)：

hit sb./sth. hard 猛击某人/某物

drink hard 狂饮

work hard 努力工作/用功读书

hold sth. hard 紧握某物

rain hard 雨下得很大

breathe hard 呼吸困难

注意，hardly这一副词同hard (adv.)在意义上截然不同，hardly作“almost not几乎不”解，用在实义动词之前。试比较：

He works hard. 他工作很卖力。

He hardly works. 他几乎不工作。

high (adj.)：

a high mountain/building 高山/高楼

have a high opinion of sb. 器重某人

a high official 高级官员

high living 生活奢侈

a high wind 劲风

high summer 盛夏

a high voice 声音很尖

be in high spirits 兴高采烈

high (adv.)：

high用作副词表示高度；highly (adv.)表示程度。试比较：

He can jump really high. 他能够跳很高。

Throw it as high as you can. 尽可能往高处扔。

She is highly paid. 她薪俸优厚。

He spoke highly of her. 他高度赞扬她。

just (adj.)：

a just price 公平的价格

a just reward 应得的报酬

a just person 公正/正直的人

just suspicions 有理由的怀疑

a just claim 正当的要求

just weights 精确的砝码

just (adv.)：

① 作“a moment ago（刚刚）”解，英国英语通常用于现在完成时，而现代美国英语则多用于一般过去式。

They have just left.或They just left. 他们刚走。

② 作“exactly；precisely恰恰”解。

This is just what I think. 这正合我意。

③ 作“at this (that) very moment刚好”解。如：

My book is just out. 我的书刚出版。

I'm just coming. 我这就来。

He is just about to leave. 他正好要走。

④ 作“barely；almost not”解，如：

He just managed to pass the exam. 他考试刚及格。

I just caught the last bus. 我正好赶上末班公共汽车。

⑤ 作“very；completely”解，如：

Isn't that just beautiful! 那确实很漂亮！

副词justly作“公正地；正义地”解。

deal with a problem justly 公正地处理一个问题

He was justly punished for his crimes. 他的罪行受到了应有的惩罚。

late (adj.)：

① 作“迟；晚”解，如：

be late for work 上班迟到

a late marriage 晚婚

late spring 暮春

It is never too late to learn. 活到老学到老。

It is never too late to mend. 亡羊补牢，未为迟也。

Keep late hours. 晚睡晚起。

in one's late years 晚年

② 作“最近的”解，如：

the latest news 最新消息

③ 作“已亡故的”解，如：

one's late husband/wife 亡夫/妻

the late Professor Hill 已故的希尔教授

④ 作“前任的”解，如：

the late prime minister 前总理或前首相

late (adv.)：

late用作副词其意义同late用作形容词的意义相似；lately则作“recently近来”解。试比较：

I hate arriving late. 我不喜欢晚到。

I haven't been to the theater much lately. 近来我不大去看戏。［注意，much不修饰lately，而是修饰它前面的句子］

loud (adj.)：

a loud voice 嗓音洪亮

loud music 吵人的音乐

a loud laugh 高声大笑

a loud denial 断然的否认

loud (adv.)：

在和动词talk，speak，shout，laugh一起用时，loud用作副词要比loudly普通，如：

Don't talk loud—you'll wake the whole street. 别大声说话——你快把整条街的人都吵醒了。

low (adj.)：

a low price 低价

low taste 低级趣味

speak in a low voice 低声讲话

be in low spirits 情绪低落；意志消沉

a low dress（妇女穿的）袒胸衣

play low tricks 耍卑劣手段

The water is low. 水浅了

a low fellow 下流的人

a person of low birth 出身低微的人

low thoughts 不健康的思想

have a low opinion of somebody 对某人评价甚低（瞧不起某人）

low (adv.)：

形容词low的副词形式也是low，如：

bow low 深深地鞠躬

play low 小赌赌

The candle is burning low. 蜡烛快要点完了

Our stock of leather jackets is running low. 我们皮夹克的存货快要告罄。

lowly (adj.)：

作“低下的；谦卑的”解，如：

a lowly occupation 低下的行当

Jack has a lowly opinion of himself. 杰克很谦卑。

lowly (adv.)：

作“低下地；谦恭地；低声地”解，如：

lowly paid workers 工资低微的工人

converse lowly 低声谈话

pretty (adj.)：

① 作“悦目的；悦耳的”解，如：

a pretty girl 好看的姑娘

a pretty child 可爱的孩子

pretty music 动听的音乐

② 生得很清秀但带有女子气的（指男性），如a pretty boy 相貌清秀的男孩子。

③ 用作反语，表示“糟糕”的意思，如：

a pretty mess或a pretty state of affairs（事情弄得）一团糟

④ 相当多的（指钱），如：

a pretty sum of money 一笔相当数目的钱

pretty (adv.)：

① 作“quite；rather”解，如：

I'm pretty well. 我身体很好

I'm pretty sure I'll succeed. 我很有把握我会成功的。

② 作“prettily”解，如：

The girl is dressed prettily. 这个女孩子穿得很好看。

quick (adj.)：

be quick at figures 算得快

a quick reply 及时答复

a quick temper 急性子

a quick wit/mind 机智/头脑动得快

a quick eye 慧眼

a quick child 伶俐的儿童

quick (adv.)：

quick及quickly均为形容词quick的副词形式。在非正式文体中，与表示动作的动词一起用时，quick往往用来代替quickly，如：

Come quick! 快来！

I'll get back as quick as I can. 我会尽快赶回来的。

real (adj.)：

What's the real reason? 真正的理由是什么？

a story of real life 一篇真实的故事

real gold 纯金

real estate 不动产

real (adv.)：

在非正式文体，尤其在美国英语中，real往往代替really用在形容词或其他副词前，如：

We had a real (=really) good time last night. 昨天晚上我们玩得真高兴。

You cook real (=really) well. 你菜烧得真好。

right (adj.)：

right conduct 正当的行为

one's right hand 右手

a right answer 正确的回答

the right side of the street 街道的右边

He is the right man for the job. 他是做这工作的合适人选。

right (adv.)：

right和rightly均是副词，用法上的区别是：

① 作“just；exactly恰恰；就”解时，用right这一副词形式，如：

Put it right here. 就把它放在这里吧。

She turned up right after lunch. 她一吃好中饭就来了。

The snowball hit me right on the nose. 雪球正好打在我的鼻子上。

② 作“右面”解时也用right，如：

Turn right at the traffic lights.在红绿灯处向右拐弯。

③ 作“正确地”解时，right和rightly都可用，在口语中right更为普通，位置只能放在动词后面，rightly放在动词前或后都可以，如：

I rightly assumed that Henry was not coming.［不能用right］我猜对了，亨利没有来。

You guessed right（或rightly）. 你猜中了。

It serves you right. 你活该。［这句是习惯表达法，不能用rightly］

sharp (adj.)：

a sharp knife 快刀

a sharp mental struggle 激烈的思想斗争

a sharp tongue 讲话刻薄

a sharp pain in the stomach 胃部剧痛

a sharp nose 尖鼻

a sharp desire 强烈的欲望

a sharp turn 急转弯

a sharp appetite迫切的食欲

sharp eyes 目光锐利

a sharp contrast 鲜明的对比

a sonata in C sharp minor 升C小调奏鸣曲［sharp指高半音，minor指小调］

sharp (adv.)：

① 作“准；正”解，如at two o'clock sharp 两点整

② 作“留意地”解，如look sharp! 小心！赶快！

③ 作“突然地；急速地”解，如turn sharp left (right) 向左（右）急转弯

④ 作“以高半音”解，如sing sharp 唱高半音

其他意义则用sharply，如：

look sharply 目光锐利地看

speak sharply 讲话很厉害

short (adj.)：

His speech was short and to the point. 他讲话简明扼要。

We are short of men (money). 我们缺少人手/钱。

I am short of sleep. 我睡眠不足。

That shop gives short weight. 那家商店给的分量不足。

Your TOEFL score comes (falls) short of our requirement. 你的托福成绩未达到我们的要求。

She was so short with me that I felt hurt. 她对我无情无义，我感到很伤心。

“TV”is short for“television”. TV是television的简称。

Short of murder, there is nothing he won't do to get what he wants. 除了杀人以外，为了要得到他所要的，他什么事都干得出来。

take a short cut 走近路

There is no short cut to knowledge. 求学无捷径。

I like the story because it is short and sweet. 我喜欢这篇故事，因为它短小精悍。

short (adv.)

用作副词，short主要用于少数固定词组中，如：

① stop short (=stop suddenly)：

The bus stopped short and an accident was avoided. 公共汽车突然煞住，避免了一场车祸。

② cut short

——a. interrupt 打断：

She was about to repeat the same old story when I cut her short. 她正要重复那个古老的故事，我打断了她。

——b. make (sth.) shorter：缩短

To give the students more time for group discussion, the teacher cut short his lecture. 为了给学生留出更多的时间进行小组讨论，老师缩短了讲课的时间。

③ sell sb. short 小看某人

Don't sell Larry short; he is really an excellent engineer. 别小看拉里，他是个非常优秀的工程师。

注意，在上述固定词组中不能用shortly来代替short。

shortly (adv.)：

① soon（不久）：Tom will arrive shortly. 汤姆不久就会到达。

② briefly（简短地）：Tell me your business shortly. 给我简要介绍一下你的事情。

③ impatiently (not politely)：He answered shortly that he didn't care what I thought. 他很不耐烦地回答说，他不在乎我怎么想。

slow (adj.)：

a slow walker 走路慢的人

be slow at account 不善于算账

slow music 调子缓慢的音乐

slow fire 文火

a slow poison 慢性毒药

be slow of hearing 听觉不灵

a slow book 一本索然无味的书

a slow town 落伍的城市

slow (adv.)：

在非正式及美国英语中slow往往代替slowly，用在go及其他动作动词后面。如：

How slow you read! 你看得真慢！

go slow有两个意思：

① 慢慢地走：

We went slow through the beautiful, quiet village. 我们慢慢地走过这座幽静、美丽的村庄。

② 小心地；谨慎地：

I advise you to go slow in what you are doing. 我劝你谨慎从事。

sound (adj.)：

主要的意思是“健全的；稳当可靠的；痛快的；理由充足的；判断正确的”，如：

a sound body and mind 健全的身心

a sound friend 诚实可靠的朋友

a sound investment 稳妥的投资

give sb. a sound beating 痛打某人一顿

a sound argument 理由充足的论据

a sound sleep 酣睡

a sound analysis 中肯的分析

a sound administrator 一位判断力正确的管理人员

sound (adv.)：

sound用作副词只用于固定词组be sound asleep（酣睡）中，在其他场合一般都用soundly，如：He is sleeping soundly.

straight (adj.)：

a straight line/path 直线/路

put (set) a room straight 把房间收拾整齐

a straight conduct 正直的行为

keep straight 洁身自好

straight (adv.)：

作“直线地；一直地；直接地；坦白地；立即地”解，如：

go straight on 一直走下去

fly straight to Paris from New York 从纽约直飞巴黎

As soon as he got the telephone call, he went straight out. 他一接到电话马上就出去了。

tell sb. straight out 向某人直说

live straight 清清白白地做人

come straight to the point 讲话开门见山

副词straightly用得很少。

sure (adj.)：

作“certain”解，这里再补充一些实用的例句：

I'm sure of myself. 我有信心。

Fight no battle (that) you are not sure of winning. 不打无把握之仗。

a sure proof 确凿无疑的证据

a sure way to make money 赚钱的稳妥方法

Traditional Chinese medicine is slow and（或but）sure. 中药缓慢而稳妥。

sure (adv.)：

在美国口语中sure往往代替surely用作副词，如：

“Can I borrow your tennis racket（网球拍）?”—“Sure (=Surely).”

tight (adj.)：

主要的意思是“紧的；密封的；困难的（指处境）；紧凑的”，如：

These new shoes are painfully tight. 这双新鞋紧得难受。

This joint is completely tight. 这个管子接头绝不漏水/漏气。

I have got a tight schedule today, so I can't see you till tomorrow. 我今天时间排得满满的，故要等明天才能见你。

Money is tight these days. 这几天银根很紧。

be in a tight corner（或spot）处于困境

a tight game 一场势均力敌的比赛

tight (adv.)：

在动词后面，tight可用来代替tightly，在口语中尤其如此，如：

hold sth.tight（把某物握紧），在动词前面则用tightly，试比较：

衣服在手提箱里装得紧紧的。

The clothes are tightly packed in the suitcase.

The clothes are packed tight in the suitcase.

sit tight［sit tight是习用语，tight不能改为tightly］

① 作“坐着不动”解，如：

Mother told her little son to sit tight until she came back. 母亲告诉她的小儿子，她回来之前他坐在这儿别动。

② 作“坚持（目标、意见等）”解，如：

Both of them sat tight with their own arguments and a deadlock ensued. 他俩各执己见，互不相让，因而陷入了僵局。

well (adj.)：表语形容词

① 作“身体好”解（是“ill”之反义词）。如：I am very well. 不能说a well person，应改为a healthy person。

② 作“良好的”解，如：All is well with us. 我们一切都好。

It is all very well+不定式是well的习用结构，表示不赞成，不满意的反话。作“……固然很好（但……）”解。如：

It's all very well to suggest buying a lap-top computer, but where am I to get the money? 你说买台便携式电脑，这固然好，但我上哪儿弄这笔钱呢？

well (adv.)：

① 意思等同于good，如sleep well；sing well；speak French well；

Well done! 做得/干得/写得好！

That is well said. 那话说得好。

think well of sb. 对某人有好感

② 作“彻底地；好好地”解，如：Wash your coat well before you dry it. 好好地洗一下你的外套，然后再晾干。

③ 作“详细地；周全地”解，如：He knows the subject well. 他对这一课题知道甚详。

④ 表示程度，作“甚多”解，如：He is well past forty. 他已大大超过四十岁了。

⑤ take a joke well作“对笑话不介意”解。

wide (adj.)：

a wide street 宽阔的马路

a man of wide information 知识面广的人

He stared at the scene with wide eyes. 他睁大眼睛注视着那景象。

Your guess is wide of the truth. 你的猜测离实际情况相差很远。

wide (adv.)：

形容词wide的副词也是wide，即它的同形副词。如：

open the door wide 把门敞开

He opens his mouth too wide. 他嘴巴张得太大。［即野心太大之意］

He is wide awake有两层意思：

① 作“fully awake. 这句话（醒透了）”解；

② 作“alert（机警）”解。

During his first shooting practice the bullets often went wide of the mark. 第一次练习射击时，他的子弹常常打飞。

wide在上面例句中，作“aside，astray（偏离了）”解。

widely作“范围广阔地”及“在很大程度上”解，如：

He has traveled widely. 他见闻很广。［注意，通常不说travel wide, 但可说travel far and wide（到处旅行），因far and wide是习语，作“到处；四面八方地”解，如search far and wide for a missing child］

He is widely known. 他很出名。

He is widely read.［read在这里是过去分词形容词］他博览群书。

The two newspapers have widely different accounts of the case. 两家报纸对此情况的报道大不相同。

wrong (adv.)：

在动词后面，wrong可代替wrongly尤其在口语中，如：you guessed wrong（或wrongly）。在动词前则用wrongly，如：I wrongly believed that you wanted to help me.

例 The following (A) night Bill returned quite lately (B) from work to find (C) his wife lying (D) unconscious beside the phone.

［分析］掌握了上列同形之形容词与副词后便会一眼看出B是错误的，应改为与late同形的副词late，作“晚；迟到”解；lately则作“近来”解，在本题中不适用。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. The population of many Alaskan cities has_____doubled in the past three years.

A. larger than

B. more than

C. as great as

D. as many as

2. “How often did you give him money?”

“_____than I can remember.”

A. The more time

B. More time

C. More times

D. The more times

3. Although he sometimes lost his temper, his pupils liked him_____for it.

A. not so much

B. not so little

C. no more

D. no less

4. Have you finished your homework? This lesson is_____than the last one.

A. more easier

B. more easy

C. very easier

D. much easier

5. He spoke_____.

A. slow and careful

B. slow and carefully

C. slowly and carefully

D. carefully and slowly

6. Mrs. Doolittle told me that she would go_____.

A. downtown

B. the downtown

C. in downtown

D. on town

7. I thought that Mr. Fall's address was a_____good speech.

A. real

B. really

C. reality

D. to be real

8. _____lovely eyes she has.

A. What

B. How

C. Why

D. How quick

9. _____she has grown.

A. What quickly

B. What quick

C. How quickly

D. How quick

10. The wind is blowing_____.

A. hard

B. hardly

C. very hardly

D. to be hard

11. The ice melted_____.

A. fast

B. most fastly

C. fastly

D. to be fast

12. The test was so hard that he_____flunked it.

A. most

B. mostly

C. almost

D. foremost

13. “_____.”“I know that.”

A. The postman comes twice a day during December

B. The postman comes during December twice a day

C. Twice a day during December the postman comes

D. Twice during December a day the postman comes

14. “I have to leave now.”

“Well, I hope we see each other again_____.”

A. before many days

B. in few days

C. before much time

D. before long

15. He spent a year in the hospital, _____.

A. but he emerged well entirely

B. and entirely emerged well

C. but he entirely well emerged

D. and emerged entirely well

16. Quarter horses can start more quickly, turn more sharply, and run faster over short courses_____breeds can.

A. that the other

B. other

C. than other

D. of all other

17. _____incense is made in powder form or in sticks.

A. It is usually

B. Usually

C. Usually it is

D. Usually when

18. The Smithsonian Institution preserves more than sixty-five million items of scientific, historical, or artistic interest, _____winning the popular title，“attic of the nation.”

A. however

B. thus

C. and

D. moreever

19. Around the world_____may be as many as a million earthquakes in a single year.

A. yet

B. they

C. there

D. ever

20. “Is Dave about ready?”

“Yes, he's_____.”

A. finished dressing nearly

B. finishing nearly dressing

C. nearly finished dressing

D. nearly finishing dressing

21. The gentleman was apparently content_____.

A. to patiently wait outside the door

B. to wait outside patiently the door

C. to wait patiently outside the door

D. to wait outside the door patiently

二、改错

1. Jessica is only (A) an (B) amateur, but she sings sweeter (C) than (D) most professionals.

2. John is always worried about (A) being late, so (B) he leaves early (C) than anyone else (D).

3. The price (A) of gold on the world (B) market has been rising (C) highest (D) each year.

4. According to (A) the statement issued by (B) the Department of Commerce and Labor, unemployment has been declining steady (C) since the middle of last year (D).

5. The committee is investigating six major grain exporters, their hold (A) over United States grain shipments abroad (B), and the way in which they can (C) influence sensitive price information, both internationally and domestic (D).

6. The more complex a subject becomes (A), the better necessary (B) it is to break it up (C) into a number of parts which (D) the reader can visualize.

7. The President returned with (A) only a few (B) vague (C) worded cultural (D) and scientific agreements.

8. The best (A) work is not always done (B) by (C) those who work the faster (D).

9. Stores were jammed (A) with last-minute (B) Christmas shoppers, but the festive spirit was slight (C) disrupted by homemade bombs that exploded (D).

10. We need (A) an unusual gifted (B) chemist to solve (C) this sensitive problem without creating (D) any hazards.

11. Please don't (A) ask Mary tonight (B) to retype all the pages (C) in the lowest (D) desk drawer.

12. I'm looking for (A) a car enough good (B) to give (C) dependable service (D) for several years.

13. Moral and intellectual (A), he is (B) second to (C) none in this class (D).

14. The point is (A) that relative (B) few automatic activities occur (C) in proportion to the many which are random and aimless (D).

15. He has sat at the (A) table for several hours and drunk (B) considerable (C) more wine than is good for (D) his health.

16. Charles loved the lore of his country, but what (A) fascinated him mostly (B) was (C) a snapshot in the family album of a 12-year-old (D) boy standing, rifle in hand.

17. The wingbeats (A) of hummingbirds (B) are too (C) rapid that their wings cannot be seen (D) distinctly.

18. Many people enjoy stamp collecting (A), and they will pay often (B) large sums for stamps on which (C) a mistake was made (D).

19. Steam boilers in (A) large thermal factories may be (B) so (C) high as a fourteen-story (D) building.

20. Authenticity (A) stained glass is colored (B) while (C) the glass is in a liquid (D) state.

21. Practical (A) all (B) of the Bering Sea water (C) comes from (D) the Pacific Ocean.

22. Cider is the fermented (A), or partial (B) fermented, juice (C) of apples (D).

23. A footnote is characteristically employed to give (A) information (B) that is too long (C) or too detailed be (D) included in the body of a text.

24. The typical (A) Georgian-style house is rectangular (B) in shape, at less (C) two stories (D) high, and designed around a central stairway.

25. A great many (A) educators firmly (B) believe that English is one of the poorest (C) taught subjects in high school today (D).

26. In fact (A), I didn't see hardly (B) many (C) people there in (D) the museum.

三、把下列句子中括号内的副词或副词短语按相应正确的词序排列

1. The guests will arrive (next Monday, from Cairo, in the morning, at ten o'clock).

2. The form-master（班主任）spoke to the new boy (patiently, for an hour, softly).

3. The children are playing (all the afternoon, happily, in the garden).

4. I shall be reading (tomorrow, at home, between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m.).

5. The boys sang(last night, on the stage, beautifully).

6. Please wait (at noon, tomorrow, outside my school).

7. You must do your work (carefully, conscientiously, slowly).

8. Henry ran (after school, to the bus-stop, immediately).

9. We were dancing (all last night, in the Town Hall, together).

10. They talked (in the sitting-room, delightedly, for hours, after dinner).

11. The children returned(at five o'clock, with their parents, home).

12. I an sorry to have kept you waiting (last night, at the bus-stop, for an hour).

13. Our school will re-open (on Monday, 5th September, at 9 a.m.).

14. Nobody was hurt (seriously, surprisingly enough, in yesterday's accident).

15. He answered (smartly, humorously, sensibly).

16. That little boy spoke (the other day, in an interesting way, during the debate).

17. I agree (in this matter, in principle, with you).

18. We paid a visit to our uncle, who lives (in Clear Brook, with his family, last week).

19. I shall go (next Thursday, on commercial business, with Mary, to London).

20. The fire broke out (last month, on a Thursday morning, near the arsenal, at eight o'clock).

21. I have a walk (after sunset, usually, in the woods, with my little sister).

22. I have been walking (for five hours, wearily, alone, under the broiling sun).

23. I went to see him (on my arrival at the place, directly, to take him by surprise, last Tuesday).

24. We landed (on 1st August, 1872; in the midst of a violent storm, at 11 p.m., on a desert island).

25. You must write (to avoid making mistakes, carefully, slowly, always).

26. The workmen fell (in an awkward manner, to the ground, yesterday, from the awning).

27. He left the place (with his wife, on hearing the news, hurriedly, last night, without saying a word).

四、把下列每句中画线的状语短语以适当的副词代替

1. The news of the war soon spread far and wide.

2. I thank you with all my heart for your assistance.

3. We all wondered why he made that assertion again and again.

4. From time to time the stranger came to the village to see the orphan.

5. Henry, you must treat your parents and friends with respect.

6. The train was running at full speed when the bridge suddenly collapsed.

7. By degrees the moon plunged into a sea of darkness, until at last it was completely hidden by the shadow of the earth.

8. It is hoped that the war will come to an end before long.

9. If I hurt your feelings, I did so without knowing it.

10. We cannot kill, or even try to kill, anybody by taking the law into our own hands.

11. Taking it all in all, life has become easier and more worth living nowadays.

12. One evening I saw her standing on the beach without the company of anybody.

13. The thug（暴徒，杀手）told the jury he had killed the woman without the intention of doing so.

14. His suggestion is practically not worth considering.

15. The Queen, the ambassadors, the ministers, and the high-ranking officials entered the hall one after the other.

16. The boys joined the campaign at their own will.

17. The workers and the management talked for hours in a friendly manner.

18. To everybody's surprise, the child who fell head over heels from the roof still survived.

19. We were travelling in the direction of home when the earthquake struck.

20. The new liner will be launched tomorrow and a cocktail party will be held on board.

五、以so，such或such a (an)填空

1. We had_____a pleasant time during the holidays.

2. It was_____hot a day that we slept most of the time.

3. It was_____a warm day that we all took off our overcoats when we climbed up the mountain.

4. The child is_____lovely that everybody loves him.

5. This book is written in_____easy English that beginners can understand it.

6. The young artist painted the picture with_____consummate skill that he surprised even his masters.

7. I have never seen_____tall a building.

8. This is_____small matter.

9. There was_____much to do that nobody ever got bored.

10. We have_____fun.

11. The concert was_____a triumph.

12. I have got_____a headache.

13. The meeting was_____interesting.

14. It was_____an interesting meeting.

15. He told us_____tragic a story that we were all moved to tears.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［B］more than doubled作“不止翻了一倍”解。

2.［C］more times 前不可用the，time需用复数形式，故A，B及D三项均不妥。

3.［D］no less=none the less=not...the less作“照样；仍然”解。A，B和C三项不通。

4.［D］much修饰比较级形容词，故选D。

5.［C］两个副词并列使用时，较长的放在后面。

6.［A］在go downtown短语中，downtown系副词，前不能用冠词或介词如come home，arrive home等。

7.［B］在口语体中real常用来代替really，但在正式文体中不行。故不能选A。

8.［A］what作为副词用于感叹句的结构是：what+形容词+名词，如What bright colors!（多么鲜艳的颜色！）

9.［C］副词how用于感叹句的结构是：How+副词，如How beautifully she sings!

10.［A］。hardly也是副词，但作“almost not”解，不适用于本句中。

11.［A］fast既可作形容词又可作副词，fastly不能用作形容词fast的副词形式。

12.［C］...he almost flunked it（it指test）意指他测试差点儿不及格。

13.［A］时间状语并列使用时，表示小的时间单位的副词放在前，大的放在后。

14.［D］B中few前应加上a，in a few days作“几天后”解。A和C不通。

15.［D］well用作表语形容词或副词时，修饰它的副词需放在它的前面，而且A中的but也不妥，故A不如D好。

16.［C］than也可接倒装主谓结构，即than can other breeds。

17.［B］其他皆不合语法。

18.［B］题句到填充的空格前结构已完整，故在分词winning前不能选用连词and，而应选副词thus，其余两副词均不合句意。

19.［C］may be...作“可能有……”解。

20. 程度副词nearly应置于实义动词finished之前，故正确选择是C (nearly finished dressing）。A中nearly放在句末修饰dressing文理上讲不通。B和D均不合语法，因在本句中he's=he has。

21.［C］(to wait patiently outside the door)，在无时间副词的情况下，副词的顺序通常是方式在前，地点在后。

二、改错

1.［C］改为more sweetly。

2.［C］改为earlier。

3.［D］题句中has been rising及each year表明国际市场上的黄金价格在逐年上升，即去年比前年高，今年比去年高，比较在两者中进行，应用比较级，故把D改为higher。

4.［C］改为declining steadily。

5.［D］改为domestically。

6.［B］改为more necessarily。

7.［C］改为vaguely，修饰过去分词形容词worded。

8.［D］those who...表两个以上的数字概念，故D项中的副词应用最高级形式fastest。最高级副词前之the也可省，故也可说work fastest。

9.［C］改为slightly。

10.［B］gifted系过去分词形容词，需用副词加以修饰，故把B中unusual改为unusually。

11.［B］副词tonight位置不当，模棱两可，既可修饰don't ask Mary也可修饰不定式to retype。按句意看，tonight修饰don't ask Mary不合情理，应修饰to retype，故把tonight位置移至to retype后面，明确表示修饰不定式to retype。

12.［B］enough用作副词时只能置于形容词或副词后面，绝不能放在它们的前面。这是enough的特殊用法，故把B改为good enough。

13.［A］应改为Morally and intellectually以修饰整个句子。be second to none作“不比任何人差”解。

14.［B］改为relatively以修饰形容词few。

15.［C］改为considerably修饰比较级形容词more。D项（than is good）不错，见代词一章中之“准代词THAN一节”。

16.［B］不要把用于最高级的副词most和副词mostly混淆。mostly=for the most part，作“大部分”解。如They are mostly natives（不能用most）. What most pleased me was the music（不能用mostly）.故把B改为most。

17.［C］副词too后不能接从句，把C改为so。hummingbird美洲产的蜂雀。

18.［B］副词often位置不当，应插入will pay的中间，即will often pay。

19.［C］改为as。steam boiler汽锅。

20.［A］改为副词形式Authentically，修饰分词形容词stained。stained glass彩色玻璃

21.［A］改为Practically，修饰整个句子。the Bering Sea位于太平洋最北部分的白令海

22.［B］改为or partially，partially修饰分词形容词fermented（发酵的）。

23.［D］too...to... 结构中，too后面之不定式不可改为动词原形，故把D改为detailed to be。

24.［C］改为最高级least，与at连用构成习用语，作“至少”解。

25.［C］改为most poorly。poorest系形容词poor的最高级，不能修饰分词形容词taught。

26.［B］hardly系含有否定意味的副词，不能同否定谓语动词连用，故应把B去掉。

三、把下列句子中括号内的副词或副词短语按相应正确的词序排列

1. from Cairo at ten o'clock in the morning next Monday

2. softly and patiently for an hour（softly较patiently短，故放在前面）

3. happily in the garden all the afternoon

4. at home between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. tomorrow

5. beautifully on the stage last night

6. outside my school at noon tomorrow

7. slowly, carefully and conscientiously

8. to the bus-stop immediately after school（to the bus-stop和ran关系密切，故放在最前面）

9. together in the Town Hall all last night

10. delightedly in the sitting-room for hours after dinner

11. home with their parents at five o'clock

12. at the bus-stop for an hour last night

13. at 9 p.m. on Monday, 5th September

14. Surprisingly enough, ...seriously in yesterday's accident

15. smartly, sensibly and humorously

16. in an interesting way during the debate the other day

17. In principle, I agree with you in this matter.

18. Last week we paid a visit to our uncle, who lives with his family in Clear Brook.

19. I shall go to London with Mary on commercial business next Thursday.

20. near the arsenal at eight o'clock on a Thursday morning last month

21. I usually have a walk with my little sister in the woods after sunset

22. I have been walking alone wearily under the broiling sun for five hours.

23. To take him by surprise, I went to see him directly on my arrival at the place last Tuesday.

24. We landed on a desert island in the midst of a violent storm at 11 p.m. on 1st August, 1872.

25. To avoid making mistakes, you must always write slowly and carefully.

26. The workmen fell to the ground from the awning in an awkward manner yesterday.

27. On hearing the news, he left the place hurriedly with his wife without saying a word last night.

四、把下列每句中画线的状语短语以适当的副词代替

1. everywhere

2. heartily（或sincerely）

3. repeatedly

4. Occasionally（偶尔）［或：Every now and then（时时）］

5. respectfully

6. fast（或speedily）

7. Gradually

8. soon

9. unwittingly

10. unlawfully

11. Generally（或Generally speaking）

12. alone

13. unintentionally

14. hardly

15. successively

16. voluntarily

17. amicably

18. Surprisingly（或Strangely）

19. homewards

20. aboard

五、以so，such或such a (an)填空

1. such

2. so

3. such

4. so

5. such

6. such

7. so

8. such a

9. so

10. such

11. such

12. such

13. so

14. such

15. so

第十四章　排比结构

笼统地讲，排比结构是指修辞上的一种写作技巧，即用类似的语法形式来表达类似的概念。具体地说，排比结构要求：当一个句子的某些部分并列使用或由关联词连接时，句子的这些部分必须保持相同的语法结构。例如：

They had their choice of watching television, going shopping, or eating out.［动名词并列用作介词of的宾语］

He is BOTH a scientist AND an artist.关联词both...and...连接两个用作表语的名词短语。

换句话说，排比结构也就是写作中的对语法，即名词对名词、动词对动词、不定式对不定式、动名词对动名词、介词短语对介词短语，等等。因此，排比结构是帮助我们清晰地表达思想内容的一种修辞手段，在句中能起到累进的作用，从而加深读者的印象。

一、排比结构的分类

1. 单词排比

India, Bali（在爪哇之东的巴厘岛）and East Africa are my favorite travel destinations.［名词］

Andreas skies（滑雪），bowls（打保龄球），and surfs（作冲浪运动）.［动词］

Her fiance was witty, intelligent and experienced.［形容词］

The horse jumped quickly and surely over the rail fence.［副词］

We spent the day swimming, reading and sleeping.［动名词］

2. 短语排比

I passed my time in the train compartment, eating my lunch and talking with the other passengers.［分词短语］

Filling out the marriage license and signing it were the last steps.［动名词短语］

To finish school and to get a good job are my ambitions.［不定式短语］

They searched for the books in the living room, in the bedroom and in the garage.［介词短语］

3. 从句排比

They are looking for a house that has four bedrooms and that sits on a hillside lot.［定语从句］（hillside lot: 山坡上的一块场地）

If you leave a note or if you telephone, I will get your message.［状语从句］

Our instructor suggested that we read several supplementary books and that we do reasearch on the subject.［宾语从句］

二、使用排比结构应注意的问题

如前所述，排比结构要求以类同的语法形式来表达类似的思想内容；如果类似的思想内容不是以类似的结构表示出来，那么排比结构就受到破坏，以下是排比结构受破坏的一些典型例子：

（×）She likes to knit（针织），to sew（缝纫）and crocheting（用钩针织）.

（√）She likes to knit, to sew, and to crochet.［不定式排比］

（×）The doctor suggested plenty of food, rest, and exercising.

（√）The doctor suggested plenty of food, rest, and exercise.［名词排比］

（×）Come to class prepared to take notes and with some questions to ask.

（√）Come to class prepared to take notes and to ask some questions.［不定式短语排比］

（×）He is good not only at hockey but plays baseball well too.

（√）He is good not only at hockey but also at baseball.［介词短语排比］

（×）The award was for a combination of scholarship（有学识）, someone who was a good leader and ability in athletics.

（√）The award was for a combination of scholarship, a good leadership（领导才能）, and ability in athletics.［名词排比］

（×）I forgot that the bill was due on Monday and the company would close my account if it wasn't paid.

（√）I forgot that the bill was due on Monday and that the company would close my account if it wasn't paid.［从句排比］

注意，误用的排比结构其改正的方法往往不止一个，如：

（×）To drive well and staying within the speed limits are necessary in today's traffic.

改正1：To drive well and to stay within the speed limits are necessary in today's traffic.［不定式短语排比］

改正2：Driving well and staying within the speed limits are necessary in today's traffic.［动名词短语排比］

三、排比结构中代词、介词或冠词省略时应注意的问题

在行文中，为了文体的简练起见，相同的代词、介词或冠词等词往往可以省略：

The Olympic runner was praised for his strength and (for his) endurance.

We installed wood paneling in the living room, (in the) dining room and (in the) kitchen.

但如省略后造成意思上的混乱的话，则不应省略：

例1：

句意不清⇒At the conference Laura met a doctor, writer and world traveler.

writer和world traveler前各省掉了不定冠词“a”，到底doctor，writer和world traveler是同一个人还是三个人？

［改正1］At the conference Laura met a doctor, a writer and a world traveler.

writer和world traveler前各补上了不定冠词“a”，便清楚说明doctor，writer和world traveler分别为三个人。

［改正2］At the conference Laura met a man who was a doctor, writer and world traveler.

doctor，writer和world traveler为同一个人。

例2：

句意不清⇒The man denied that he had broken into the house and he had taken the watch.

在第二个宾语从句前省掉了that，整个句意是“该人否认闯入那幢房子，然后偷了那只表”，既不清楚，文理又不通。

［改正1］The man denied that he had broken into the house and that he had taken the watch.

补上连词that后便很明显，该人否认了两件事，即否认闯入那幢房子，也否认偷了表。

［改正2］The man denied that he had broken into the house and taken the watch.

这句把两个宾语从句并成一个宾语从句，即该人否认闯入那幢房子去偷表。

例3：

句意不清⇒The hurricane was more of a threat to the tourists than the natives.

在the natives前省掉介词to，这句意思可以指“飓风对旅游者的威胁超过对当地土人的威胁”，也可指“飓风比当地的土人对旅游者威胁更大”，模棱两可。

［改正］The hurricane was more of a threat to the tourists than to the natives.

在natives前加上to后，便清楚表明“飓风对旅游者的威胁比对当地土人的威胁更大。”

排比结构不仅增加了文章的清晰度，而且通过单词、短语、从句或一连串句子的排比使一个句子或段落的思想内容逐步累进，达到高潮，读来气势磅礴，印象至深。请再看下列句子：

单词排比：

I value a friend who is sweet, kind and loving.

三个形容词的排比使用强调了主语I看重怎么样的朋友：他必须逗人喜欢，心地宽厚，并有爱心。

短语排比：

We drove first to the lake, then to the river and finally to the ocean.

三个介词短语的排比使用强调了那天驱车到好多地方去玩，湖滨、河畔、海滨都去了。

从句排比：

She had the same feeling when she graduated from middle school, when she graduated from high school, and when she graduated from college.

三个从句的排比使用强调了主语she的感觉始终不变，初中毕业也好，高中毕业也好，大学毕业也好，她总是有那种相同的感觉。

句子排比：

Never had Brent seen such chaos as during the earthquake. Windows of storefronts were shattering. Streets were splitting open. Bricks and boulders were crashing down from tall buildings on the people below.

三个独立句子的并列排比生动勾画出地震发生时的可怕情景：商店门窗向四面八方崩碎，街道地面裂开，砖头和大块石子从高楼上崩落下来，砸向下面的人们。

排比结构在英语写作及汉译英中均是个有效的修辞手段，汉学家Byuner曾运用分词排比结构来英译李白《静夜思》的最后两行诗句举头望明月，低头思故乡：

Lifting myself to look, I found that it was moonlight,

Sinking back again, I thought suddenly of home.

例　The early (A) settlers on the prairie (B) built (C) sod homes quickly, simply, and were cheap. (D)

［分析］D错。谓语动词built为三个副词所修辞，故D应改为cheaply。quick也可用作副词，但这里用quickly在形式上也能和simply及cheaply构成排比。

例　In the alpine tundra（海拔甚高的冻土带）, the summer sunshine is intense, winds are prevalent, _____highly variable.

A. with precipitation

B. precipitation being

C. that the precipitation is

D. and the precipitation is

［分析］应选D，在此题中，选上D便成为三句并列排比结构。precipitation：雨量。

例　The main purpose of the early lyceum movement (A) was to improve (B) the schools, bring about better (C) teacher training, and established (D) libraries.

［分析］D项应改为establish（前面不定式符号to被省略），这样便和to improve及bring about构成三项式不定式排比结构，均在句中用作表语。

例　Playing croquet is delightful, (A) but to box (B) is (C) barbaric. (D)

［分析］B错，应改为boxing，使之和playing croquet构成动名词排比结构。

四、三项式排比结构

排比结构是英语写作中一个较为常见的修辞手段，但从英语语句的习惯形式来看，排比通常由三项构成；不论是主语排比、谓语排比、宾语排比、定语排比、表语排比、分词排比、不定式短语排比、介词短语排比，还是并列分句排比，都以三项式最为常见。三项式排比往往是为了表达意思上的顺序先后、程度轻重或范围大小，以做到逐步深入，从而达到表现上的高度渗透性。从16世纪的哲学家、文学家弗朗西斯·培根（Francis Bacon），18世纪的古典主义作家塞缪尔·约翰逊（Samuel Johnson），19世纪的著名历史学家、诗人、散文家麦考利（T. B. Macaulay），到近代的毛姆（W. Somerset Maugham），以及现代不少作家都善于运用三项式排比这一修辞手段，例子几乎俯拾即是。现在就三项式的排比结构按语法功能分类列举如下，并加说明以飨读者：

1. 主语三项式排比

Dermot pulled at his pipe in silence for a while.“The conceit, complacency, and ignorance of the English are beyond belief，”he said at last.(Howard Spring, My Son! My Son!)

这里，主人公Dermot用三个排比的主语conceit（自负）、complacency（得意）和ignorance（无知）在词意上层层加重，收到了累进强调的效果，概括地表达了他对英国人的厌恶和鄙视。

2. 谓语三项式排比

Half-way down Brattle Street he stopped, got out and stood straight.... The rooms on the ground were lighted.The detective walked up to the front door, hesitated and then rang the bell.(Piers Paul Read, The Professor's Daughter)

上例运用谓语三项式排比来表示主语行动的先后顺序，做到逐步深入，层次分明。

3. 宾语三项式排比

He［Premier Zhou］exuded（散发出）proletarian humanism, warmth, friendship. (E.F.Hill, Speech at the Memorial Meeting Held in Melbourne on January 27,1976)

在悼词中，Hill用三个排比的宾语proletarian humanism，warmth，friendship来赞扬已故周总理，寥寥三个排比词却能高度概括周总理的人格。

4. 定语三项式排比

Aunt Olive was a sour, grudging, grumbling woman. (Lonnie Coleman, Orphan Jim)

在上例中作者用sour（乖戾），grudging（视钱如命），grumbling（嘀咕没完）三项式定语排比来概括Olive姑母的为人，把所修饰对象的特征表达得很清楚，而行文又显得简练。

5. 表语三项式排比

Chaplie Chaplin will keep you laughing for hours on end without effort; he has a genius for the comic. His fun is simple and sweet and spontaneous. (W. Somerset Maugham, A Writer's Notebook)

在上例中Maugham（毛姆）运用三个排比的表语来说明喜剧大师卓别林与众不同的逗乐特征，从而达到累进强调的效果。

6. 分词短语三项式排比

I am thinking of the future of this country, threatened with the black waters of confusion, threatened with mob government, threatened with what I cannot see.(John Galsworthy, Strife, act Ⅲ）

作者以三个重复出现的过去分词threatened引出过去分词短语的三项式排比，一语紧扣一语，成功地表达了主人公“我”（在该剧中是屈里纳沙马口铁工厂董事会主席）对他的国家（英国）的前途所抱的忧心忡忡、濒于绝望的心情。

Toad walked slowly round it［the motor-car］, inspecting, criticising, musing deeply. (Kenneth Grahame, The Wind in the Willows)

作者用inspecting，criticising和musing三个排比现在分词描绘Toad看见汽车时，东摸摸西望望的惊奇，形象生动，令人发笑。

7. 不定式三项式排比

...but whenever her little figure came into his room to hug and tickle and pose in innocent yet knowing ways...his ordered, sober thoughts were shaken up and smothered in his physical reactions.(Piers Paul Read, The Professor's Daughter)

作者用hug（拥抱），tickle（胳肢搔痒）和pose（故作姿态）三项不定式排比形象地描绘出主人公Henry教授的女儿Louisa向她父亲撒娇时的种种举动，活泼可爱，跃然纸上。

8. 介词或介宾短语三项式排比

She［Mrs. Bennet］was a woman of mean understanding, little information, and uncertain temper. (Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice)

作者用mean understanding（理解力低劣），little information（学识浅陋），uncertain temper（脾气反复无常）三个排比的介短宾语勾画出Bennet夫人的可鄙形象，着墨不多，却入木三分。

Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. (Francis Bacon, Of Studies)

Francis Bacon以文笔紧凑简约著称。他运用for delight，for ornament，for ability这三个介词短语排比，使行文流畅但又言简意赅，精辟地说明读书的用处。

9. 分句三项式排比

The notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had it been early, had been kind; but it has been delayed till I am indifferent and cannot enjoy it; till I am solitary, and cannot impart it; till I am known and do not want it. (Samuel Johnson, Letter to Lord Chesterfield)

1747年英国文坛巨子Samuel Johnson拟就了一个编写英语词典的计划，求见当时英国社会名人Chesterfield伯爵，希望得到他的赞许和资助，不料Chesterfield不予理睬。Samuel Johnson一气之下独立作战达七年之久，终于编成词典。词典出版前，Chesterfield在当时销路很广的一家报纸连续发表了两篇文章，高度赞扬Samuel Johnson的词典，并称今后英语的词义应以该词典为准。Samuel Johnson在致Chesterfield的信中明确地表明Chesterfield对他的词典所给予的关注已为时太晚，不能接受。在该封被誉为作家独立宣言的著名信件中，Samuel Johnson运用由till引导的三个排比从句。第一个从句说“我已无动于衷（indifferent），对你的关注无法领受（cannot enjoy it）”；第二个从句说“我已孑然一身（solitary），无法与人共享你的关注（cannot impart it）”因Samuel Johnson的妻子已于三年前去世；第三个从句说“我已成名（known）根本不需要你的关注（do not want it）”。这一组三项式排比从句在意思上一个紧接一个，情感和口气层层加深、加强，最后一句till I am known and do not want it声如霹雳，发泄了七年来积压在心里的愤慨和怨气，达到了全文的高潮。Samuel Johnson巧妙地运用了三项式排比的修饰手段，使他的文章气势磅礴，光彩夺目。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. His career has been an active one: _____.

A. writing poetry, working on magazines, and the war in Greece

B. poetry, editing magazines, and the Greek War

C. writing poems, editing magazines, and serving in the Greek War

D. poetry work, editing magazines, and fighting in Greece

2. The duties of the secretary are to receive visitors_____.

A. opening the mail, she types letters

B. to open the mail and trying letters

C. to open the mail and to type letters

D. to open the mail and they type letters

3. My grandfather has decided to make me go back to college immediately, study my lessons carefully, and_____.

A. a master's degree must be attained

B. must attain my master's degree

C. attain my master's degree

D. to my master's degree I have to attain

4. Nearly all trees have seeds that fall to the earth, take root, eventually_____.

A. generate new seeds

B. new seeds generated

C. by generating new seeds

D. new seeds generated there

5. _____their nests well, but also build them well.

A. Not only brown thrashers protect

B. Protect not only brown thrashers

C. Brown thrashers not only protect

D. No only protect brown thrashers

6. The role of the party system in American politics has always been_____.

A. not dividing but a union

B. a unity instead of dividing

C. not to divide but to unite

D. unifying instead of division

7. Making friends is more rewarding_____.

A. than to be antisocial

B. than being antisocial

C. than to be like an antisocial person

D. than it is be antisocial

8. The deepest gorge in the United States is not the Grand Canyon, _____Hell's Canyon of the Snake River.

A. and

B. but

C. is

D. there is

9. The decision to ration a commodity rests on a judgment of its relative scarcity, _____, and the feasibility of controlling it.

A. it is important

B. is it important

C. its importance

D. what is its importance

10. The geocentric idea was abandoned in the seventeenth century, partly as a result of the writings of Copernicus_____observations made by other astronomers.

A. and also were

B. not only because of

C. also because were

D. and also because of

11. Rotation refers to the turning of the earth_____to the movement around the sun.

A. besides revolution

B. revolution refers

C. and revolution

D. while revolution referring

12. Galileo's experiments with falling bodies, Pasteur's work with disease germs, _____on heredity are significant events in the story of science.

A. also Mendel's research

B. and Mendel's research

C. and Mendel's did research

D. despite Mendel's research

13. Throughout history, the moon has inspired not only song and dance_____.

A. and also poets and prose

B. but poetry also prose

C. together with poetry and prose

D. but poetry and prose as well

14. Francis Ford Coppola, who conceived, co-authored, and_____Godfather Ⅱ, is one of America's most talented filmmakers.

A. director of

B. directed

C. he directed

D. directing

15. It is the high humidity that makes London winters so chilly, _____.

A. not that its temperatures are being low

B. not lowness of temperatures

C. since low temperatures are not as present

D. not the low temperatures

16. She didn't know whether to sell her books or_____.

A. to keep them for reference

B. if she should keep them for reference

C. keeping them for reference

D. kept for reference

17. He did his work_____and at ease.

A. with care

B. careful

C. to be careful

D. carefully

18. The man was either killed in the war or_____in the forest.

A. to be lost

B. is lost

C. lost

D. being lost

19. The work is_____and skillfully done.

A. handsomely

B. handsome

C. to be very handsomely

D. very handsome

20. Both the Taylors and_____have been informed of the news.

A. us all

B. all of us

C. us

D. we

21. To make a long story short is_____.

A. sum things up

B. summing things up

C. to summing things up

D. to sum things up

22. I consider him a friend as well as_____.

A. he is also my enemy

B. brave and wise

C. to be one of my enemies

D. an enemy

23. He is a small peddler buying and_____things in the market place.

A. he also sells

B. sells

C. selling

D. sell

24. A legislative body has the power not only to pass new laws, _____repeal laws that have been passed earlier.

A. to

B. but also to

C. and to

D. in order to

25. Gloves have been worn since prehistoric times for protection, for ornamentation, _____social status.

A. and as an indication of

B. for they indicate

C. indicating

D. to indicate and

二、改错

1. There are (A) thousands of varieties of fungi, both to eat (B) and poisonous, but the type (C) of mushroom usually consumed today is a descendant of (D) the common field mushroom.

2. The high school graduate, if he (A) is eighteen or nineteen, has (B) these alternatives (C): attending college, finding a job, or the army (D).

3. Emily shops only (A) in stores that have (B) inexpensive goods, a friendly atmosphere (C), and that are conveniently located (D).

4. Any (A) modern novelist would be thrilled (B) to have his (C) stories compared with Dickens (D).

5. The man practices what (A) he preaches (B) because he doesn't smoke, drink, or does (C) anything to excess (D).

6. Certainly one of the reasons for (A) attractiveness is his attempt (B) to combine so many (C) different attitudes and the pursuing (D) so many problems.

7. I wish to (A) express my gratitude to (B) Dr. Leonard Carmichael for reading the manuscript and help (C) to clarify certain psychological concepts (D).

8. The committee decided to cancel (A) its (B) law suit (C), to approve the contract, and that it would adjourn (D) the meeting.

9. The six main parts (A) of a business letter (B) are (C) the address, the inside address, the salutation, the body, the closing, and signing your name (D).

10. The examiner did not know whether to report the student for cheating (A) or (B) warning (C) him (D) first.

11. Rock music is (A) not only popular (B) in (C) the (D) United States but also abroad.

12. The new electric typewriters are equipped not only (A) with an element for foreign languages but also a key (B) for correcting (C) errors automatically (D).

13. Please send me (A) the (B) smallest, most recently (C) published, and less (D) expensive dictionary that you have available.

14. The function of Louis Sullivan's architecture was providing (A) large uninterrupted floor areas (B) and to allow ample light (C) into the interior (D).

15. Lumber from redwoods is in great demand (A) because of (B) its straight grain, attractive (C) color, and durable (D).

16. The ideal study situation (A) is a library (B) that is (C) large, well organized, and a good staff (D).

17. Vibrantly woven (A) Navajo rugs and tapestries are marks of elegant (B) and taste in homes (C) and art collections the world over (D).

18. For many years (A), prison inmates have protested (B) such conditions as (C) contaminated food, a brutalizing environment, and conditions are unsanitary (D).

19. The architect (A) must be (B) both (C) a scientist and artistic (D).

20. How many people realize that (A) agriculture is a source of (B) raw materials (C) for clothing and to shelter (D)?

21. The Mediterranean, a large sea surrounded by land (A), is a mile deep (B) on the average (C) and more than 2000 miles length (D).

22. Essentially, this means (A) that your work is improving (B) and you (C) are making progress toward (D) your goals.

23. The raven's black color (A), mournful croak, and it is bold (B) have made it an object (D) of supersitution and legend.

24. Galileo found it (A) difficult to believe (B) that the sun rotated (C) around the earth and the earth to be (D) the center of the universe.

25. Situated (A) in the heart of a grain-farming and livestock-raising region (B), Abilene, Kansas is a prosperous (C) trading and distribute (D) center.

26. Liquid lubricants contrast (A) widely (B) in weighing (C), thickness, and boiling (D) point.

27. Games and recreation provide a release from (A) tension and make (B) people both (C) more willing and fittingly (D) to resume their daily routines.

28. The United States Department of Labor enforces laws that promote the welfare (A) of wage earners, improving occupational (B) conditions (C) and advance employment opportunities (D).

29. The United States Department of Agriculture supervises (A) the quality, clean (B), and purity (C) of meat (D).

30. A rat's sharp (A) teeth can gnaw through (B) wood, plaster, or (C) soft metallic (D) such as lead.

31. Sharing (A) corporate stocks with employees (B) can be an effective way to promote harmonious (C), efficency, and equitability (D) in the workplace.

32. The leaves of the yucca are usually point (A), stiff, and narrow (B), with (C) sawlike or fibrous edges. (D)

三、改正下列每句，使每句具有正确的排比结构

1. Knowing how to study and to learn to budget time are important for college students.

2. Leonardo da Vinci was known both as an inventor and painting pictures.

3. Shirely has been a waitress, a tour guide and taught school.

4. To swim in a pool is not as much fun as swimming in a river.

5. Dentists advise brushing your teeth after every meal and to avoid sugar in your diet.

6. My orders said that I was assigned to Alaska and I should leave within two weeks.

7. We asked the store manager to show us a gift that was inexpensive, useful and looked nice.

8. The hotel clerk knew that we had paid our bill and we had our receipt.

9. My uncle spoke with warmth and in a humorous way.

10. Several people were caught in the hailstorm but not being seriously hurt.

11. We met a Frenchman who had lived in Brazil, but he knew very little about his own country.

12. Our instructor suggested several books for supplementary reading and that we should do research on the subject.

13. Alberto was away for ten years before he was able to return home and saw his family.

14. The boy who came to our house asked to be fed and where he could be clothed.

15. For me, listening to FM radio is more enjoyable than to listen to AM radio.

16. My friend's father is a good man who is kind.

17. The bookstore owner told us that the novel was timely, informative and could hold our interest.

18. My employer informed me that I would be sent to Hong Knong and I should make arrangements to leave in about two weeks.

19. Nuclear physics has led to research in improving communications and in how to make people healthier.

20. The American University of Beirut is noted for its students from many lands and for having a beautiful campus overlooking the Mediterranean.

Key

一、多项选择

1.［C］三个动名词短语，构成三项式排比结构，充当表语an active one的同位语。

2.［C］与to receive visitors构成不定式三项排比结构，在句中起表语作用。

3.［C］与句中go back, study构成不带to 的不定式三项排比结构。

4.［A］generate new seeds与句中动词fall及take构成谓语三项式排比。

5.［C］Brown thrashers not only protect与句中but also build them well构成对称的排比结构not only后接动词protect，but also接动词build。C中not only置于句首，需主谓倒装，应改为Not only do brown thrashers protect。B和D不合语法。

6.［C］not...but...后接对称之排比结构，C中not...but...均接不定式，故C是正确选择。A中but a union应改为but unifying。

7.［B］than being antisocial与句中动名词短语making friends构成动名词短语排比，各充当主语。

8.［B］not the Grand Canyon but Hell's Canyon各接名词短语，构成名词短语排比结构。Grand Canyon：大峡谷，在美国Arizona州北部。Hell's Canyon：地狱谷，系美国Snake河之一大峡谷，在Idaho与Oregon州边境。

9.［C］its importance与句中名词短语relative scarcity和the feasibility构成名词短语三项比排比，作介词of之宾语。

10.［D］and also because of在此句中同partly because of，与partly as a result of构成介词短语排比结构。

11. C (and revolution)，后面省掉动词refers，形成分句排比结构。

12.［B］Galileo's experiments with falling bodies, Pasteur's work with disease germs, and Mendel's research on heredity构成名词短语三项式排比，充当三个并列主语。

13.［D］but...as well=but also...。

14.［B］directed与定语从句中动词conceived及co-authored构成谓语动词三项式排比。

15.［D］not=and not，与the high humidity构成主语短语排比结构。

16.［A］与to sell her books构成不定式短语排比结构。

17.［A］with care与at ease构成介词短语排比。

18.［C］either...or...接对称的排比结构，句中either后跟过去分词killed，故or接过去分词lost。

19.［A］handsomely与skillfully构成副词排比。

20.［D］both...and...接对称的排比结构。句中both接主语Taylors，故and后也须采用主格代词we。

21.［D］to sum things up与to make a long story short构成不定式短语排比。

22.［D］an enemy与a friend构成名词短语排比，均作代词him的宾语补语。

23.［C］selling与buying构成分词排比。

24.［B］not only to pass new laws和but also to repeal laws构成排比结构。

25.［A］and as an indication of与for protection和for ornamentation构成介词短语三项式排比。

二、改错

1.［B］改为eatable，与poisonous构成排比结构，均作后置定语。

2.［D］改为or joining the army，与attending college和finding a job构成动名词短语三项式排比，作宾语alternatives的同位语。

3.［D］改为convenient locations，与inexpensive goods和a friendly atmosphere构成名词短语三项式排比，作have的宾语。

4.［D］改为with Dickens'=with Dickens' stories，与his stories构成排比结构。

5.［C］改为do。doesn't系助动词，do则为实义动词。与smoke和drink构成谓语动词三项式排比。

6.［D］改为to pursue或pursue（省掉to），与to combine构成不定式排比，作后置定语修饰attempt。

7.［C］改为helping，与reading构成动名词排比，作介词for的宾语。

8.［D］改为to adjourn，与to cancel及to approve构成不定式短语三项式排比，作decided的宾语。adjourn the meeting休会。

9.［D］改为the signature，与the address，the inside address，the salutation，the body及the closing构成名词短语排比，充当表语。

10.［C］改为to warn，与to report构成不定式短语排比。

11.［B］改为not only...but also...接对称的排比结构，句中but also后跟地点状语abroad，故应把B改为popular not only，这样not only in the United States（介词短语in the United States用作地点状语）便和but also abroad（地点状语）构成排比结构。

12.［B］改为with a key。这样not only with an element for...but also with a key for...构成对称的介词短语排比结构。

13.［D］改为least。这样the smallest，most recently published，and least expensive构成最高级形容词三项式排比，作定语修饰dictionary。

14.［A］改为to provide，与to allow构成不定式短语排比，充当表语。句中the function of Louis Sullivan's architecture系特指，故to provide...and to allow...要比providing...and allowing...更符合习惯。

15.［D］改为durable quality或durability，与straight grain及attractive color构成名词短语三项式排比，作介词词组because of的宾语。

16.［D］改为well staffed，与large及well organized构成形容词三项式排比，作表语。well staffed人才济济的。

17.［B］改为elegance，与taste构成名词排比，作of的宾语。

18.［D］改为unsanitary conditions。

19.［D］改为（an）artist。

20.［D］改为shelter（用作名词），与clothing并列，构成名词排比，作for的宾语。衣食住行的英译为food, clothing, shelter（不用sheltering）and transportation — basic necessities of life。故D改用shelter。

21.［D］改为2,000 miles long或2,000 miles in length，但从此句结构来看，2,000miles long要比2,000miles in length好，因它与a mile deep构成名词短语排比结构，作表语。

22.［C］改为and that you。that your work is improving与and that you are making progress towards your goals构成宾语从句排比，作动词means的宾语。

23.［D］改为its boldness，与black colour及mournful croak构成名词短语三项式排比，充当主语。raven (n.) 乌鸦，croak (n.) 乌鸦叫声。

24.［D］改为that the earth was...，与that the sun rotated around the earth构成宾语从句排比，充当to believe的宾语。

25.［D］改为distributing，与trading并列，形成现在分词形容词排比，充当定语修饰center。trading and distributing center：贸易集散地。

26.［C］改为weight，与thickness及boiling point形成名词三项式排比，作介词in的宾语。

27.［D］改为fitting，与willing构成形容词排比，充当people的宾语补语。

28.［B］改为improve，与promote及advance构成that引导的定语从句中的谓语动词三项式排比。

29.［B］改为cleanness，与quality及purity构成名词三项式排比，充当supervises的宾语。

30.［D］改为metals，与wood及plaster构成名词三项式排比，充当介词through的宾语。

31.［C］改为harmony，与efficiency和equitability构成名词三项式排比，充当promote的宾语。

32.［A］改为pointed，与stiff和narrow构成形容词三项式排比，充当表语。pointed (adj.) 尖的。

三、改正下列每句，使每句具有正确的排比结构

1. Knowing how to study and learning how to budget time are important for college students.

2. Leonardo da Vinci was known both as an inventor and (as) a painter.

3. Shirely has been a waitress, a tour guide, and a teacher. (The sentence means that Shirley has done these jobs in different periods of her life.)

4. To swim in a pool is not as much fun as to swim in a river (or: Swimming in a pool is not as much fun as swimming in a river.)

5. Dentists advise brushing your teeth after every meal and avoiding sugar in your diet.

6. My orders said that I was assigned to Alaska and that I should leave within two weeks.

7. We asked the store manager to show us a gift that was inexpensive, useful and nice.

8. The hotel clerk knew that we had paid our bill and that we had our receipt.

9. My uncle spoke with warmth and humor.

10. Several people were caught in the hailstorm but were not seriously hurt.

11. We met a Frenchman who had lived in Brazil but who knew very little about his own country.

12. Our instructor suggested that we (should) read several supplementary books and that we (should) do research on the subject.

13. Alberto was away for ten years before he was able to return home and see his family.

14. The boy who came to our house asked to be fed and clothed.

15. For me, listening to FM radio is more enjoyable than listening to AM radio.

16. My friend's father is a good and kind man.

17. The bookstore owner told us that the novel was timely, informative and interesting.

18. My employer informed me that I would be sent to Hongkong and that I should make arrangements to leave in about two weeks.

19. Nuclear physics has led to research in improving communications and in making people healthier.

20. The American University of Beirut is noted for its students from many lands and for its beautiful campus overlooking the Mediterranean.

第十五章　虚拟语气

虚拟语气用来表示说话人的主观愿望或假想，所说的是一个条件，不一定是事实，或与事实相反。

一、虚拟语气和陈述语气在条件句中的应用

条件句可分为两类，一类是真实条件句（Real Conditional Sentences），一类是非真实条件句（Unreal Conditional Sentences）。

1. 陈述语气用于真实条件句

真实条件句用陈述语气，因为句子表示的假想是真实的或有实现的可能性。

句型：

在英式英语中表示将来时，shall用于第一人称单复数，will则用于第二、第三人称单复数。在美式英语中则无此区别，will可用于所有人称来表示将来：

If I have ten dollars, I shall/will buy a dictionary.

If your desires are endless, your cares will be so, too. 欲望无穷，忧亦无穷。

I shall not succeed unless (=if...not...) I rely on your help.

请注意下列三点：

① 在真实条件句中，主句不能用be going to形式来表示将来，该用shall或will：

（×）If you leave now, you are never going to regret it.

（√）If you leave now, you will never regret it.

② 表示一个真实条件时，if从句和主句都需统一采用陈述语气，即if从句用一般现在时的动词形式，主句用shall/will+动词原形。主句中如用should/would替代shall/will，或if从句采用一般现在时以外的动词形式，便出现结构上的错误。

例　If the poor (A) are taken to mean people below the official poverty (B) level in the United States, some of those (C) included would (D) be regarded as well-off in some countries.

［分析］题中的if从句用一般现在时are taken，表示一个真实条件，主句的动词would须改用will，故D错。

③ 表示真理时，主句谓语动词便不用shall (will)+动词原形，而直接采用一般现在时。

例　If a rectangle has equal sides, _____a square.

A. it shall be

B. it will be

C. it is

D. but

［分析］一个长方形四边相等时便是正方形，这是一个真理，故应选C (it is)。

2. 虚拟语气用于非真实条件句

非真实条件句所表示的是假设的或实现可能性不大的情况，故采用虚拟语气。非真实条件句可以表示现在、过去或将来的情况。

1 　表示同现在事实相反。

句型1

（verb to be用were）

注：should/would有时也可按句意换用could/might。

例　If he were here now, he would not let the matter end this way.

含义是：“He is not here now, so he has to let the matter end this way.”

例　If I had the book at hand, I should/would read the passage to you.

含义是：“I do not have the book at hand, so I can't read the passage to you.”

例　If human beings were not killing one another, we could be living a happier life. 如果人类不再互相残杀，我们便能过上更幸福的生活。

在条件从句中，verb to be在所有人称后一律用were；在口语及通俗文体中第一和第三人称后常用was。如：

If I was in your place（要是我处于你的地位）, I would act differently.

尽管was这种用法很普遍，但在标准化考试中仍算误用，故须改为were。

另外必须注意的一点是，在同一个句子里不能一部分表示真实条件，另一部分表示非真实条件，这便破坏了条件句中的一致性。如：

If it rains tomorrow, I should/would stay home.

在上例中，if 从句采用陈述语气，表示一个真实条件，而主句却采用虚拟语气，表示一个非真实条件，破坏了一致性，应改为以下两式中的任何一式：

If it rains tomorrow, I shall/will stay home.［主、从句均采用陈述语气，表示一个真实条件，保持了一致性］

If it rained tomorrow, I should/would stay home.［主、从句均采用虚拟语气，表示一个非真实性条件，也保持了一致性］

例　Unless economic conditions improve next year, _____widespread unrest in the United States.

A. there would be

B. there is

C. there should be

D. there will be

［分析］题中unless=if...not...，即If economic conditions do not improve，表示一个真实条件，主句也须表示一个真实条件。故正确的选择应是D (there will be)，而不能选A。

例　If there were no alternative (A), we will (B) try to get (C) enough people (D) interested to charter a bus.

［分析］主句用will try表示真实条件，但if从句则用虚拟语气were表示非真实条件，两者不统一，故B错，应改为should或would。

2 　表示同过去事实相反。

句型2

（verb to be用had been）

例：If he had come yesterday, I should/would have told him about it.

含义是：He did not come yesterday, so I did not tell him about it.

例：If he had not been ill and missed many classes, he would have made greater progress.

含义是：He was ill and missed many lessons, so he did not make greater progress.

例：If you hadn't been studying so hard, you might have failed the exam.

含义是：You were studying so hard, so you didn't fail the exam.

在应用时，大家往往会疏忽而在if从句中也加上would，如“If he would have come yesterday”，这就构成病句。试看下列一道试题：

例　If Mary would have been (A) more careful (B) in proofreading (C)（校对）her dissertation（学位论文），she would not have had to get it (D) typed again.

［分析］该题表示一个与过去事实相反的假想，A项的结构与句型不符，故A错，应改为 had been。

3 　表示对将来的假想。

注意，上面三式中第一式和句型1（表示同现在事实相反）相同；故为避免混淆起见，在表示将来假想的实际应用中，以二、三式较为常见。

例　If you were to cut my hair, how short_____you make it?

A. would

B. will

C. shall

D. Should

［分析］if从句中用were to cut，系表示对将来的假想，故应选A (would）。上列第二式were+不定式和第三式should+动词原形之间的差别是：were+不定式比should+动词原形所表示的实现的可能性更小。

例　If the sun_____rise in the west, my love for you would still be unchanged.

A. should

B. were

C. were to

D. shall

［分析］［分析］题句明显表示一个未来绝不可能实现的假想，If=Even if。故用were+不定式比should+动词原形所表示的实现可能性更小，在此句中更为恰当，故应选C而不选A。

4 　表示错综复杂的条件。

有时候，条件从句所表示的动作和主句所表示的动作在时间上不一致；一个发生在过去，一个发生在现在，这时就要根据实际情况把两个不同的句型用在同一个句子里。如：

If you had taken the medicine［表示同过去相反，即：“要是你当时吃了药的话”］, you would be well now.［表示同现在相反，即“你现在已好了”］

含意是：You did not take the medicine, so you are not well now.

If the criminal were honest［表示同现在相反，即“要是该罪犯老实的话”］, he would have made a clean breast of the whole thing long ago［表示同过去相反，即“他早已彻底交代他的罪行了”］.

含义是：The criminal is not honest, so he did not make a clean breast of the whole thing long ago.（make a clean breast of:彻底交代）

从上列例句中可以看出，条件从句在表示错综时间时，可按实际情况表示同过去或现在相反的事实。

例　If you_____that late movie last night, you wouldn't be so sleepy.

A. haven't watched

B. didn't watch

C. hadn't watched

D. wouldn't have watched

［分析］题意是“如果你昨晚不去看那场晚场电影的话，你现在就不会这么困了。”显然if表示的是一个同过去相反的事实，而主句则表示同现在相反的事实。题句是一个表示错综时间的条件句，故应选C (hadn't watched)。

请注意，不要把引导条件从句的if和引导宾语从句的if混淆起来。if引导宾语从句时等同whether，表示一种可能性，通常与动词ask，doubt，know，wonder或词组be sure等连用。如：

I wonder if she is at home now. 我不知道她现在是否在家。

He asked me if I could go with him. 他以前问我能不能跟他走。

I'm not sure if he will lend a helping hand. 我不能确信他能否帮忙。

二、虚拟语气和陈述语气用来表示条件的一些其他结构形式

1. 与祈使句一起用表示条件的结构形式

如果条件句的谓语形式为should+动词原形，主句往往可以采用祈使句的形式：

If you should see Charles, give him my regards（请代为致意）.

If Clara should fail this time, tell her to try again.

2. 与代词it一起用表示条件的结构形式

① If it were not for...作“如果没有……”解，表示同现在事实相反的假想。如：

If it were not for your help, I should(would) be in a very awkward position.

含意是：You help me, so I am not in an awkward position now.

② If it had not been for...，作“如果当时没有……”解，表示与过去事实相反的假想。如：

If it had not been for Dr.Smith, my father would have died of heart disease.

含意是：Dr.Smith treated my father in time, so he did not die of the disease.

必须注意的是，在上面两式中介词for不能省略。

3. 省略if表示条件的结构形式

if引导的条件从句含有were，had或should时，可以省略if并把主谓倒置。如：

Were John here now (=If John were here now), I would explain the whole matter.［表示对现在事实相反的假想］

Had you (=If you had) asked me, I would have told you the answer.［表示对过去事实相反的假想］

I would go, should it be (=if it should be) necessary.［表示对将来的假想］

在上列省略if的结构中，如果主谓不予倒置，便不合习惯表达法。这种结构形式带有文学色彩，不用于口语，通常出现于书面语言中。

例　Were it (A) not the sun (B), nothing (C) could exist on earth (D).

［分析］题中if被省略，故主谓倒置，完整形式为“If it were not for”，意指“如果没有太阳，世界上将什么都不能存在。”代词it表示的条件句中介词for不可省略，故B错，应改为not for the sun。

4. if以外其他从属连词表示条件的结构形式

除if外，尚有若干其他连词可用来引导条件从句，如unless，provided/providing (that)，supposing/suppose (that)，in case，so/as long as，on condition that，imagine，that，given that，in the event that等。如：

The football match will be put off, in case it rains/should rain.［in case it rains 比 in case it should rain 的可能性大些，均表示对将来进行假想的一个真实条件］

You may borrow this book as/so long as you keep it clean.［as long as比so long as语气更强些，两者均表示一个真实条件］

The parents allow their son to go there on condition that he comes/（或should come）back in time for dinner.［on condition that=only if或provided that作“在……条件下”解；on condition that he comes 比on condition that he (should) come语气更强些，两种形式均表示一个真实条件］

In the event that Mr. Roger refuses to sign the contract, what shall we do?［In the event that...=If Mr. Roger should refuse to...，表示对事情发生的可能性的假想］

Suppose (that)/Supposing (that) it rains, what shall we do?

Suppose (that)/Supposing (that) it rained, what should we do?［Suppose (that)/Supposing (that)=if，第一式表示真实条件；第二式表示对将来的假想］

Assuming (that) it rains tomorrow, what shall we do?［Assuming (that)=suppose/supposing］

Given that the city authorities approve the project, we shall have a new library here.［表示一个真实条件］

Imagine that we were at the top of the Himalayas now.［表示对现在的假设］

Imagine that she hadn't taken your advice, what would have happened?［表示对过去的假设］

I will go provided (that)/providing (that) my expenses are paid.［provided (that)/providing (that)=if或on condition that］

I can't write to Frank unless you give me his address.［unless=if...not...，表示一个真实条件］

在上列if以外表示条件的从属连词中supposing (that)/suppose (that)及unless在结构部分考试中较为常见。

例　“Supposing you_____write, what would you do?”

A. couldn't

B. can't

C. may not

D. are unable

［分析］题中主句用would，连词supposing引导的条件从句便应采用虚拟语气以表示一个与现在事实相反的假想，故应选A (couldn't）。有两点要补充说明：

注1：上题中的supposing也可换用suppose，意思不变。

注2：如果上题主句中的would改用will, supposing/suppose引导的条件从句也需改用陈述语气，采用B以保持一致，从而表示一个真实条件，即Supposing you can't write, what will you do?

▶▶ provided/providing和unless还需作进一步的交代：

① provided (that)/providing (that)=if，但在用法上有些区别。

provided原是“规定”意思。故它引导的从句表示一种规定，主句的主语便是规定者。按常理说，规定者总希望他的规定能够实现。就拿上面的例子I will go provided (that)/providing/(that) my expenses are paid来说，“我”是规定者，当然希望“我”的规定“my expresses are paid”能付诸实施。故这个句子中的provided (that)/providing (that)用得不错；如果改为I will not go provided (that)/providing (that) my expenses are not paid便不对，因为规定者“我”并不希望那规定“my expenses are not paid”实现。if是表示假设的情况，便不存在这个问题；因此，provided (that)/providing (that)不能在所有场合代替if，而if能在所有场合代替provided (that)/providing (that)。试比较：

You will be dismissed provided (that) you make the same mistake again.［×因规定者不希望“make the same mistake again”这一规定实现，故应把provided (that)改为if］

I will take part in the work provided (that)/providing (that) I am well enough.［√因规定者希望“I am well enough”这一规定能够实现。当然，用if也可以］

② unless既可引导真实条件句也可引导非真实条件句。

引导真实条件句时，可为if...not...所代替，但需要注意的是，当unless后面接带有否定谓语动词的从句时，unless就不能为if...not...所替代，而是表示except that...的含义。如：

You will pass the entrance examination unless you don't study hard for it.

这句话的确切含义是，“你能考取大学，除非你不认真进行高考复习。”在意义上要比You will pass the entrance examination if you study hard for it 强烈。

unless引导非真实条件句。亦即用在虚拟语气中时，通常可以和if...not...互换使用。

Claud would not ask Louisa to go to the prom［美大学生或中学生举行之正式舞会］unless he knew her.

unless he knew her=if he did not know her［表示同现在事实相反］

Unless you had lent me a hand, I should not have fulfilled my task.

Unless you had lent me a hand=If you had not lent me a hand［表示同过去事实相反］

但有时候，根据一定的上下文，unless不能为if...not...所取代，它的含义是but...if...或except on condition that...如：

I could not fly unless I were a bird.

如把if...not...取代unless，上句便成为I could not fly if I were not a bird。文理显然不通，故此句应理解为I could not fly but I could fly if I were a bird或I could not fly except on condition that I were a bird。

句意：我不会飞，除非我是鸟，比I could fly if I were a bird强调。

A: Why didn't you come to the party last night?

B: You know, I was fully occupied all day yesterday. I couldn't have come unless I had had time (=I couldn't have come but I could have come if I had had time或I couldn't have come except on condition that I had had time).

句意：我当时是不可能来的，除非我有时间。表示同过去事实相反。试再比较：

I should not expect her help if she were not my friend.

表示同现在相反，即She is my friend, so I expect her help.

I should not expect her help unless she were my friend. 我是不会指望得到她的帮助的，除非她是我的朋友。［即实际上她不是我的朋友，我不指望得到她的帮助］

了解上述provided/providing和unless用法中的特殊性，对提高实际应用和理解能力均有所帮助。

5. 与并列连词and或or一起用时表示条件的结构形式

1 　与and连用时两个常见的结构形式。

A. 祈使句+and+陈述语气

Water the seeds and they will grow.［=If you water the seeds, they will grow.表示一个真实条件］

Care for（关心）your neighbors and your neighbors will love you.［=If you care for your neighbors, your neighbors will love you.表示一个真实条件］

上面两个例句中and表示条件，第一部分均为祈使句，即主语you被省略。在上列句型中，祈使句中的动词有时往往省略。如：

Another effort, and you will succeed.［=Make another effort and you will succeed.表示一个真实条件］

Another effort, and you would have succeed.［=If you had made another effort, you would have succeed.表示一个同过去事实相反的非真实条件］

One more step forward, and you are done for（完蛋）.［=Move one more step forward, and you are done for表示一个真实条件］

这一结构常用来表示警句、谚语一类的文字。众所周知，在佛教哲理中有一句流传千古的至理名言——苦海无边，回头是岸。短短八个字，铿锵有力，掷地有声，一语道破了人生的真谛。曾有人译为：The sea of bitterness is boundless, yet a man who will repent can reach the shore. 译文失于拖沓，不干脆利落，不如运行and 表示条件这一结构来译：

Boundless is the sea of bitterness, turn back and the shore is at hand

［turn back and the shore is at hand=if you turn back, the shore is at hand］

祈使句+and+陈述句表条件这一结构也时常出现在各类文章中。

例　A couple of miles (A) from (B) our house, and you will find that the road curves around (C) in a S. (D)

［分析］乍看之下会认为A错，因连词and后面的部分是个完整句而前面部分a couple of miles from our house缺乏谓语动词，则是个破句（sentence fragment）。实际上错的却是D，因字母S以国际音标中的元音“e”开头发音，故应把D中的a改为an。A不错的理由是，句中的连词and表示条件，a couple of miles from our house是祈使句的省略式，省略了谓语动词drive或walk。Drive (Walk) a couple of miles from our house, and you will find...=If you drive (walk) a couple of miles from our house, you will find....

B. 祈使句+and+祈使句

Marry in haste and repent at leisure. 草率结婚，事后懊悔。

［=If you marry in haste, you will repent at leisure.表示一个真实条件］

Spare the rod（笞杖）and spoil the child. 孩子不打不成材。

［=If you spare the rod, you will spoil the child.表示一个真实条件。］

这一结构在谚语一类中较多见，在某些谚语中连and也被省略掉。如：

Grasp all, lose all. 样样都要，全部失掉。

Waste not, want not. 不浪费，不缺愁。

Light come, light go. 来得容易，去得快。

2 　与or连用表示条件时的结构形式。

在这一结构中or表示的是一个否定的条件概念，其结构形式为：祈使句+or+陈述语气。如：

Put on more clothes, or you may catch cold. 多穿点衣服，不然你会着凉的。

［or=If you do not...，即If you don't put on more clothes, you may catch cold.表示真实条件］

or表示条件时还有以下两点需注意：

A. 可用来表示同过去事实相反的非真实条件。

I did not know the extent of his difficulty（困难程度）, or I would have promised to help him.

［=If I had known the extent of his difficulty, I would have promised to help him.］

B. or表示条件时可用or else或otherwise来强化它的意思。

I did not know the extent of his difficulty, or else（或otherwise）I would have promised to help him.

例　“Where have you been?”

“I got caught in traffic; _____I would have been here sooner.”

A. however

B. although

C. anyway

D. otherwise

［分析］选D。otherwise=or=if I hadn't got caught in traffic，与后面主句取得一致，表与过去事实相反之假设。

6. 跳层式的条件结构形式

有时候，条件概念通过跳过一层以含蓄的方式表示出来；在一定的上下文中采用跳层式的条件结构会使讲话或行文显得简练。如：

I would not have acted as you did.

这里跳过一层，如加以补上，即为“If I had been you, I would not have acted as you did.”表示同过去事实相反的非真实条件。

A true friend would have lent a hand.

这句也跳了一层，补上即为“If he had been a true friend, he would have lent a hand.”

Such mistakes could have been avoided.

跳过的一层为If we/you/they/had been more careful.

I would have written before, but I have been awfully busy.

before和but之间跳了一层，即I would have written before (if I had not been busy), but I have been awfully busy.

上面跳层式的例子均表示同过去事实相反的非真实条件，如果补上跳去的那一层，讲话或行文便显得啰唆。这种跳层式结构也可表示同现在事实相反的非真实条件。

例　He would gain weight but he_____enough.

A. wouldn't eat

B. didn't eat

C. doesn't eat

D. hadn't eaten

［分析］第一部分为跳层式条件结构，weight后面省去了if he ate enough，即“He would gain weight if he ate enough”表示同现在事实相反的假想，but后面则是一个表示目前事实的陈述句，应用陈述语气，故应选C (doesn't eat)，而不能选B。

例　I would have gone with you but I_____too tired.

A. were

B. had been

C. was

D. have been

［分析］you后面省略了if I had not been tired，系表示同过去事实相反的跳层式条件结构，but引导一个表示过去事实的陈述句，故应选C (was)，而不能选B。

跳层式条件结构可以归纳为以下两种形式：

（1）would+动词原形+but接现在时陈述句→表示同现在事实相反的假想。

（2）would have+过去分词+but接过去时陈述句→表示同过去事实相反的假想。

但要注意，在这种跳层式的条件句结构中，but 也可换用except，这时except等同于except that。

例　“Why didn't Mary go?”

“She_____except she didn't have time.”

A. would have gone

B. will go

C. would go

D. be going

［分析］except引导的从句用过去时陈述语气，它前面的分句须用would have+过去分词，故应选A (would have gone)，后面省略了if she had had time，表示与过去事实相反的假想。

7. 与介词连用表示条件时的结构形式

有时在实际应用中，真实条件或非真实条件不以条件从句形式出现，而是通过介词短语来表示。如：

Helen would not be able to live without her considerate husband.［在本句中，without=if it were not for，表示同现在相反的非真实条件］

I would have failed in the examination without your help.［在本句中，without=if it had not been for，表示同过去相反的非真实条件］

With a little assistance, Alexander will succeed.［在本句中，with=If he is given/If he has a little assistance，表示一个真实条件］

We might have done better in our research under more favorable conditions.［在本句中，under=if we had worked under more favorable conditions，表示同过去相反的非真实条件］

In case of fire, please dial this number.［in case of=If a fire breaks out（发生火灾），在本句中表示真实条件］

But for your timely rescue, the boy would have drowned.［在本句中，But for=If it had not been for（要不是），表示同过去相反的非真实条件］

But for your guidance, we should/would fail.［在本句中，But for=If it were not for，表示同现在相反的非真实条件］

注：“But for+名词”这一结构表示同过去相反的非真条件时，可与But that+主谓（过去时）换用，如：But for the heavy rains（=If it had not rained heavily或But that it rained heavily）, we could have arrived there earlier.

In the event of bad weather, we shall/will have to cancel the picnic.［In the event of=If the weather turns out bad，在本句中表示一个真实条件］

In the absence of the keeper（保管员）, the warehouse would have been burned down.［在本句中，In the absence of=If the keeper had been absent=But for the keeper，表示同过去相反的非真实条件］

掌握这一结构有助于我们阅读时正确理解原文，也有助于我们的应试能力。

例　But for his help, I_____.

A. should not have succeeded

B. had not succeeded

C. did not succeed

D. have not succeeded

［分析］But for his help作“如果不是他帮助的话”解，可表示一个与现在或过去事实相反的假想，要视主句的句式而定。如：But for his help, I should not succeed.（主句用should not succeed, But for his help=If it were not for his help，表示一个同现在相反的非真实条件）

But for his help, I should (would) not have succeeded.（主句用should (would) not have succeeded, But for his help=If it had not been for his help，表示一个同过去事实相反的非真实条件）

从上列两例的分析来看，显然正确选择是A。

三、虚拟语气在宾语从句中的应用

1. 用在表示假设的动词wish所引导的从句中

当动词wish表示一种不大可能实现的主观假想，即同将来事实相反的假想时，它后面的从句用虚拟语气，用法与if从句相似，即：

I (We, etc.) wish+从句（从句用过去时动词［verb to be用were］）→表示同现在事实相反的假想

I (We, etc.) wish+从句（从句用过去完成时动词［verb to be用had been］）→表示同过去事实相反的假想

I (we, etc.) wish+从句（从句用would，should，could，might+动词原形→表示对将来的假想。

例如：

I wish I knew him.［表示同现在事实相反，意指“要是我认识他该多好啊。”］

Raymoned is not a millionaire but he wishes he were.［表示同现在事实相反，意指“他真巴不得他是百万富翁。”］

在上列两组例句中，wish不能作“希望”解，应译成“巴不得……”或“要是……该有多好啊”。在句中要确定wish是表示同现在事实相反还是同过去事实相反的假想这一问题需视句意而定。

I wish you had been here yesterday.［表示同过去事实相反，意指“要是你昨天来这儿该多好啊。”］

I wish I had gone to the movie last night.［表示同过去事实相反］

在这一组例句中，第一例有表示过去时间的yesterday，第二例出现last night，这就说明在该两例中，wish表示的均是同过去事实相反的假想，因而第一例用had been，不能用were；第二例用had gone，不能用went。

He wishes Mary would come tomorrow.

I wish I could be a violin soloist in the future.

上两例中wish均表示对将来的设想，含义是尽管这一设想实现的可能性不大，但愿望还是存在的。掌握这些要点便能正确使用wish来表虚拟语气。

例　“You have made some mistakes.”

“I wish I_____mistakes every day.”

A. don't make

B. haven't made

C. wouldn't have made

D. didn't make

［分析］wish引导的从句带有表示现在时的副词短语every day，显然表示一个与现在事实相反的假设，故应选D (didn't make）。

例　“What would you wish to do if you were a college student again?”

“That's very hard to say, but I wish I_____when I was a college student again.”

A. has not studied psychology

B. did study psychology

C. had studied psychology

D. studied psychology

［分析］wish引导一个主从复合句，从句when I was a college student表过去，故这里表示一个与过去事实相反的假设，需选C (had studied psychology)。

注意，wish接从句时也可表示命令或请求，而不表示一种不大可能实现的主观假想，但语气比hope更为婉转，故从句中用would，而hope引导的从句则用will，如：

People wish you would continue in office（留任）

People hope you will continue in office（留任）

2. 用在表示要求、建议或命令等动词所引导的从句中

在这类动词引导的宾语从句中，谓语动词采取虚拟语气词should+动词原形这一形式，但should往往可省略。现把常见的这类动词列表如下：

例如：

Gordon demanded that his request (should) be granted.

I suggest that he (should) consult the doctor as soon as possible.［在此句中不能用consults，因should省掉之故］

The examination instructions ask that the students (should) not use a red pen.［注意，not use系should not use的省略式，故not use不能改用do not use，因should do not use不合语法］

It was arranged that he leave the following week.［leave前省去should，故不能用left］

It has been decided that the general meeting（全体出席的大会）be postponed till next Monday afternoon.［be postponed前的should被省略］

上述几类动词不论用现在时还是用过去时，后面所接的从句则一律采用should+动词原形或省去should。在英式英语中省略should比不省略should更为强调，在美式英语中should则通常被省略。

例　In this country it is required that (A) anyone who has (B) recently come (C) here has to pay (D) taxes.

［分析］同动词required有关的从句主谓结构是anyone (should) have to pay taxes, who has recently come here是定语从句修饰anyone，故D错，应改为have to pay，have前省去了should。

关于suggest需注意，当不作“建议”解时，其宾语从句则不能采用should+动词原形或省去should直接用动词原形（如美式英语）的假设语气，而该用陈述语气。

例　When he was asked why his friend had not accepted the offer, he_____.

A. stated as the reason for his friend's not accepting as pride

B. implied his friend's nonacceptance was resulting from pride

C. suggested that his friend's pride prevented him from accepting

D. hinted pride being the reason his friend didn't accept

［分析］应选C (suggested that...）。C中suggested如作“建议”解，讲不通，在本句中作“暗示，提示，委婉地说”解，故从句用直叙的陈述语气prevented。其余皆不合语法。

四、虚拟语气在主语从句中的应用

虚拟语气应用在主语从句中时，通常以it为形式主语，主要用于以下结构中。在这类结构中，should也可保留，但保留不如省略那么常见。

形容词

It is necessary that...

It is natural that...

It is imperative that...

It is desirable that...

It is essential that...

It is incredible that...

It is important that...

It is advisable that...

It is strange that...

名词

It is a pity that...

It is a shame that...

It is no wonder that...

例如：

It was important that the money (should) be collected for the cause（事业）.

It is desirable that Bruce (should) get everything ready by tomorrow evening.

It is necessary that a doctor (should) be sent for at once.

It is incredible that Ferdinand should have finished his thesis so soon.［主语从句表示一个过去的动作，故should不能省。注：这句意指Ferdinand的论文竟然完成得这么快，令人难以置信。这里的should have finished不要和“should have done”［过去应做的事但未做）混淆起来］

It is quite natural that unexpected difficulties (should) arise.

It is a pity that Lewis should be so careless.

It is a shame that Judith should be so cheap.

在上述一类结构中，主句也可采用去掉should 的直叙的陈述语气，那就只叙述事实；采用should+动词原形这一虚拟形式则表示讲话人的情绪，含有“竟然”之意。

例　It is strange that you_____say such a thing.

A. would

B. should

C. will

D. shall

［分析］应选B (should)。由句义看，讲话人含有“不该如此”或“出人意料”这类带有感情色彩的主观意思，故从句采用假设语气should。

例　It is extremely (A) necessary that you will realize (B) that reading is not only (C) a physical (D) and mental process.

［分析］B错，改为(should) realize，这里should作“应该”解。

五、虚拟语气在表语从句及同位语从句中的应用

这两类从句的虚拟语气通常用在suggestion，proposal，order，demand，necessity，request，plan，idea，recommendation，advice，motion，decision等名词后面：

My suggestion is that Freda (should) start at once.［表语从句］

Many congressmen seconded Jefferson's motion that a special committee (should) be set up to look into the problem.［同位语从句］

六、虚拟语气在某些否定或疑问形式动词所引导的宾语从句中的应用

expect，believe，think，suspect等动词用于否定或疑问形式时，它们后面所跟的宾语从句通常用“should（有时也用could）+动词原形”这一谓语形式来表示讲话者的惊奇、惶惑、怀疑、不满等情绪：

I never thought that Monica should be such a sophisticated（世故）girl.

Those foreigners just couldn't believe that the new hotel should be so big.

Little did I dream that I could meet you here.

Who would have supposed that things could (should) turn out this way?

Do you think it proper that he should say that?

注：句首还可用to think表示“真没想到”，其后之宾语从句也需用should+动词原形，例如：

To think (that) it should come to this! 事情怎会闹到这种地步？

To think (that) he should be so mean! 真没想到他竟如此卑鄙！

To think (that) such a man should have become famous overnight. 没想到这种人也一夜成名了。

另外，诸如marvel，rejoice，wonder，regret等表示强烈感情变化的意念动词，其宾语从句也可用should+动词原形，例如：

I marvel that the old woman should be able to do so much in such a short time.

I regret that you should consider it a burden to do that.

注意，在这类宾语从句中should是不省略的。

七、虚拟语气在If only，Would (that)，I'd (He'd) rather，as if (though)，It is time，for fear that和lest等结构中的应用

在上列结构的从句中谓语动词采用虚拟语气，动词过去式表示一个现在有时也可表示一个将来的愿望；动词过去完成式表示一个过去的愿望。

1. If only...；Would that...

If only...和Would that...均可以I wish代替。在口语及日常用语中用I wish，在文学体裁中则用If only或Would that：

Ah, if only (=I wish) it had life and movement. 要是这东西有生命能动该多好啊。

If only (=I wish) I had not cheated at (in) the examination. 要是我在那次考试时不作弊就好了。

注：注意if only和only if的区别。if only的用法见上面两例；only if则用作对比，意指“只要能……”，表示只要实现某种条件。例如：

The Third World countries will resist the imperialist menace only if they find a way to assure their prosperity and safeguard their liberty. 第三世界国家只要能找出确保他们经济繁荣和维护他们自由的解决办法，就能抵御帝国主义的威胁。

Only if we persist in carrying out the open-door policy, we will achieve greater success in every field. 只要坚持贯彻改革开放政策，我们一定会在各个方面取得更大的成功。

Would (that) (=I wish) I were young again. 要是我能回到年轻的时候该多好啊。

2. I'd (He'd) rather

I'd (He'd) rather=I would (He would) rather=I would (He would) just as soon=I would (He would) sooner，作“我（他）宁愿……”解。

1 　后面接动词原形，表示现在或将来的一种主观愿望或选择。

I'd rather stay home（英式英语为stay at home）on Sundays.

The brave soldiers would rather die than surrender to the enemy. 那些英勇的士兵宁愿战死也不愿向敌人投降。

I'd rather not go to the cinema tonight.

2 　后面接完成体，表示对已发生的事情在选择上的不恰当。

The film was terrible. I'd rather not have gone to the cinema last night. 那部电影糟透啦，昨晚我真不该去看电影。

I'd rather have stayed home than went to the cinema to see that dull film last night. 昨晚我该待在家里，不该去电影院看那部枯燥无味的电影。

3 　后面接过去时从句表示一个现在或将来的愿望；接过去完成时从句表示一个过去的愿望。

He'd rather his children did not make so much noise. 他真希望孩子们现在别闹得这么厉害。［表示现在］

Don't come tomorrow. I'd rather you came the day after tomorrow. 明天别来。我宁愿你后天来。［表示将来］

I'd rather you had not done that. 要是你当时别干那件事就好啦。［表示过去］

从上面三例中可以看出，I'd (He'd) rather接过去时还是过去完成时从句需视句意而定，如果句子带有表示现在或将来的时间状语时，显然应接过去从句以表示现在或将来的一种愿望或选择。

例　I'd rather you_____anything about it for the time being.

A. do

B. didn't do

C. don't

D. didn't

［分析］题中短语for the time being作“暂时”解，是表示现在或目前的时间状语，故I'd rather后之从句应用过去时动词，应选B (didn't do)。

注意：① would rather也可以had rather代替，但had rather不及would rather那么常用。

②“I'd (He'd) rather+从句”可用“I'd (He'd) just as soon+从句”来替代，即在这一结构中可用just as soon替换rather。如：

I'd just as soon (=I'd rather) you did not mention it to him now.

3. as if和as though用法相同

He often talks as if（或as though）he were my father.

含义是，but he is not...

I felt as if my heart were bursting with enthusiasm.

含义是，but my heart is not...

注意，as if (as though)后面的从句也可用陈述句语气，特别在It looks as if (as though)和It seems as if (as though)这两个结构中。如：

It looks（或seems）as if it is going to rain.

It seems almost as if he has learnt by heart a set speech written by someone else. 看来他仿佛是在背别人的讲稿。

这是因为从句中所表示的情况或是发生的可能性很大或是真实性很大，试比较：

He walks as if he is drunk. (=He is probably drunk.)

He walks as if he were drunk. (=He walks as if he were drunk, but he is not.)

4. It is time+过去时从句

在这一结构的从句中使用虚拟语气是因为表示“该做……而没有做”的意思：

It is time you went to bed. 你该睡了。［事实上还未睡］

It is time she washed that dress. 她该洗一洗那件衣服了。

I am getting tired.It is time we went home. 我累了，我们该回家了。

▶▶ 在这一句式中，从句中的过去式也可改为should+动词原形：

It is time you should go to bed.

It is time she should wash that dress.

I am getting tired.It is time we should go home.

在以上二式中，有should的第二式是极为正式的文体（should不能省去），但远远不及第一式普通。如要着重表示真实性，这二式均可以It is time for sb.to do sth.来代替：

It is time+过去式从句这一结构可在time前加上high或about，使之在语气上变得强调或缓和：

It is high time you got married and settled down. 你确实该结婚成家了。［加强语气］

It is about time you got up. 恐怕你也该起床了吧。［缓和语气］

5. for fear that，lest (that)表示“唯恐，以免”

Mary tiptoed lest the guard should hear her. 玛丽踮起脚走，唯恐警卫员听到。

Tom dare not make a noise for fear that he should disturb his mother. 汤姆不敢出声，唯恐打扰他妈妈。

八、虚拟语气的一些特殊应用

1. 应用于单独条件句

即主句省略，条件句独立存在。常有“但愿……”，“……怎么办？”之意。例如：

If I were young again! 我能年轻些该多好啊！

If I succeeded! 但愿我能成功！

If it should rain! 但愿能下一场雨！

2. 表示祝愿或诅咒

Heaven和God前均省略了May。

Heaven forbid! 天地不容！

God bless you. 上帝保佑你。

So be it then! 那就这样吧！

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. If the cook had been more careful in measuring the ingredients_____.

A. better by much would the dinner have been

B. it would have resulted in a better dinner

C. the dinner would have been much better

D. resulting in a better dinner it would

2. Jean would go to New York but she_____money.

A. didn't have

B. had no

C. doesn't have any

D. has not

3. If you_____see Mr. Allen, give him my regards.

A. should

B. would

C. shall

D. will

4. _____, John would not have failed.

A. If he has listened to me

B. Had he listened to me

C. If he listened to me

D. As soon as he listened to me

5. If Watergate_____, Nixon would not have resigned from the presidency.

A. had not occurred

B. did not occur

C. was not occurring

D. would not occur

6. If the sun_____, the players could have finished the game.

A. had shine

B. did shine

C. were shining

D. had shone

7. If I_____king, you would be my queen.

A. was

B. were

C. had been

D. will be

8. If she_____the measles, she could have gone to the park.

A. hadn't

B. hadn't had

C. had had

D. haven't

9. Kennedy_____won the nomination if he had not had that unfortunate experience.

A. could have

B. could of

C. will have

D. would of

10. I could have done better if I_____more time.

A. have had

B. had

C. had had

D. will have had

11. “What are the qualifications of a good worker?”

“It is essential that he_____efficient.”

A. could be

B. can be

C. will be

D. be

12. If you had not gone with Tom to the party last night, _____.

A. you would meet John already

B. you won't have missed John

C. you will have met John

D. you would have met John

13. She demands that the child_____her.

A. obeys

B. obeyed

C. obeying

D. obey

14. Jean's uncle insists_____in this hotel.

A. not staying

B. not to stay

C. that he not stay

D. staying not

15. “Was the housemaster strict?”

“Yes. He requested that we_____television on week nights.”

A. not watch

B. must not to stay

C. not be watching

D. staying not

16. The judge assented to the suggestion that_____.

A. both of the criminals will soon be set freedom

B. some of the criminals there of guilt only

C. that girl was to be paroled in the custody of a welfare society

D. the prisoner be sentenced to death

17. The general ordered that the enemy_____stopped.

A. is

B. be

C. was

D. to be

18. Let's say you could go there again. How_____you feel?

A. will

B. could

C. would

D. shall

19. I would have come sooner but I_____that you were waiting.

A. didn't know

B. hadn't known

C. hasn't known

D. don't known

20. He_____all his examinations easily if he studied.

A. can pass

B. could pass

C. will pass

D. shall pass

21. I'll be happy if I_____a new car.

A. had

B. would have

C. have

D. shall have

22. “I can do everything.”

“Don't act as if you_____the only pebble on the beach.”

A. are

B. were

C. have been

D. would be

23. Michael might have come to school in time for Professor Browing's lecture_____.

A. if he got up earlier

B. unless he had got up earlier

C. but he had gotten up so late

D. but he got up rather late

24. “Would you like to visit Los Angeles on your vacation?”

“If I_____a week off.”

A. have

B. had

C. have had

D. would have

25. “He would go to see you.”

“_____he did not come?”

A. What if

B. Where if

C. What come

D. What weather

26. He kept his head; otherwise the accident_____.

A. would happen

B. happened

C. would have happened

D. happens

27. “I can't tell you anything about it.”

“But it is very important that you_____me all the information.”

A. give

B. gave

C. shall give

D. should give

28. “Did you notice John was not at work today?”

“No. If_____working. I would have noticed it.”

A. I'd be

B. I wasn't

C. I'd been

D. weren't

29. “Why don't you explain it to her?”

“I_____it to her if I thought she would understand.”

A. would explain

B. will explain

C. explain

D. would have explained

30. “My husband arrived yesterday.”

“If you'd let me know. _____to meet him.”

A. I'll be glad

B. I'd be glad

C. I've been glad

D. I'd have been glad

31. If you are really interested in the opera, there_____at that theater.

A. will be given a series of lectures

B. is a series of lectures being

C. is to be a series of lectures

D. were a series of lectures

32. Uniform acceleration occurs_____the rate of change remains the same over successive and equal intervals of time.

A. according

B. if

C. with

D. under

33. If it_____rain tomorrow, we'll have a picnic.

A. would't

B. does't

C. didn't

D. won't

二、改错

1. If you have your choice (A), which one (B) would (C) you rather have (D)?

2. If Grey would have tried (A) harder (B) to reach the opposite (C) shore, we would not have had (D) to pick him up in the boat.

3. If he made better use of his time, he will be (A) more likely (B) to finish (C) his (D) research.

4. Many dead (A) would now be alive (B) if they have not attempted (C) to return for something (D).

5. Had I have been (A) in my brother's (B) position, I would have hung up (C) the phone in the middle (D) of the conversation.

6. The juvenile offender was released (A) from custody (B) on condition that he find a job immediately (C) and stayed (D) out of trouble for six months.

7. The patient's (A) doctor strongly (B) urges that he has (C) an operation on his back as soon as his general health improves (D).

8. The (A) lawyer asked (B) that the case is (C) postponed for one month (D).

9. I intend to move (A) that our committee appoints (B) Tom as chairman, and I hope (C) that you will second (D) my motion.

10. Sulfuric acid is used so extensively (A) in manufacturing (B) that thousands of factories would go out of business (C) if this acid is unattainable (D).

11. I would have helped him (A) when (B) he asked (C) me to but I really can't (D).

12. It seems as though (A) the boat were to leave (B) on schedule, despite (C) the fact that the ice in the channel would cause (D) much danger.

13. They are the ones (A) who assert (B) that a better bridge could (C) have been built have (D) we had their assistance.

14. They would buy (A) this fancy furniture, (B) had they (C) have enough cash on hand. (D)

15. The complex society of a modern (A) civilization would be (B) impossible not having (C) the art of writing (D).

16. If I have learned (A) the phonic system of reading (B), I would be (C) a better reader (D) today.

17. If you saw (A) the amount offood he ate for breakfast (B) this morning you would understand (C) why (D) he has grown so fat.

18. I would have gone with him (A) to Washington except (B) I had had (C) no time. (D)

19. I wish I knew (A) you were arriving (B) today. I would have met (C) you at (D) the station.

20. Unless (A) we talk calmly (B) and logically about (C) your problem, we would not be able (D) to resolve it.

三、按所示例句，用虚拟语气改写下列句子

例：Victor was not in the dormitory, so I didn't see him.

改写：If victor had been in the dormitory, I should have seen him.

1. You don't have enough clothes on, so you feel cold.

2. Our picnic was not perfect because there were some passing showers.

3. I got so much help from Ralph, so I did so well in the difficult examination.

4. It's a pity that Laurence is not here.

5. I am engaged in writing an urgent report; that is why I cannot go to the cinema with you.

6. We have been walking for a whole day and we are feeing so tired now.

7. Dylis has been practising Chinese constantly and can speak it fluently.

8. You didn't make everything clear to Keith and Josephine; that's why they didn't agree to join us in our research project.

9. I can't buy the camera because I have no money with me now.

10. He has left his new photos at home; so he cannot show them to us now.

11. As he is running a high fever, we can't ask him to show up at the party.

12. You were careless; therefore you made such a serious mistake.

13. Hob and Olaf didn't follow the right procedure and failed in the experiment.

14. Howard is fastidious about his food and clothing, so he hasn't deposited much money in the bank.

15. They had built a lot of reservoirs, so the flood didn't cause great damage to the people.

16. The weather was favourable before: that is why the wheat is growing well now.

四、按句意用括号内动词的过去式或过去分词形式填空

1. Mary wishes her husband_____(come) back a bit earlier from the office. He's always late for dinner.

2. We all wished we_____(not stay) to see the end of the film.

3. I wish my car_____(not always rattle) so much nowadays.

4. They now wish they_____(work) harder at school. Then they wouldn't have failed their examination.

5. I wish I_____(start) to study mathematics years ago.

6. My grade on the examination is terrible. I wish I_____(study) for it more thoroughly._____（study for a subject“复习一门功课”）

7. I wish that the weather_____(be) not so warm.

8. She says she'd rather_____(or: she'd just as soon) he_____(leave) tomorrow instead of today.

9. It is high time your children_____(know) their tables（口诀表）.

10. It is about time the police_____(do away with) gambling.

11. Suppose/Supposing I_____(do) what you asked. What would have become of me?

12. Suppose/Supposing I_____(do) what you ask. What would become of me?

13. If only we_____(do) as we were told. This would never have happened.

14. If only I_____(can) get something to do.

15. If only I_____(know) then what I knew long afterwards!

16. Would you_____(be) with us! (Would=Would that...=I wish...)

17. I'd rather (or: I'd just as soon) you_____(come) yesterday.

18. I'd just as soon (or: I'd rather) you_____(come) tomorrow.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［C］表示与过去事实相反之假设。

2.［C］系跳层结构，but前省略了if she had money，but后面之分句应用陈述语气，表示现在事实。

3.［A］主句系祈使语气，if从句中应用should。

4.［B］（Had he listened to me=if he had listened to me）表示与过去事实相反之假设。

5.［A］表示与过去事实相反之假设。resigned from the presidency：辞去了总统的职务

6.［D］表示与过去事实相反之假设。

7.［B］表示与现在事实相反之假设。

8.［B］（Had he listened to me=If he had listened to me）表示与过去事实相反之假设。

9.［A］表示与过去事实相反之假设。

10.［C］表示与过去事实相反之假设。

11.［D］be前省去了should。

12.［D］表示与过去事实相反之假设。

13.［D］动词demand所接的从句，其谓语动词前省去了should，在英式英语里should也可不省。

14.［C］动词insist用法同上。

15.［A］动词request用法同上。

16.［D］动词assent用法同上。assent to同意，赞成；［C中…was to be sentenced...宜改为（should）be sentenced...］be sentenced to death：被判处死刑；be paroled in the custody of a welfare society：获假释交福利会监督。

17.［B］动词order用法同上demand等。

18. Let's say you...=Suppose (Supposing) you...，因动词用could表示与现在事实相反之假设，故在第二句中应相应选［C］，即would+动词原形。

19.［A］是跳层结构，but前省去了if I had known that you were waiting，表示与过去事实相反之假设，but后之分句用陈述语气，表示一个过去的真实事实。

20.［B］表示与现在事实相反之假设。

21.［C］表示一个真实条件。

22.［B］Don't act as if you were the only pebble on the beach：你不要表现得除你以外就别无他人。

23.［D］系跳层结构，but前省去了if he had got up earlier，表示与过去事实相反之假设，but后用过去时陈述语气，表示一个过去的事实。

24.［B］问句中用would，表示与现在事实相反之假设，故if条件从句中需用过去时had。

25.［A］what后面省略了would happen，即What would happen if he did not come?

26.［C］第一分句用过去时kept his head（保持冷静的头脑），故otherwise (=or)从句用the accident would have happened以表示与过去事实相反之假设。

27.［A］be important后面之从句中用should+动词原形或省去should，按标准化考试要求两式并存时应省去should为宜。

28.［C］问句用过去时Did you notice，故答句的条件从句中用had been以表示与过去事实相反之假设。

29.［A］if从句中用过去时动词thought，故主句用would+原形动词explain表示与现在事实相反之假设。

30.［D］此题中第一句用过去时动词arrived, 故第二句if从句中的you'd let me know=if you had let me know，以表示与过去事实相反之假设。主句I'd have been glad=I would have been glad。

31.［A］there will be given a series of lectures=a series of lectures will be given there。C应改为will be a series of lectures to be given。

32.［B］

33.［B］主句用we'll have，故if从句用doesn't以表示一个现在的真实条件。

二、改错

1.［C］if从句用现在时have表示真实条件。故C错，把would改为will。

2.［A］改为had tried。

3.［A］改为would be，表示与现在事实相反之假设。

4.［C］此题是错综时间条件句，句意是“如果当时他们不试着回去拿些东西”，（表示与过去事实相反之假设），“许多死去的人现在便会仍活着”，（表示与现在事实相反之假设）。故C错，改为had not attempted。many dead=many (who were) dead

5.［A］改为Had I been=If I had been。

6.［D］改为stay，因stay与它并列的动词find前面均省去了should。

7.［C］改为have，因前面省去了should。

8.［C］改为be postponed，前面省略should。

9.［B］改为appoint，前面省略了should。

10.［D］在连词that引导的结果状语从句中，主句用would go，表示与现在事实相反之假设，故D错，应改为were unattainable。

11.［D］此题是跳层结构，but前的条件从句被省略，如填上，应是I would have helped him if I had been able to help him when he asked me，表示与过去事实相反之假设，but后面连接的分句便该用过去时之陈述语气，以表示一个过去事实，故D错，改为couldn't。

12.［D］despite the fact that...引导一个表示真实情况的同位语从句，故D错，改为will cause。

13.［D］改为had。had we had their assistance=if we had hadtheir assistance。

14.［C］改为should they，=if they should，同主句的would buy组成表示与现在事实相反的假设。

15.［C］改为without，without the art of writing=if it had not been for the art of writing。

16.［A］此句的句意是“如果我那时学了阅读的语音系统，我现在的阅读方法会更好些。”按句意来看，if从句表示的是一个与过去真实相反的假设，故A错，改为had learned。

17.［A］if从句中出现this morning，指已过去的时间，表与过去事实相反的假设，故A错，改为had seen，主句则表示与现在事实相反之假设。

18.［C］这句也系跳层结构，句中except=but，except前省略了if I had hadtime，表示与过去事实相反的假设，except后面之分句该用过去时的陈述语气以表示过去事实，故C错，改为had。

19.［A］此题包括两句，第一句中动词knew的宾语从句采用过去进行时were arriving，这便点明wish表示一个与过去事情相反的假设，故A错，把I knew 改为I had known。第二句系跳层结构，前面省去了条件从句If I had known you were arriving today, I would have met you...

20.［D］unless引导的条件句中用现在时动词talk，表示一个现在的真实条件，故D错，把would not be able改为shall (will) not be able。

三、按所示例句，用虚拟语气改写下列句子

1. If you had enough clothes on, you wouldn't feel cold.

2. If there hadn't been any passing showers, our picnic would have been perfect.

3. If I hadn't got so much help from Ralph, I should not (would not) have done so well in the difficult examination.

4. How nice it would be if Laurence were here.

5. If I were not engaged in writing an urgent report, I could go to the cinema with you.

6. If we hadn't been walking for a whole day, we shouldn't be feeling so tired now.

7. If Dylis hadn't been practising Chinese constantly, he couldn't speak it fluently.

8. If you had made everything clear to Keith and Josephine, they would have agreed to join us in our research project.

9. If I had money with me now, I could buy the camera.

10. If he had not left his new photos at home, he could show them to us now.

11. If he were not running a high fever, we could ask him to show up at the party.

12. If you hadn't been careless, you wouldn't have made such a silly mistake.

13. If Hob and Olaf had followed the right procedure, they wouldn't have failed in the experiment.

14. If Howard were not fastidious about his food and clothing, he would have deposited a lot of money in the bank.

15. If they had not built many reservoirs, the flood would have caused great damage to the people.

16. If the weather had not been favorable before, the wheat would not be growing so well now.

四、按句意用括号内动词的过去式或过去分词形式填空

1. Mary wishes her husband came back a bit earlier from the office. He is...

2. We all wished we had not stayed to see...

3. I wish my car did not always rattle so much...

4. They now wish they had worked harder at school. Then they...

5. I wish I had started to study mathematics years ago.

6. My grade on the examination is terrible, I wish I had studied for it more thoroughly.

7. I wish that the weather were not so warm.

8. She says she'd rather (she'd just as soon) he left tomorrow instead of today.

9. It is high time your children knew their tables.

10. It is about time the police did away with（取缔）gambling.

11. Suppose (or: Supposing) I had done what you asked. What would have become of me?

12. Suppose (or: supposing) I did what you ask. What would become of me?

13. If only we had done as we were told. This would never have happened.

14. If only I could get something to do.

15. If only I had known then what I knew long afterwards!

16. Would you were with us! (=Would that you were with us!=I wish you were with us!)

17. I'd rather you had come yesterday.

18. I'd just as soon (or: I'd rather) you came tomorrow.

第十六章　主从结构和并列结构

一、何谓主从结构

英语中，很多句子含有两个或两个以上的思想内容，这些思想相互连接但又属于不同层次，即相互间存在着主从关系，这种带有主从关系的语言结构叫做主从结构。主从结构的主要特征是，一个表示次要思想结构充当另一个表示主要思想结构的组成部分，即从属于另一个结构。表示主要思想结构必须是一个具有独立性的主句，而从属结构则可用较多的形式来表现。

二、主从结构的表达形式

1. 以状语从句形式表示的从属结构

这是从属结构最普通，也是最主要的形式。

1 　由从属连词before，after，when，whenever，while，till，until，since，once，as soon as等引导的时间状语从句。

Martha worked in the library until it closed.

After we made a picnic lunch, we left for the beach.

Clara and Clare were great friends when they were at college.

While I am mopping the floor（拖地板）, you can clean the windows.

After her parents died, the girl had to take everything on herself. 双亲死后，那姑娘得把一切承担起来。

Take the medicine before you go to bed.

Many changes have taken place since our country adopted an open policy.

I'll ring you up as soon as I get an answer from the factory director.

▶▶ 注：as soon as，directly，immediately，presently这几个连词可引导时间状语从句，表示从句的动作一发生，主句动作随即发生，常译为“一……就……”，类似的名词词组还有：every time，any time，the moment，the instant等。

例：Every time I passed the gate of my middle school, I thought of my childhood.

I shall come immediately I've finished homework.

He came to the scene the moment he heard of the accident.

Once she has made up her mind, Jenny will never change.

As they entered, the hall burst into thunderous applause. 当他们进来时，全场发出雷鸣般的掌声。

例　_____a baby turtle is hatched, it must be able to fend for itself.

A. Not sooner than

B. No sooner

C. So soon that

D. As soon as

［分析］A，B及C均不合语法；D (As soon as)是唯一正确的选择。

例　“Whenever I have to write a paper, I don't know where to begin.”

“I have the same problem, but_____, the paper seems to write itself.”

A. Starting

B. having started once

C. once I start

D. after to start

［分析］A在语法上能成立，但句意不通，B和D不合语法，应选C。

▶▶ 注意：

① when，while和as引导时间状语从句时用法上的区别。

· when引导的时间状语从句，既可表示一时性的动作又可表示持续性的动作：

When I was a boy, I used to wander about the fields and the woods.［when从句表示持续性的状态］

Please take it down in shorthand when I dictate. 我口述时，请用速记记下来。［when从句表示持续性的动作］

It was foggy when we arrived in London.［when从句表示一时性或短暂的动作］

· while引导的时间状语从句不能表示一时性或短暂的动作，只能表示持续性的动作或状态。

两句都错，因arrived和met均表示一时的短暂动作，while应改为when。

It was foggy while we arrived in London.（×）

He was shopping while I met him.（×）

Please take it down while I dictate.（√）［“dictate”表示持续性的动作］

I feel safe while I am here with you.（√）［“am here”表示持续性的状态］

while除了表示“当……的时候”，还可以表示：

a. “尽管”、“虽然”，相当于although，用于句首。例：While this is true of some, it is not true of all. 尽管有些情况是这样，但不是所有情况都是这样。

b. “而”，表示对比。例：I have no money to spend, while you have nothing to spend money on.

c. “只要”，相当于as long as。例：While there is life, there is hope. 留得青山在，不怕没柴烧。

· as表示两个动作同时进行或一个动作和一个状态同时进行。

A: I'm not sure whether I'm equal to（是否能胜任）the new job.

B: Don't worry. You can learn as you work. 别急，你可边学边干嘛。［表示两个不久可同时进行的动作］

The criminal trembled as he confessed his crime. 那罪犯交代罪行时在发抖。［表示trembled和confessed两个同时进行的动作］

The husband went out (just) as his wife entered. 正好他妻子进来时，那男人出去。［表示两个短暂的动作同时发生］

例　While (A) the two reappeared after being (B) absent for over (C) a month, everyone in the expedition was surprised to find them so little (D) changed.

［分析］A错。while引导的时间状语从句中的谓语动词reappeared（重新出现）表示一个短暂的动作，应把while改为when。

② till和until用法上的异同。

A. till和until意义和词性相同，都可作连词和介词，但till还可用作及物动词，过去式和过去分词均为tilled，如Farmers till the land.（农夫种田）及land to the tiller（耕者有其田）。until则不能用作动词。

B. until比till强调，故用于句首时通常用until而不用till，在一般的日常用语中则多用till而少用until。

I will wait for Lucy till she comes back.［在此句中until 不及till普通］

Until I had investigated the matter, I had no idea of it.直到我调查后才知道这件事。［用于句首表示强调时，不用till］

C. till和until的汉语解释“直到……才……”很容易引起学习者的误解，使他们写出“We shall start till next Monday”来表示“我们要到下星期一出发”。这种句子在英美人看来会感到丈二和尚摸不着头脑，因英美人使用till/until时有一固定公式，即“A ... till/until B”。A的谓语部分所表达的动作或状态一直持续下去到till/until出现时便停止并立即向相反的意思转化。因此，We shall start till/until next Monday. 的确切意思在英美人眼中便是“我们到下星期一不出发”，他们看了如堕五里雾中，莫名其妙，需改为We shall not start till/until next Monday.因not start持续下去，到next Monday时，not start即向相反意思转化为start，这样才能正确表达出“我们要到下星期一才出发”这个意思。但是这并不意味着谓语动词一概用否定式，谓语动词也可以用肯定式。如：

Last night I stayed up till midnight.［stayed up持续到midnight就不再stayed up，即“昨晚我熬到半夜才睡。”］

We waited till we got the news that they had arrived there safe and sound.［Waited这一状态持续到got the news后就不再waited，即“我们一直等到获得他们已平安无恙地抵达那里的消息后才离开。”］

作者就记忆所及，美国著名职业棒球运动员兼教练约吉·贝拉（Yogi Berra）曾于1973年针对球队跌入低谷·队容不整的令人沮丧情况，运用till这字讲了一句非常有的·震撼人心的话，该句话是：

It's not over till it is over.

这一名句中的两个it都是心照不宣地指当时跌入低谷，队容不整的美国棒球队一筹莫展的情况。运用A ... till B这一公式便能一目了然这句名话的意思及其隐含的积极处世哲学，即“低谷状况不会过去直到风起云涌地大搞整顿，球队的萎靡不振的情绪才会一扫而光”。西方华人根据这句话的积极含义译成“事情不到最后不算完”。这句名话为美国人及在美华人传颂一时。美国第41任总统老乔治·布什（George Bush）曾于1992年说过这句话：“Politics is like baseball. It isn't over till the last batter（击球手）swings.”“政治就像棒球赛，不等到最后一个击球手挥棒不算完。”

【注：这句名话有三种变化形式：It's not over till it's over./It ain't over till it's over./It's never over till it's over.】

D. 在文学、艺术著作及科技文献中常出现Not until开头的强调句式；带有till或until的自然式句子变成Not until开头的强势式句子时，有三个步骤：① 把原来分开的Not...till (until)连在一起置于句首（连在一起时till须改为until）；② 把原来紧跟在till (until)后面的从句放在Not until之后，主谓不倒装；③ 把主句紧靠在从句之后，但主句的主谓必须进行部分倒装。试比较：

The mother did not leave the room till the child fell asleep.

Not until ① the child fell asleep ② did the mother ③ leave the room.

People do not know the value of friendship till they lose it.

Not until ① people lose friendship ② do they know its value. ③

例　Not until an infant hedgehog（小刺猬）opens its eyes_____its nest to follow its mother about.

A. it leaves

B. and leaves

C. leaving

D. does it leave

［分析］这道题的自然句式是：An infant hedgehog does not leave its nest to follow its mother about until it opens its eyes.改为Not until开头的强势式便是：

Not until ① an infant hedgehog opens its eyes ② does it leave ③ its nest to follow its mother about. ④故应选D。about这里系副词，=here and there。

E. Not until开头的强调结构用于It is (was)...that这一强势式中时，从句和主句的主谓均不倒装，试比较：

Not until the child fell asleep（从句，主谓不倒装）did the mother leave the room.（主句，主谓倒装）

It was not until the child fell asleep（从句，主谓不倒装）that the mother left the room.（主句，主谓也不倒装）

再比较下面一个实例：

He（指Mendoza）did not finally beat Humphries and become Champion of England until his third match in 1790.［自然式］

Not until ① his third match in 1790 ② did he finally beat ③ Humphries and become Champion of England.［系Not until开头的强调结构，故主句③的主谓部分倒装，句中until用作介词］

It was not until his third match in 1790 that he finally beat Humphries and became Champion of England.［Not until结构用于it was...that...强势式中，主句的主谓不倒装］

上文引自New Concept English《新概念英语》第三册（Developing Skills）第21课Daniel Mendoza课文，该课文作者L. G. Alexander采用了主谓不倒装的第三式。

例　“My English professor is giving a special lecture tonight.”

“I know. I'm going_____I clean up my room.”

A. except

B. until

C. after

D. without

［分析］A和D明显不对；B也错，选择until后句子便成为“房间打扫干净后我就不去了”，不通，只能选C (after)。

例　It was not until the accident happened_____.

A. when I became aware of my foolishness

B. when my foolishness became obvious

C. that did I realize my own folly

D. that I became aware of my own foolishness

［分析］Not until强调结构用于It is (was)...that...强势式中时，主句的主谓是不倒装的，故应选D (that I became aware of...)而不能选C。

2 　由从属连词because，since，as等引导的原因状语从句。

As（“因为”）he didn't get ready in time, we went without him.

I am going to bed, as（因为）I am very tired.［as 引导的原因状语从句也可放在句末］

Don't walk fast because the road is slippery（路很滑）.

Because my hands are clean, I've a right to call you to account. 因为我是清白的，我有权责问你。［because引导的原因状语从句也可置于句首］（call sb. to account 责问某人）

Since you are leaving tomorrow, we can eat dinner together tonight

We have to put the meeting off since so many people are absent.［since引导的原因状语从句也可置于句末］

Now that（既然）you're grown up, you must stop this childish behaviour. 你既然长大了，就该停止这种幼稚的行为。

This book is unsatisfactory in that（因为）it lacks a good index（索引）。［in that可作为一个连词看待，相当于because，故that不能省略］

Considering that（由于考虑到）they are just beginners, they are doing quite a good job.由于考虑到他们还是才开始学做，所以他们干得算是不错了。

Seeing that（鉴于）he is young and inexperienced, he is not fit for the work. 鉴于他年轻又无经验，他不适合做这工作。

注：① in that作为连词，它所引导的原因状语从句不能置于句首

例　In that (A) the meeting was taking too long, (B) Mr. Shelton decided that the topic of athletic policies should be postponed (C) until after (D) school hours.

［分析］A错，in that引导的原因状语从句不能置于句首，应移至句末。

注意not that...but that...这一结构，意为“不是因为……，而是因为……”，例如：

Not that I don't like the car, but that I cannot afford it. 不是因为我不喜欢这部汽车，而是因为我买不起它。

② because，since和as都表示原因，because最强烈，as最弱，since居中。because引导的从句可放在主句之前或之后；since和as引导的原因状语从句，按标准化考试结构部分所固守的正式英语要求，则应放在句首而不能置于主句的后面；但在通俗英语里，since和as引导的原因状语从句也常常置于句末。

③ 有些短语也可引导原因状语从句，例如on the ground that，for the reason that，owing to the fact that，in as much as (inasmuch as)等：

Inasmuch as the waves are high, I shall not go out in the boat. 既然风浪很大，我就不乘船出海了。

She is willing to marry him for the reason that he is very rich.

He disliked her on the ground that she was lazy (=on the ground of her laziness).

有些短语例如due to，owing to，thanks to，because of等，后面不能接句子。

The success was due to his hard work.

They put off the sports meeting, owing to the heavy rain.

3 　由从属连词as引导的方式状语从句。

这样用时，as作“如；照；像”解：

Hold it in your right hand, as I told you.

Do as I say!

Leave it as it is. 保持原状，不要动它。

注意：

① 在现代通俗英语中，like往往用作as来引导方式状语从句：

Nobody loves you like (=as) I do, Mary.

She wanted a doll like (=as) she saw in a store window. 她希望有个如同她在店铺窗口所看到的娃娃。

不过要注意的是，尽管like的这种用法可在小说及日常应用中看到，但在标准化测试的结构部分所要求的正式英语里，like的这种用法仍然不予提倡。

例　After their work at the factory, the prisoners_____.

A. went back to their cells（狱中个人牢房）, like they were ordered

B. have gone back to their cells, as they were ordered

C. went back to their cells, as they were ordered

D. have gone back to their cells, like they were ordered

［分析］答案为C。A错，在正式英语中like应改为as。B的时态不对；D的现在完成式应改为过去式，like须改为as。

② as引导方式状语从句时，也可和so连用，这时as前面常加上just以示强调。

句型是：(Just) as+主谓，so+主谓。意义类似汉语的“正如……，……也一样”：

Just as we sweep our rooms, so we should sweep threadbare ideas from our minds. 正像打扫房间一样，我们也要消除我们头脑中的陈腐观念。

As fire tries gold, so adversity tries virtue. 如火炼金一样，逆境考验人的品德。

例　Just as too much harmony is tiresome in music, _____.

A. the life of too many benefits annoys us

B. much benefits annoys us in life

C. so, in life, too many benefits annoy us

D. we are annoyed with lives also of too many benefits

［分析］答案为C，符合Just as..., so...这一句型。句意是“正如在音乐中太多的和音会使人厌倦一样，在生活中太多的利益会使人们烦恼。”

as有时也可用在so后面，构成“so...as...”这一结构：

No one means so much to me as you do. 没有人像你那样对我意义重大。

例　Nothing (A) in recent years has (B) so changed (C) the economy of the United States with (D) the development of the supermarket.

［分析］D错，句中的前面部分有so，故把D改为as，即as the development of the supermarket，后面省略了has changed the economy of the United States。

③ as作为连词的常见习用语

as against sth 与……相对照；与……相比较

Our production this year has increased by two million and a half tons as against the figure for last year. 我们今年的产量与去的数字相比增加了250万吨

as any schoolboy will tell you 众人皆知

If the trade unions support the people, the people will vote Labor. The reason is as obvious as any schoolboy will tell you. 如果工会支持人民，人民便会投工党的票。这一道理最明白不过，是众人皆知的。

as ...... as the sun shines on 世上稀有的

My father is as kind-hearted a man as the sun shines on.

我爸爸是个世上少有的好人。

as best one can 竭尽全力

Be at ease about this matter. We'll manage as best we can.

对这件事请放心，我们回竭尽全力处理好。

as and when 将来……时；到时候（用于在特定条件下才会发生的事情）

We'll decide on the branch as and when we qualify.

将来我们具备了条件时就会决定成立这个分公司。

4 　由从属连词where，wherever引导的地点状语从句。

They put a couch where the chair had been. 他们在原来放椅子的地方放了一个长沙发。

注：where除了表示地点外，还可以表示条件、时间（=once）、对比和让步等。

Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成。［表条件］

“where...there...”结构表示“如果……则，若……则”。再例如：

Where there are heights, there are precipices. 高山之巅，必有悬崖。

Where there is no fire, there is no smoke. 无风不起浪。

Faults are sick where love is thin. 一朝情义薄，样样不顺眼。

Birth is nothing where virtue is not. 如果没有品德，出生再好也等于零。［条件］

Where I was fascinated by the lecture, my brother showed intolerable indifference. 尽管那讲座深深吸引了我，我弟弟所表示出来的无动于衷却令人不能容忍。［表对比］

Go where you should, keep on studying. 你尽可到你该去的地方去，但要继续学下去。［表让步］

Unfortunately, where we should expect gratitude, we often find the opposite. 遗憾的是，虽然我们本该得到感激，却常常得到的是怨恨。

Wherever you are, I'll find you. 不论你在哪里，我定能找到你。

5 　由从属连词that，so that，in order that引导的目的状语从句。

Man does not live that he may eat, but eats that he may live. 人生存不是为了吃饭，吃饭则是为了生存。

Da Vinci would walk the whole length of Milan that he might alter a single tint in his picture of the Last Supper. 达芬奇为了要改变他的《最后的晚餐》这幅画中的一种颜色，常常跑遍整个米兰市。

The teacher told us to keep quiet so that we might not disturb others. 老师叫我们保持安静，以免打扰别人。

They carried an umbrella in order that they might stay dry in the rain（以便在雨中不会淋湿）.

例　“The sidewalk is slippery.”“Hold my arm_____.”

A. so that you don't fall

B. that you couldn't fall

C. so you wouldn't be falling

D. that you won't be falling

［分析］答案为A，so that you don't fall 比so that you may not tall 语气更强些；B错，应改为that you can't（或mayn't）fall；C和D不能用进行式。

6 　由从属连词so that，that，so，so...that，such...that引导的结果状语从句。

It was very cold, so that the river frosted. 天气非常寒冷，河水都结冰了。［so that引导结果状语从句时，前面有逗号“,”，引导目的状语时则无］

I did very well in the examination that I was praised by the teacher.［句中的that是so that的省略式，so省略后that前则不需用逗号］

What have I done that he should cut me? 我亏待过他什么，他竟不理睬我？［that是so that的省略式，表结果，故that前之逗号“,”也省略；从句中用should表示想不通的愤怒之情］

I took no notice of him, so he flew into a rage. 我没有理睬他，他就勃然大怒了。

I was so tired that I could hardly keep my eyes open. 我疲倦得连眼睛都睁不开了。

In New Zealand the climate is so mild that the grass keeps green all the year round. 新西兰的气候非常温和，所以百草终年常绿。

Wolcott made such an excellent speech that we all admired him. 华尔高脱演讲得如此精彩，因此我们都称赞他。

The force of the explosion was such that all the windows were broken. 爆炸力真大，竟使所有的窗子都震破了。

［such 置于句首，须用倒装语序：Such was the force of the explosion that all the windows were broken.］

A. 连词so that引导目的状语从句及结果状语从句时用法上的区别。

① 引导目的状语从句时，通常前面无逗号，引导结果状语从句时前面必须用逗号加以撇开。

We eat so that we may live.［so that 引导目的状语从句，前面无逗号］

He broke his leg, so that he could not take part in the match.［so that引导结果状语从句，前面必须有逗号加以撇开］

② so that引导的目的状语从句可置于句首，但它引导结果状语从句时则不可放在句首：

So that we might stay dry in the rainwe carried an umbrella.［so that引导目的状语从句，可以置于句首以强调］

So that he could not take part in the match, he broke his leg.［×，因so that引导结果状语从句时不可以放在句首］

③ 连词so...that引导结果状语从句时，它的否定式so...that...not有一个变体，即so...but...，换言之，以but来替代that...not：

I am not so old that I may not learn.

I am not so old but I may learn.［but 替代that...not］

④ 在现代英语中，特别在口语体中，so...that...引导结果状语从句时，that也可省略：

The new plane flies so fast (that) it can beat the speed record.

B. so...that和such...that引导结果状语从句时用法上的区别。

① 在关联词so...that中so是副词，其句型如下：

句型1　so+形容词+that...

The child is so lovely（形容词）that everybody likes him.

句型2　so+副词+that...

He spoke so long（副词）that most of us were bored.

句型3　so+形容词+a+单数可数名词+that...

Larry is so gentle a person that many women take a fancy to（喜欢）him.

② 在关联词such...that中，such是形容词，其句型是：

句型1　such+a+形容词+单数可数名词+that...

It was such a warm day that we all took off our overcoats when we climbed up the mountain.

句型2　such+形容词+不可数名词+that...

This book is written in such easy English（不可数名词）that even beginners can understand it.

句型3　such+形容词+复数名词+that...

He told us such tragic stories that we were all moved to tears.

例　The wingbeats (A) of hummingbirds (B) are too rapid (C) that their wings cannot be seen (D) distinctly.

［分析］C错，应改为 so rapid，因结果状语从句不能由too...that来引导。

例　“Did Mrs. Robert treat you well?”

“Yes, she was_____she treated us like a mother.”

A. as kind as

B. so kind

C. too kind

D. very kind

［分析］应选B，因so...that引导结果状语从句时，that有时也可省掉。

7 　由从属连词while，whereas引导的对比状语从句。

While I like the color of the hat, I don't like its shape. 我虽然喜欢这帽子的颜色，但不喜欢它的式样。

Some people like fat meat, whereas others hate it. 有的人喜欢肥肉，而有的人厌恶肥肉。

8 　由从属连词though，although，even though，even if，whether...or，however引导的让步状语从句。

Although/Though she saved money every month, she could not afford to fly to Mexico for her vacation.

Sullivan will not reveal the secret even though（或even if）he knows it.

Even if（或 Even though）it rains, I will start.

Whether (she is) sick or well, she is always cheerful.

It is truth, whether you believe it or not.

Whether we work or sleep, are earnest or idle, rejoice or moan in agony, the river of time flows on with the same resistless flood. 无论我们在工作或睡觉、热心还是怠惰、欣喜还是愁苦，这时间的长河总是以不可抗拒的水势向前流去。

注1：for all表示“虽然，尽管”，相当于in spite of, despite：

There may be a few grammar mistakes, but for all that, it is a very good paper. 这篇论文可能有些语法错误，虽然如此，还是非常不错的。

For all its clarity of style, the book is not easy reading. 这本书虽然文体清晰，但读起来并不容易。

注2：granting (that)或granted (that)也可引导让步状语从句，意为“即使，就算”：

Granted/Granting (that) you have ability, it does not mean that you can do the work well without fail. 就算你有能力，也不意味着你肯定能把这件事做好。（without fail习语“一定”）

注3：“whether it be...or...”结构表示让步，意为“不管（无论）是……还是……”，其省略结构为be it...or...，须倒装。

Every day he takes a walk in the park in the morning, whether it be fine or raining.

Be they common people or high-ranking officials, they stand equal before the law. 无论是平民还是高官，在法律面前人人平等。

Be it true or not, I will see for myself. 不论真实与否，我定要自己看一下。

A. though与although用法上的区别。

① though与although同义，可互换使用，但although是由all+though而来，故比though强调，多放在句首，though则比较常用。

② 汉语可说“虽然……但是……”，英语里则绝对不可用“Though (Although)...but...”；这两个连词只能任取其一：

Although/Though he is my brother, but I will not take his words at their face value.［×，因although/though后面不能再用but］

Although/Though he is my brother, I will not take his word at their face value.［√因后面去掉了but，句意是“虽然他是我的兄弟，但我还是不能相信他表面上的话。”］

例　Although DDT was first produced (A) in 1874, but it was (B) not widely used until (C) the second quarter of this century.

［分析］B错，从句由although或though引导后，主句前再不能加but，需去掉。

③ Though (Although)从句后面的主句前面不能用连词but，但可用yet，still或nevertheless；理由是，和though (although)一起用时，这三个词便成为副词而不是连词；三者之间的差别是：yet口语化，nevertheless语气压重，still则介于两者之间：

Although I believe it, yet I must consider carefully before I act.

Though the pain was sharp, still he did not complain.

Though there are many difficulties and obstacles ahead, nevertheless, we are sure to overcome them and achieve success.

但标准化测试结构部分的出题者认为though或although后面跟这些副词使文体显得拖沓，以不加为宜。

例　Although Elizabeth likes (A) chocolate candy and cookies very much (B), yet (C) she never eats them on account of (D) her weight problem.

［分析］C不妥，宜去掉yet以保持文体的简洁。

④ even不能和although连用，但可和though或if一起用，作“即便；纵然”解。

I wouldn't lose courage even though I should fail ten times. 纵然要失败十次，我也决不灰心。

I will help him finish his work even if I have to stay up all night. 即使要干通宵，我也要帮助他把工作做完。

从上面两例可以看出，even though或even if所引导的从句可用虚拟语气或陈述句语气。

例　Even although (A) Juan is studying (B) physics now, he is planning to spend (C) next year studying biology and paleontology.

［分析］A错，可以用even though或even if，但不能用even although。

B. however的用法。

however用作连接副词时，作“不论怎样……”解，句型如下：

However+主谓

However you travel, it'll take you at least two days. 不论你用怎样的方式旅行，你至少要花去两天时间。

However+形容词+主谓

However rich people are, they always want more.

However+副词+主谓

However fast you drive, I always feel safe with you.

However用作连接副词时=no matter how，两者的区别是，however用于书面语，no matter how用于口语。它们引导的让步从句过去通常用虚拟语气，即在谓语动词前加may，现在一般都用现在时的陈述语气，而不用将来时：

However much he may eat, he never gets fat.

However much he eats（不用will eat）, he never gets fat.

however引出的从句也可置于主句后面：

I must be off, however heavily it rains（或it may rain，但不用it will rain）.

例　However much_____, it will be worth it.

A. does the watch cost

B. costs the watch

C. the watch will cost

D. the watch costs

［分析］答案为D。A和B主谓倒装，故错。C中用将来时，不妥。

9 　no matter+疑问词引导的从句表示一种让步。

If you don't improve your method, you won't go far（搞不出名堂）, no matter how hard you try（或may try）.

No matter when you come（或may come）, you will always be welcome.

Don't believe rumors, no matter who says them.

We are firmly opposed to interference in the internal affairs of other countries, no matter under what pretext it is（或may be）carried out. 我们坚决反对干涉别国内政，不管这种干涉是在什么借口下进行的。

I will follow you no matter where you go（或may go）.

请注意以下两点：

A. no matter+疑问词，后面所引导的从句有时可省略。

I have had enough of the hustle and bustle of city life.I'll go to work in the country for a change, no matter what. 我尝够了城市生活的喧嚣，我要到乡下去工作换换环境，不管乡下什么地方。

Anyone, no matter who, may point out our shortcomings.If he is right, we will correct them.

You should use one or other of these remedies, no matter which. 你应该服用或者这种，或者那种药物，不管哪种都行。

B. 注意no matter how和no matter what的区别。

no matter how通常接副词或形容词+主谓：

No matter how hard you work, you will get nowhere (=won't go far) unless you change your method.［no matter how接副词］

No matter how difficult it is（或may be）, do your best.［no matter how 接形容词］

no matter what通常接名词+主谓（what用作形容词）或直接跟主谓（what用作名词，作谓语动词的宾语或表语）：

No matter what Mike says.［what用作谓语动词says的宾语］

No matter what job you do, do it well.［what作形容词修饰job］

No matter what the matter is（或may be）, do your best.［what作is的表语，此句中第二个matter是名词，作“事情”解］

例　No matter how (A) crises of the moment dominate (B) the headiness, the world's energy (C) shortage is the most critical challenge of the next decade and beyond. (D)

［分析］A错，因no matter how后面跟的是名词crises，故应把how改为what，即no matter what crises..., what修饰crises。

10 　be that as it may作“即便是那样……”解，是表示一种让步的从属结构。

The weather forecast has warned against rain this week, but be that as it may, we still intend to go camping. 天气预报本周有雨，即便如此，我们仍打算举行野营。

例　Be that when (A) it may, his (B) first Mexican sojourn imbued (C) Vaughn with a lifelong (D) passion for Latin America.

［分析］A错，应改为as。be that as it may表示一个让步的意义，句意“即便如此，伏恩对墨西哥的首次逗留使他终身向往拉丁美洲。”

11 　由从属连词if，even if (though)，provided that，suppose (supposing)等引导的条件状语从句。

I will go provided (that) you will go with me.

They will stand by you even if you don't succeed.

She won't leave the TV set, even though her husband is waiting for his supper.

If she comes, we'll tell her.

注1：if可表示“即使”，相当于even if/even though，例如：

If I am wrong, you are wrong too. 即使我错了，你也对不了。

If (=Even if) he is old, he is at any rate strong. 即使他老了，他还是很强壮。

If (=Even though) the sea were to run dry and the rocks were to crumble, I would not break my word. (If=Even if...)即使海枯石烂，我也不会背弃诺言。

注2：if可表示“whenever”，是一种仿古文体。

If I feel any doubt, I ask. 每当我有疑惑，我就提问。

If the moon shines bright, he takes a walk in the garden. 每当月色皎洁，他就在花园里散步。

注3：if可以和a day，a man，a penny等组合，表示对年龄、重量、身高、数量等的强调，意为“一定，至少，无论如何”等。

She is on the wrong side of fifty if a day.［of a day=if she is a day old。全句意为“她肯定五十出头”。］

The army is 100,000 if a man. (=The army is at any rate 100,000.)

This box weighs twenty pounds if it weighs an ounce［或用省略式if an ounce也可，在这种句式中省略式更为普通］. 这只箱子至少有20磅重。

The building must be worth one million dollars if it is worth a cent（或省略式if a cent）. 这房子一定值100万美元。

2. 以分词形式（包括独立结构）所表示的从属结构

Not knowing what to do (=Because I didn't know what to do), I telephoned my uncle for advice.［表示原因从属］

Seeing those photos (=When I saw those photos), I couldn't help thinking of my happy days in Hawaii.［表示时间从属］

Given better attention (=If they had been given better attention), the lettuces could have grown better.［表示条件从属］

Working hard (=If you work hard), you will surely succeed.［表示条件从属］

Weighing 200 jin（斤）(=Though it weighs 200 jin), the stone lion was lifted by him alone.［表示让步从属］

It rained for two weeks on end, completely ruining our holiday (=so that it completely ruined our holiday).［表示结果从属］

I wrote to my sponsor, expressing my heartfelt thanks to him. (=and expressed my heartfelt thanks to him).［表示伴随性从属］

3. 以who，whom，that，which引导的定语从句表示的从属结构

The novel is well received（受欢迎）by readers, who appreciate its interesting plot and excellent language (=as they appreciate its...).［表示原因从属］

I wish to write an article that will attract public attention to this burning（燃眉之急的）social problem (=so that it may attract public attention to...).［表示目的从属］

He would be a rash（鲁莽的）man, who should venture to invest all his money in that risky（风险很大的）business (=if he should venture to invest all his money in...).［表示条件从属］

Phillip was good at management, for which he was promoted to be vice manager. (=so that he was promoted to be...).［表示结果从属］

Tom, who had studied hard (=though he had studied hard), did not succeed in the examination because he failed to grasp the main points.［表示让步从属］

Mary was looking for someone, who would explain calculus to her (=and he would explain calculus to her).［定语从句代替并列分句来表示从属］

4. 以连接副词、连接代词和连词that引导的从句表示从属结构

以where，when，how，why，whether等连接副词和what，whatever，who，whoever等连接代词以及连词that所引导的主语、宾语、表语或同位语从句表示的从属结构：

1 　引导主语从句。

When we shall have our first symposium is still unknown.

Whether Godfrey will join us won't make any difference.

When a trade mission（贸易访问小组）will be sent abroad has not been announced.

Why the woman was murdered is still a question.

How a book will sell depends mainly on its own merits.

Where he is living now is unknown.

What you need is more clinical experience.

Whatever measures the government adopts must be kept in conformity with the interest of the public.

Who was responsible for the industrial accident（工伤事故）is not yet clear.

Whoever fails to see this will make a big mistake.

That Tom has made such rapid progress in his studies is amazing.

从上面众多的例子中可以看出，从句作主语时必须要由连词that或适当的连接副词或连接代词引导；如果无连词或连接副词或代词便不合语法。

例　_____some mammals came to live in the sea is not known.

A. Which only brown thrashers

B. Since

C. Although

D. How

［分析］答案为D。how可作连接副词，引导名词从句，在本题中用作主语从句；since和although只能引导状语从句。A不合语法。

例　_____all behavior is learned behavior（习惯性行为）is a basic assumption of social scientists.

A. Nearly

B. That nearly

C. It is nearly

D. When nearly

［分析］答案为B。题中主语系一从句，应由连词that来引导。D错，when虽也可引导主语从句，但这不合句意。A和C不合语法。

运用主语从句应注意事项：

① 在上列一类结构中，如果谓语部分是由be+形容词、名词或分词形容词时，主语从句可以后置并以形式主语it代之。

It is still unknown when we shall have our first symposium.

It has not been announced when a trade mission will be sent abroad.

It is still a question why the woman was murdered.

It is unknown where he is living now.

It is not true what he said yesterday.

It is not yet clear who was responsible for the industrial accident.

It is amazing that Tom has made such rapid progress in his studies.

这样做的主要理由是，从句作主语时字数往往超过谓语字数，使句子显得头重脚轻；为了保持句子的平衡，便通常把主语从句后置，而以it代之作形式主语。

例　_____that the formation of the sun, the planets, and other stars began with the condensation of an interstellar gas cloud.

A. Believing

B. To believe

C. The belief

D. It is believed

［分析］答案为D。主语从句甚长，故后置以形式主语it代之。A、B及C均不合语法。

② 从句用作主语时，动词通常采用单数形式。

What he said yesterday is not true.

How a book will sell depends mainly on its own merits.

例　That intelligence tests actually give (A) a measurement (B) of the intelligence of individuals are (C) questioned by some (D) eminent psychologists.

［分析］C错，题中的主语系一从句，应把C改为is。

2 　引导宾语从句。

I don't know when the symposium will be held.

Could you tell me where she lives?

We can't imagine what made him say that at the meeting.

Do you know whether any decision has been made on that problem?

Would you explain how the machine is operated?

She asked me who that young man was.

She has not decided yet which one she would buy.

I told him that he was definitely wrong.

3 　引导介词宾语从句。

If anyone can do the job well, the question of whether the person is male or female is not important.

4 　引导表语从句。

That is why so many young people like the United States.

This is where Shakespeare once lived when he was in London.

The assumption is that things will improve.

Quality is what counts most. 质量是最重要的。

The problem is not who will go, but who will stay.

That is how we beat them in the match.

5 　引导同位语从句。

Your assumption that things will improve is unfounded.

I have no idea what he is like.

The reason why he is absent from work is that he is seriously ill.

6 　有关主语从句、宾语从句及表语从句的注意事项。

① 疑问句需主谓倒装，但当疑问句用作主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句时，它便成为间接疑问句，必须采用陈述句句序，即主谓不能倒装。试比较下列两组例子：

When will a trade mission be sent abroad?［疑问句，主谓倒装］

When a trade mission will be sent abroad has not been announced yet.

［间接疑问句，用作主语从句，主谓不倒装］

What he needs as a doctor is more clinical experience（临床经验）.［用作主语从句，主谓不倒装］

Do you know what he needs as a doctor?［用作宾语从句，主谓不倒装］

More clinical experience is what he needs as a doctor.［用作表语从句，主谓不倒装］

例　The people at the party were worried about Janet because no one was aware_____she had gone.

A. where that

B. of where

C. of the place where

D. the place

［分析］答案为B，where引导一个间接疑问句，作介词of的宾语，应用陈述句语序。C较啰唆。A和C不合语法。

例　He had trouble finding out (A) that (B) the capital of the country lay in (C) the coastal area or in the mountains (D).

［分析］B错，在句中的后半部出现or，宾语从句应用whether来引导以表示选择，不能用that。

② 间接疑问句和双重疑问句。

双重疑问句和间接疑问句的不同在于：主句是疑问句，从句又是间接疑问句，因此就形成了双重疑问。双重疑问句结构上的特点是，主句采用倒装词序，从句即间接疑问句仍采用正装的陈述词序。

Can you tell me（主句，倒装词序）where Tony has gone?（从句，正装词序）

May I ask you（主句，倒装词序）then what you would advise me to do?（从句，正装词序）

Have you any idea（主句，倒装词序）where he works?（从句，正装词序）

Do you know（主句，倒装词序）when he will arrive?（从句，正装词序）

Do you know（主句，倒装词序）if（或whether）she likes it?（从句，正装词序）

但这里要着重讲的是双重疑问句的一个变体结构。这一结构的模式如下：

When do you know the symposium will take place?

How do you suppose the machine is operated?

Which one do you think I should buy?

How old did you say you were then, Clyde?

How many books can you guess he bought the other day?

Who do you guess that young man is?

Whom do you think I ought to see first?

这一变体的双重疑问句结构在日常英语中用得极为广泛。

例　What time do you think_____?

A. will Betsy come here this morning

B. Betsy will come here with George

C. is Betsy coming here with George

D. can Betsy get here this morning

［分析］答案是B，代入B后全句便符合上述的变体双重疑问句结构。

注意，现代英语中在do you think等词前后不用逗号；如用逗号，这一变体双重疑问句结构中的最后部分也采用倒装的词序。试比较：

How many books can you guess he bought the other day?

How many books, can you guess, did he buy the other day?

辨　whether和if的用法比较

A. whether引导宾语从句时在口语里往往用if代替，但whether...or not及whether...no则不能以if...or not及if ...or no代之。

Do you know if (=whether) any decision has been made on that problem?

I asked him if he knew the dean or not.［×，有两种改法：去掉or not，或把if改为whether］

I don't know if his intentions are good or bad.［×，有两种改法：去掉or bad或把if改为whether］

B. whether引导主语或表语从句时，if则不能代之。

Whether Godfrey will join us won't make any difference.［whether引导主语从句，故不能以if代之］

A criterion for judging whether a person's intentions are good or bad is whether he takes a hostile or a helpful attitude towards people who have made mistakes.

［第一个whether引出主语从句后面又有or，故不能以if代之；第二个whether引出表语从句，也不能以if代之，句意是“对待犯错误的人，究竟是采取敌视态度还是采取帮助态度，这是区别一个人是好意还是恶意的一个标准。”］

C. whether引导介词的宾语从句时，if也不能代之。

There is some doubt as to whether this painting by Raphael（拉斐尔，意大利著名画家）is genuine.

D. whether引导让步从句时，也不能以if代之。

Whether you like it or not, you'll have to do it. 不管你是否喜欢，你都得去做。

例　I doubt_____.

A. whether he can come

B. if he can come or not

C. while he will be here

D. what will he do

［分析］答案为A。B应去掉or not，或把if改为whether。C不合语法，因while不能引导宾语或主语从句，D中主谓不能倒装。

辨　whether和that的用法比较

whether和that都能引导名词从句。引出宾语从句时，用whether还是用that需视句意而定。当宾语从句表示或含有两种可能性中居其一这一疑问时，宾语从句系间接疑问句时，应用whether而不用that：

He asked me whether I knew the department head (or not).

I wonder whether they can complete the research project (or not) in such a short time.

People doubt whether the statement is true or not.

Go and see whether he is free(or not).

上列例句中的whether都引出一个表示两种可能性中居其一的间接疑问句，故不能用that。当引出的宾语从句不是间接疑问句时，则通常用that：

that引出的宾语从句都不是间接疑问句，故不能用whether。

I do not doubt that he will succeed.

I asked that he (should) call this evening.

Please see that he writes the address correctly.

I wonder whether he saw you.［whether引出表示两者中哪一种可能性的间接疑问句，句意是“我想知道他是否看见了你。”］

I wonder that he saw you.［that引导的不是间接疑问句，句意是“他竟然看见了你，我感到很奇怪。”］

例　By watching (A) sunspots, great storms which rage (B) on the surface of the sun, scientists discovered whether (C) the sun spins on (D) its axis.

［分析］C错。根据句意，谓语动词discovered引出的不是一个间接疑问句而是一个表示事实的宾语从句，即the sun spins on its axis，故应把C改为that。

5. 以从属连词引导的表示从属关系的省略结构

这一省略结构常见于书面语中，能使行文显得简练，其模式可归纳如下：

A.

B.

C.

▶▶ 从属连词+过去分词

Although seriously wounded (=Although he was seriously wounded), he flatly refused to quit the battle field.

Experience, when dearly bought (=when it is dearly bought), is seldom thrown away altogether. 经验如果是付出了很高的代价得来的，就很少会全给扔掉。

Please write to me at the above-mentioned address until otherwise advised (=until you are otherwise advised). 除非另有通知，请照上述地址给我写信。

Almost all English prepositions, when turned into Chinese (=when they are turned into Chinese), look like verbs. 几乎所有的英语介词，一译成汉语，看起来都像动词了。

▶▶ 从属连词+现在分词

I gave my energy to other subjects though continuing to collect sufficient data for my research work (=though I was continuing to collect data for my research work). 我虽然在为我的研究工作继续搜集充分的资料，但我也在致力于其他学科。

He made many foreign friends when studying (=when he was studying)at Harvard University.

Even if progressing slowly (=Even if it is progressing slowly), the relationship between our two countries is essentially good. 即使进展缓慢，我们两国的关系基本上是好的。［it指relationship］

▶▶ 从属连词+介词短语

I got acquainted with him while on a visit to Los Angeles (=while I was on a visit to Los Angles). 我是在访问洛杉矶时认识他的。

In the English language, no word is a part of speech except when in relation with other words (=when it is in relation with other words). 在英语里除非把一个词和其他词联系起来看，不然，要判定这个词的词类是不可能的。

When in doubt about the meaning of a word (=When you are in doubt about the meaning of a word), consult a dictionary. 当你对一个词的意义吃不准时，就去查词典。

▶▶ 从属连词+名词

He was fond of painting when yet a child (=when he was yet a child).

Although the youngest of the class (=Although he was the youngest of the class), Nigel came out first in the end-of-term examination. 虽然奈吉尔是全班年龄最小的，可是却在期终考试中得了第一名。

I must get it done whatever the cost (=whatever the cost may be). 无论代价如何，我也要把这事办成。

▶▶ 从属连词+副词

Here, as elsewhere (=as it does elsewhere), practice tells. 这里也和别处一样，实践占着重要的地位。

My energy is not as then (=as it was then). 我的精力现在不如以前了。

Mother is healthier than ever (=than she has ever been). 妈妈比过去任何时候都更健康。

It is not so cold as yesterday (=as it was yesterday). 今天没有昨天那么冷。

▶▶ 从属连词+代词

I know you no better than him (=than I know him).

I know you better than he（=than he does或than he knows you）.

I think that you are better qualified to teach me than I you (=than I am qualified to teach you). 我认为你教我比我教你更为胜任。

▶▶ 从属连词+形容词

While ready to help him (=While I am ready to help him), I wonder what he needs most. 我虽然乐于帮助他，但不知道他最需要的是什么。

I did not notice it till too late (=it was too late for me to notice it). 等我注意到这事时已经太晚了。

Build some medium projects where necessary and feasible (=where it is necessary and feasible to build them). 在必要和可行时可兴建一些中型工程。

His opinion, whether right or wrong (=whether it is right or wrong), should be considered.

▶▶ 从属连词+谓语

Don't eat more than is good for you (=more than what is good for you). 别吃得过多。

You have talked more than is necessary (=more than what is necessary.) 你话讲得太多了。

I have done more than is required (=more than what is required.) 我做了比要求于我还要多的工作。

▶▶ 从属连词+从句

The child eats more than he can digest (=more than what he can digest. 这孩子吃得太多，消化不了。

That is more than I can say (=more than what I can say). 那个我不懂。

I got more than I asked for (=more than what I asked for). 我得到的比我需要的多。

My father is better than when I wrote to you last (than he was when I wrote to you last. 我父亲的身体比我上次给你去信时要好一些了。

You are much taller than when I last saw you (=than you were when I last saw you). 你比我上次见到你时高多了。

从上面列举的大量例句来看，从属连词引导的各种省略结构模式有两个共同点：① 省略的主语必须和主句的主语是相同的；② 省略的主语后面通常都有verb to be，这样便构成“一省省两”的习惯做法。不然，便不能省略，如果省略了便犯荡空省略结构的错误。试看下列一例：

⇒ While running down the stairs, the clock struck twelve.

从属连词while 引导了一个省略结构，说明省略的主语为clock。clock怎能run down the stairs？情理不通，分词running便荡空，对荡空省略结构，一般也有两种改正方法：

a. 在连词与分词之间填补上适当的主语及动词：

⇒ While I was running down the stairs, the clock struck twelve.

b. 改变主句结构，使其主语也能成为从属连词后面分词的主语：

While running down the stairs, I heard the clock strike twelve.

试再看下面一例：

Though tired from running, our gym period ended with calisthenics（健美体操）.

主语gym period不可能同时充当tired的主语，故tired便成荡空分词，应改为下列两式：

⇒ Though we were tired from running, our gym period ended with calisthenics.（用上列“a.”的改法）

⇒ Though tired from running, we ended our gym period with calisthenics.（用上列“b.”的改法）

例　_____with the size of the whole earth, the highest mountains do not seem high at all.

A. When compared

B. Compare

C. If you compare

D. A comparison

［分析］答案为A。When compared系省略从句结构，=When they are compared，they指the highest mountains，故过去分词compared未荡空，正确无误。B及D不合语法，C中的动词compare应加上代词them，them指mountains。

6. 以关系副词where，when，why引导的定语从句

This is the place where (=in which) I was born.［表地点］

I shall never forget the day when (=on which) I first met you.［表时间］

Do you know the reason why (=for which) she wants to divorce her husband?［表原因］

注意：where，when，why引导主语、宾语或表语从句时，称为连接副词，引导定语从句时则叫做关系副词。

例　There are very few areas in the world_____be grown successfully.

A. where apricots can

B. apricots can

C. apricots that can

D. where can apricots

［分析］答案为A。where这里用作关系副词，=in which，引导定语从句修饰areas。B和C缺连接副词。D中主谓不应倒装。

例　Brezhnev had been (A) at the center of (B) Soviet power since 1957, where (C) he became (D) a full member of Khrushchev's politburo（政治局）。

［分析］C错。C的先行词1957年是时间，不是地点，故应把C改为关系副词when。

7. 以介词短语形式表示的从属结构

两个相互有联系的分句并列时，其中一个比较次要的分句可以改用介词短语形式来表示其从属关系，从而使句子结构更为紧凑。

She found a ruby ring（红宝石戒指）。The ruby ring was in the box.［第二分句表示地点，比较次要，故可改用介词短语表示其从属关系；两句便可拼成一句，使文体由松散变得简练。如：She found a ruby ring in the box.］

8. 以同位语形式表示的从属结构

两个相互有联系的分句并列时，其中意义比较次要的一个分句也可以改用同位语结构来表示其从属关系：

Many foreign experts work in Beijing. It is the capital of China.［第二分句补充说明北京，比较次要，故可用同位语形式来表示其从属关系：Many foreign experts work in Beijing, capital of China.］

表示从属关系的同位语结构可以放在句首、句中或句末，以置于句首者居多。

例　_____photosynthesis is the ultimate source of food for almost all organisms on earth.

A. It is an extremely important process,

B. An extremely important process, it is

C. That an extremely important process as

D. An extremely important process,

［分析］A项不对，因在正规英语中逗号是不能用来连接两个独立分句的，而且it的位置也应和photosynthesis对调，这是选择题中常设的陷阱；B和C明显不合语法；D对，实际上原来是两个句子：

Photosynthesis（光合作用）is an extremely important process. It is the ultimate source of food for almost all organisms on earth.

第二句的主语it指第一句的主语photosynthesis，即两句的主语指同一个东西；而且it后面紧跟verb to be，逢此情况便“一省省两”，在书面语言中两句往往合并成一句：An extremely important process, photosynthesis is the ultimate source of food for almost all organisms on earth. 这样，引文便凝练紧凑。有时候，这种置于句首的同位语前面还可加上介词as成为介词短语，在句法功能上依然属同位语结构。

例　_____, Benjamin Franklin made the periodical popular.

A. He was the owner and editor of The Pennsylvania Gazette

B. As owner and editor of The Pennsylvania Gazette

C. That he was owner and editor of The Pennsylvania Gazette

D. While the owner and editor of The Pennsylvania Gazette was

［分析］应选B，当然，在B中去掉介词As也可以。

三、何谓并列结构

一个英语句子有时候具有两个或两个以上相互连接而又属于同一层次即具有相同句法功能的语言结构，这种结构称为并列结构。并列结构通常用并列连词来连接两个或两个以上平行的词、词组或分句：

Are we to have the speech contest today or tomorrow?［并列连词or连接两个平行的单词］

You can go to Beijing either by train or by plane.［并列连词either...or连接两个平行的词组］

Hurry up, or we shall be late for the lecture.［or连接两个分句］

并列成分有时候不用逗号而用连词加以连接；一般讲，逗号用来连接平行的单词居多：

Fuel, rice, oil, salt — these are chief daily necessities of life. 柴米油盐这一些是主要的生活必需品。

在现代英语里，逗号常被用来连接两个短的独立分句，如He is absent, he is ill. 实际上，这两个简短的独立分句含有因果关系，这个逗号等于从属连词because，用逗号来取代使行文更为简练。然而，在正式文体中，逗号是不能用来连接两个独立分句的。

例　_____in 1788, the thirteen original states worked together under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation.

A. Not until the Constitution was adopted

B. The Constitution was adopted

C. Adopted by the Constitution

D. Until the Constitution was adopted

［分析］A项中Not until置于句首，主句的主谓须倒装，但题句中主句的主谓未倒装，故不能用Not until开头；B也错，因第一分句The Constitution was adopted in 1788是被用逗号分开的，这是选择题中常设的陷阱；C也错，因主语states不能成为分词adopted的逻辑主语，该分词变成荡空；应选D，题句在意义上完全能成立。

四、并列连词和连接性副词的区别

引导并列结构的并列连词有and，or，but，so，for，nor等，并列连词包括关联连词both...and，either...or，neither...nor，not only...but also，as well as，as much as等。并列连词也包括连接性副词，如however，hence，therefore，besides，moreover，yet anyway，consequently，still，nevertheless，all the same等。但并列连词和连接性副词存在如下的区别：

1. 位置上的区别

连接两个独立的分句时，并列连词的位置只能放在它所引导的分句句首，前面通常有逗号：

Lopez left for Woodside（新泽西州一城市）the day before yesterday, and he won't be back till the end of the month.

I must work harder, for I still have a long way to go.

Pay him back, or he will bring a suit against you. 快还他钱，不然他要起诉你。

连接性副词的位置较灵活，既可放于句首，也可位于句中或句末，但以置于句首居多：

Father is ill; therefore（置于句首）, he doesn't go to work today.

Father is ill; he, therefore（置于句中）, doesn't go to work today.

Father is ill; he doesn't go to work today, therefore（置于句末）.

2. 用法上的区别

两个并列连词不可以连用：

Oscar and I go to the club every Saturday evening, and but we play bridge there.［据句意，应把but划掉］

但并列连词却可以和连接性副词连用：

He is not in favor of the plan, and yet he raised no objection.

五、一些常见并列连接词的用法

1. and

1 　表示动作或事物的先后。

I heard a crash and went out to see what had happened.

The pictures and the sound are relayed by the communication satellites. And they are received in all parts of the world.［and也可置于独立分开的分句句首］

2 　表示意义上的增补。

The relations between the two countries are improving: a trade agreement has been signed and a cultural exchange (has been) arranged.

［and连接的分句a cultural exchange (has been) arranged在意义上增补前面的分句a trade agreement has been signed］

3 　表示意义上的转折或让步。

He tried hard, and (=and yet) he failed to get the job.

掌握and的这一用法，便能正确理解下面一句在西方极为流行的谚语：

You can't eat your cake and have it.

显然，这里的and=and yet，表示意义上的转折，指“你不能把蛋糕吃下肚的同时又要把它保持下来”，即“不能两全其美”之意。

4 　表示对照。

Jack is clever and (=but) Jane is dull.

5 　表示对第一分句的评注。

John failed to pass the entrance examination, and that's too bad.

6 　and连接两个或两个以上相同的名词以表示数量众多的。

In Holland, everywhere you go, you find water and water.

● and在口语体中还经常被用来连接两个比较级的形容词或副词，表示“越来越……”这一逐步增强的含义：

The wind blew harder and harder.［and连接两个比较级副词，表示“风刮得越来越大”］

It's getting warmer and warmer.［and连接两个比较级形容词，表示“天气越来越热”］

在讲话中and也常用来连接两个或两个以上相同的动词，表示动作的不断重复或持续进行：

We talked and talked till it was midnight.

连接不断的动作有时也可由and连接两个或两个以上相同的名词或具有“继续”含义的相同小品词来表示：

“Sail on and on and on,”said Columbus to the sailors.

苏联十月革命缔造者列宁极为好学，曾有过一句名言，说“Study on and on and on.”我们译为“学习、学习再学习。”

That night, we talked for hours and hours till the day broke.［for hours and hours意义上=for a very long time］

We walked for miles and miles till it was dark, and then we went home.［for miles and miles相等于 for a very long distance］

7 　当and连接两个形容词，而前面的形容词是nice，good，fine或rare时，and加上它前面的形容词实质上变成一个副词，对后面的形容词表示修饰的从属关系。

The room is nice and cosy.［nice and cosy=very cosy］

It's good and cool outside.［good and cool=quite cool］

The children are fine and joyful in the nursery.［fine and joyful=finely joyful，即very joyful］

The girl is rare and beautiful.［rare and beautiful=rarely beautiful，即uncommonly beautiful（美得出奇）］

8 　and连接祈使句和陈述句以表示条件，即祈使句+and=if。

Press the button（祈使句）and the machine runs by itself.（陈述句）(=If you press the button, the machine will run by itself.)

Make another effort（祈使句）and you will succeed.（陈述句）(=If you make another effort, you will succeed.)

注：① 在口语中，有时可省去and以逗号代之：

Take the offer, you will never regret it.

② 祈使句中的动词有时也可省去：

Another effort, and you will succeed.another前的动词make省略。One more word and I'll knock you flat（摆平你）。one前面的动词say也被省略。

9 　and连接某些动词（包括某些词组）和另一动词以表示目的。

这样表达的结构为：动词（必须以原形形式）+and+动词（也是原形形式）。一般有以下这些动词：

go/come/run/mind/learn/send/try/stay/stop/write/remember/take care/be sure

在上列结构中and=不定式符号to，故表示目的。如：

Try and get (=Try to get) the work done today.

The meeting is very important. You must mind and arrive (=mind to arrive) punctually.

I'll write and thank him (=write to thank him).

You look ill. You'd better go and see (=go to see) a doctor.

在现代口语里，go（或come）and see 中的and往往都被省略，如“I'll go ask her.”和“I'll go see my brother.”

10 　and的常见习惯用法。

A. and that+副词

and that用来代表前面分句中的整个谓语以避免重复。这是一种强势句法。试比较下列三组例句：

Something must be done about it without delay.

Something must be done about it, and that without delay.［and that代表and must be done about it，是强势式，含有“而且”的意思］

He speaks Spanish very well.

He speaks Spanish, and that very well. 他会讲西班牙语，而且讲得非常好。［and that代表and speaks Spanish，是强势式］

He will come soon.

He will come, and that soon. 他会来，而且很快就来。［and that代表 and will come，是强势式］

B. and all

用于俗语，作“等等”，“以及其他一切”解：

To save the little boy from drowning, the man jumped into the river, clothes and all（衣服等一概未脱）.

The fire burnt the books, clothes, furniture and all. 那场火把书籍、衣服、家具以及其他所有东西统统烧光了。

C. and all that

（=and other things of that kind）用于口语，意思是“等等”；“诸如此类的东西”。

You can get paper, ink, chalk and all that in the little store at the street corner. 在街上拐角的那家小商店里可以买到纸张、墨水、粉笔之类的东西。

You have really been very kind to me, my hearty thanks and all that. 你对我确实是高情厚谊，我衷心地感谢你，不一一地讲了。

D. and so on；and so forth；and so on and so forth

以上三式意义相同，都作“等等”；“如此等等”解：

The marchers carried banners, balloons, models, charts, bouquets and so on. 游行的人们拿着旗帜、气球、模型、图表、花束等等东西。

E. and the like

作“之类”；“等等”解：

In the kindergarten, the children learn singing, dancing, drawing, and the like.

F. and then some

这一习惯用语在美国口语里常用，意思是“此外还有许多”，“还有好多好多”：

My uncle gave me two pencils, a pencil sharpener, a rubber, and then some. 我叔叔给了我两支铅笔、一只卷笔刀、一块橡皮，还有好多好多东西。

I'm afraid the expensive new car would cost all your money and then some. 恐怕把你们所有的钱都花掉买这部昂贵的新汽车还不够哩。

G. and the rise

系美国口语常用语，作“还多些”；“不止于此”，“……以上”解：

There are eight hundred thousand volumes in our library and the rise. 我们图书馆有八十万册书，还不止呐。

H. and what not

口语常用语，和and so on（或forth）同义，作“以及其他”；“等等”解：

He sent me some books, magazines, newspapers, pictorials and what not.

Children love to have toys, pictures and what not.

I. enough and to spare

作“很多”；“绰绰有余”解，可用作定语短语和名词短语：

You two could have come with us;there was food enough and to spare for three more people. 你们两位本来可以和我们一起来，饭菜再有三个人也够吃。［用作定语］

We have heard enough and to spare of his selfishness. 他的自私自利我们听得多了。［用作名词］

［试题］Organisms regulate their movement_____positions in response to environmental stimuli.

A. have

B. where

C. as

D. and

［分析］答案为D。and连接两个属于同一层次的并列名词。

例　John Bennett is president of an insurance company_____.

A. and his brother Frank is the state treasurer

B. but he fired all the employees

C. and so he is searching of the material

D. while his sister Mary is the secretary

［分析］B文理不通。C不合语法，search用作不及物动词时，后面接for，不能接of。D中的while表示反义，故不合句意。应选A，and连接的分句在一定程度上增补了前面分句的意义。

J. and I don't mean maybe=I mean exactly what I say（美；口）我说话是算数的；一定要做到

I'm telling you all that I want this job finished within three hours, and I don't mean maybe. 我告诉你们大家，3小时内一定要把这项工作完成，而且非完成不可。

K. and no mistake=without any doubt 无疑；没错儿这一习用语通常置于句末，用逗号撇开，并以“!”结束以加强语气

Hob is a believable person, and no mistake! 霍勃是个可信任的人，没错儿。

L. and no one is the wiser=and no one knows anything about it.（口）没有人知道；谁也不知道

He did it on his own responsibility, and no one is the wiser. 他自作主张地干，别人都不知道。

注：这一习用语有三个变体，即① nobody being the wiser，② without being the wiser，③ nobody the wiser，如：

He did it on his own responsibility, nobody being the wiser./He did it on his own responsibility, without anyone's being the wiser./He did it on his own responsibility, nobody the wiser.

M. and welcome=and be welcome to it 别客气

Here are some cakes; take them and welcome. 这里有些糕餠，请随便用，别客气。

N. As I live and breathe（口）（表示惊奇）真想不到，活着怎么也想不到

As I live and breathe, he has staged a comeback again after 10 years.

真想不到，10年后他又东山再起了。

2. both...and...

both...and...是对and意义的强化，但在用法上和and有如下的区别：

1 　and可以连接两个以上的并列成分，而both...and...只能连接两个属同一层次，即语法结构相同的并列成分。

Both Martha and her sister paid a visit to China not long ago.［连接两个并列的主语］

I teach myself（自学）both physics and mathematics.［连接两个并列的宾语］

Kenneth is both clever and diligent.［连接两个并列的用作表语的形容词］

Judith is a versatile（多才多艺的）girl. She can both sing and dance.［连接两个并列的动词］

例　Both China (A), Russia, and the United States are (B) aware (C) of the role they (D) play in world affairs.

［分析］both...and...连接三个并列主语，故A错，应去掉A中的both，因and可连接两个以上的并列成分。

如果both...and...不是接句法功能相同的平行结构，在正式英语里则算病句，请看下例：

These articles will be suitable both for gifts and souvenirs.

上列句子在日常应用中很普通，但按结构部分的传统标准来看，则被列为错句，因both...and...后面跟的不是平行结构，可有两种改法：

⇒ These articles are suitable both for gifts and for souvenirs.［both...and...都连接介词短语］

⇒ These articles are suitable for both gifts and souvenirs.［both...and...都连接介词宾语］

2 　and可连接分句，both...and...则不能连接分句。

Both Eric cleaned the windows and Ernest swept the floor.（×）

在上句中，both...and...各连接一个分句，故不能成立，应改为：

⇒ Eric cleaned the windows and Ernest swept the floor.［and连接分句］

或：While Eric cleaned the windows, Ernest swept the floor.

或：Eric（或Ernest）both cleaned the windows and swept the floor.［both...and...各连接一个谓语］

或：Both Eric and Ernest cleaned the windows and swept the floor.［both...and...各连接一个主语，故在用法上能成立；但注意，句意是“Eric和Ernest俩人都擦了窗，又拖了地板”。］

both...and...的用法中还要注意两个问题：

A. both...and...可以和at once...and...互换使用，意义上无区别：

I am at once (=both) a teacher and a student. 我既当老师又当学生。

The writer's satirical essays were at once (=both) incisive and forceful, exposing the evils of society like a surgeon's scalpel. 作者的讽刺文章既锋利又泼辣，好像外科医生的手术刀揭露了社会的弊病。

B. 在both...and...这一结构中，不能用as well as来代替 and, both...as well as...不能成立。如：

Scuro has figured prominently（在……中露头角）both in study as well as in sports.（×）［as well as改为and］

例　Professor Ducan teaches (A) both (B) anthropology (C) as well as sociology each fall. (D)

［分析］B错，因both后面有as well as去掉both，as well as单独使用即可。

例　The Empire State Building, once (A) America's tallest (B), is now surpassed (C) by either (D) the Sears Tower in Chicago and the World Trade Center in New York.

［分析］D错，either后面只能跟or，不能接and，故把either改为both。

3. nor和neither

nor；neither...nor和neither都是表示“也不”这一否定意义的并列连词，它们用法相同：

1 　nor/neither单独用来连接并列成分时，前面部分通常都用否定式，nor/neither后面部分则不能用否定式，因nor/neither已含有否定意义。

Peter is a decent fellow. He won't do（否定式）it, nor/neither considers（肯定式）it.

2 　nor/neither连接的后面并列成分是分句时，则其主谓须倒装。

Peter is a decent fellow.He won't do it, nor/neither will he consider it.

Anthony is not clever, nor/neither is he diligent.

例　Florida has not yet ratified the Equal Rights Amendment, and_____.

A. several other states hasn't either

B. neither has some of the other states

C. some other states also have not either

D. neither have several other states

［分析］neither应置于第二分句句首，主谓须倒装，故应选D。A错，hasn't应改为haven't。在B中，主语some of the other states表示一个复数概念，应用复数动词，把has改为have。在C中，同时使用了also和either，不可，因句意否定，必须去掉also。

注意，由于neither和nor都带有副词性质，故它们前面可以加上and或but：

You cannot lift it, and nor/and neither can I.

I didn't clean the room, but nor/but neither did you.

但必须指出，按标准化认同的习惯用法，连接分句时nor前面不宜用and或but，但neither前面则必须按句意加上and或but，不加算错。

例　“Will Lily be here today?”

“No, and_____.”

A. her sister won't, too

B. neither her sister will

C. neither won't her sister

D. neither will her sister

［分析］应选D，注意，neither前有连词and。

例　Few of the gold seekers who (A) flocked to California were (B) experienced miners, neither (C) did they feel that they had (D) to be.

［分析］C是错的，必须在neither前按句意加上and，或把neither改为nor。

3 　nor通常后面连接一个并列成分，但有时也可连好几个并列成分。

Futter does not ride, nor shoot, nor fish, nor swim.

4. neither...nor...

neither...nor...一起用时，作为关联性的并列连词，连接语法功能相同的平行结构：

Neither you nor he knows it.［连接用作主语的代词］

The old man can neither read nor write.［连接动词］

I drink neither coffee nor tea.［连接宾语］

The story is neither interesting nor instructive.［连接用作表语的形容词］

Gas is a substance with neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.［连接介词宾语］

I believe neither what you said before nor what you are saying now.［连接宾语从句］

注意：

1 　neither置于句首时，neither...nor...所连接的分句均须主谓倒装。

Neither does he play the cello nor does his brother.

2 　neither...nor...连接主语时，后面的动词在数上应与靠近的主语保持一致。

Neither Ike nor I am going to attend the meeting.［动词与代词I靠近，故用am］

Neither Ike nor he is going to attend the meeting.［动词与he靠近，故用is］

3 　neither...nor...作“既不……也不……”解，故谓语动词必须用肯定式，不能用否定式。

He is frightened by neither hardship nor danger.［谓语用肯定式，不能用否定式not frightened］

4 　neither...nor...也可连接两个以上的并列成分。

Neither you, nor I, nor anyone else knows the answer.

例　In two months (A) Travis had doggedly walked the entire (B) Appalachian Trail, undeterred by (C) neither rain nor snow (D).

［分析］D错，与neither...nor...有关的谓语动词应用肯定式，而分词undeterred是否定形式，故应把D改为either rain or snow。

例　Neither John and (A) his father was able to wake (B) up early enough (C) to catch (D) the morning train.

［分析］A错，neither后面只能接nor，不能接and。

例　Neither my traveler's checks nor the money that my father cabled (A) me are (B) sufficient to pay (C) for the tickets (D).

［分析］B错，neither...nor...连接并列主语时，动词的数应与最靠近的主语取得一致；在此题中与动词are最靠近的主语是money，单数形式，故应把B改为is。

5. or

1 　表示选择。

Which do you prefer, this one or that one?

You can go with us or stay (at) home.

They parted for one reason or another.

2 　表示同位关系或一种改换的说法。

Seaweeds, or algae, do not have roots like higher land plants. 海菜即海藻，同较高地势的植物一样，是无根的。

The workers are satisfied now, or at least they do not make any more complaints. 工人们现在感到满意了，或者至少说他们已不再抱怨。

3 　表示不确定或含混的说法。

The accident happened two or three weeks ago.

I put the novel in the bookcase or somewhere.

在表示“不确定”或“大约”这一概念时，or有两个常用短语：

· or so（左右；前后）

We'll stay here for a month or so.

There will be sixty or so people at the New Year get-together（新年联欢会）.

· or something（表示不能十分肯定，或是什么；或是做点什么）

Don't idle away your time;do some reading or something. 别虚度光阴，还是读点书或是做点别的什么事。

Haven't seen you for ages!Have you moved or something? 好久没见到你了，你是搬了地方还是什么的？

He is engaged in carpentry or something. 他是做木匠或别的什么的。

4 　表示否定的条件。

Put on your overcoat, or（不然）you will catch cold. (=if you do not put on your overcoat)

I must work doubly hard（加倍努力），or I'll fail in the entrance examination. (=if I do not work doubly hard)

这样用时，or后面可以加上else来强化其意义：

Do what I tell you, or else you'll be sorry. (or else=if you do not do what I tell you)

5 　与not一起用时，表示全部否定。

He is just like an illiterate。He can not read or write. 他就像个文盲，不识字，也写不来。

I can't sing or dance. 我唱歌、跳舞都不会。

注意，not和and一起用时，则表示部分否定，而不是表示全部否定。试比较：

The story is not interesting or instructive.［全部否定，句意是“这篇故事既不吸引人又无教育意义。”］

The story is not interesting and instructive.［部分否定，意思是“这篇故事内容很有趣，但无教育意义。”］

从上例可以看出，not...and...一起用时，and的前面部分肯定，后面部分否定，试再看下面一例：

He is not rich and kind.［前面部分肯定，后面部分否定，即“为富不仁。”这是书面语言，在日常用语中往往改用He is rich, but he is not kind这种形式来表达，以避免在意义上引起误解］

例　A knot is a joining of two pieces of rope_____of cord.

A. with

B. or

C. because

D. where

［分析］应选B，of cord系two pieces of cord之省略形式，two pieces of rope和(two pieces) of cord为并列的平行短语，要用并列连词or连接。

例　At first, the people (A) of the village were (B) so poor that they did not have enough (C) to eat and (D) wear.

［分析］D错，人穷到相当的程度往往是吃不饱，穿不暖。did not have enough to eat and wear，则表示部分否定，即吃得饱但穿不暖，故应把D改为or，not...or...表示全部否定。

6. either...or...

either...or...是关联连接词，表示比or更强的选择概念。它和neither...nor...一样，连接语法功能相同的平行结构，后面动词的数和最靠近的主语保持一致：

Either you or he is wrong.［靠近的主语是he，故动词用is］

Either he or I am wrong.［靠近的主语是I，动词用am］

You can either do it yourself or ask someone else to do it.［连接两个并列谓语］

There are only two possibilities: either you succeed or you fail.［连接两个并列分句］

注意：

① 上面列举的前两句例句系极正式的英语，颇不自然，在日常应用中往往避免这种结构而改为：

⇒ Either you are wrong, or he is.

⇒ Either he is wrong, or I am.

② either后面有时可以接一个以上的or：

He either resigned, or opened up an office of his own, or went abroad.

③ either后面接or，不能接nor或and，但not...either...后面则要用nor，不能用or，因not...either=neither。

例　Now scientific (A) men are not able to explain to us either why offspring should resemble or (B) why (C) they should differ from (D) their parents.

［分析］B错，在题句中or前有 not...either...，not...either=neither，故应把B改为nor。

例　Manufacturers (A) use both (B) chemical or mechanical (C) methods to obtain clear (D) glue.

［分析］一看便知B错，both与and连用，在题句中both后面接or，故应把B改为either。

7. not only...but also...

1 　连接平行结构。

Hangzhou is famous not only for its beautiful scenery but also for its longjing tea.［连接两个介词短语］

He is not only an architect but also a painter.［连接两个表语］

She speaks not only English but also French.［连接两个宾语］

Father not only said it but also did it.［连接两个谓语动词］

Not only they but also we are invited.［连接两个作主语的代词］

Students should develop not only intellectually, but also morally and physically.［连接副词］

2 　not only...but also...着重于but also后面的部分，故句中谓语动词的数应与but also后面的主语取得一致。

Not only you but also he is invited.

Not only he but also I am invited.

3 　not only...but also...在实际应用中有以下几个变体。

A. not only...but...（省略also）：

He not only has read the novel but remembers what he has read.

B. not only...also...（省略but）：

Man has in fact not only domesticated wild animals, also domesticated wild plants, especially those which bear edible fruit.（also前省掉了but）

C. not only...在现代英语中，有时连but also都省略，代之以逗号“,”：

She was not only compelled to stay at home, (but) she was (also) forbidden to see her friends.

D. not only...but...as well（but also为but...as well所代替）：

He is not only my teacher but my friend as well.

E. not only...but...also（not only不能分开，but also可以拆开）：

She was not only compelled to stay home, but she was also forbidden to see her friends.［stay home是美国英语=英国英语stay at home］

F. not only置于句首时，主谓须倒装，但but also后面如连接从句的话，其主谓则不能倒装：

Not only was the girl compelled to stay home, but she was not allowed to see her friends.

Not only did he complain about the food, but he also refused to pay for it.

例　John never realized that in order to play the piano, he must have_____.

A. not only training but talent also

B. also training and talent

C. not talent but training also

D. only training but also talent

［分析］答案为A，but also也可拆开。B，C及D均不合语法。

8. but

1 　表示意义的转折。

He is poor but honest.［连接两个形容词］

All men must die, but death can vary in its significance.［连接两个分句］

He said that he was free today but that he would be busy tomorrow.［连接两个宾语从句。注意：but后面有从属连词that，but连接分句，that引导宾语从句］

从上面的例子看，but连接的并列成分，其意义应该是相反的。如果句意顺势发展下去，不带有相反的含义，就不能用but，而应该用and。

例　William Handy was not the first composer of the blues（风格忧郁而缓慢的布鲁斯舞曲）, _____he was the first to make the music more popular.

A. being that

B. but

C. and

D. so

［分析］此题包括两个意义相反的分句，故应选B。C及D不合句意，A不合语法。

2 　对比或对照的意义。

She doesn't know a word of Japanese, but she speaks English perfectly.

表示这一意义时，but还用于下列句型中：

A. not...but...，连接语法功能相同的平行结构。

The book is not mine, but hers.［连接两个物主代词］

I major not in law, but in American history.［连接两个介词短语］

Not what you expect to receive but what you are ready to give counts in love.［连接两个主语从句，句中的谓语动词是counts。句意是“在谈情说爱中，重要的并不是你指望得到什么而是你随时准备给予什么。”］

A good policy is not a dogma, but a guide to action.［连接两个用作表语的名词，平行结构，句意是“一项好的政策不是教条而是行动的指南。”］

例　The tourists decided not to make a trip to Virginia_____.

A. but stay at the present place

B. so they remained at the place they were now

C. but to remain where they were

D. instead of staying at the place

［分析］应选C，因not...but...连接两个不定式短语，构成平行结构。

注意，not...but...可以转换成“主语+肯定式谓语+but not...”。

I major not in law, but in American history.

可转换成：I major in American history, but not in law.

B. never...but...作“不……则已，一……就……”解。

never后面接谓语动词，but后面接分句=never+谓语动词+without+动名词：

I never see him but I think of my younger brother. (=I never see him without thinking of my younger brother.) 我一看到他就想起我的弟弟。

never...but...是一个意义非常正式的书面体，具有极为强调的效果，故也用于谚语中：

It never rains but it pours.［谚］不雨则已，一雨倾盆。

▶▶ 在日常应用中，never...but...往往改用when...always...：

I never see him but I think of my younger brother.

改成：When I see him, I always think of my younger brother.

我们也可反过来改：

When he speaks, she always contradicts（批驳）him.［口语体］=He never speaks but she contradicts him.)［书面体］

When I go past my old school, I always think of Mr. Wilkims, the headmaster.（口语体）=I never go past my old school but I think of Mr. Wilkins, the headmaster.（书面体）

C. not such或so...but...在这一句型中，but=that...not：

Octavius is not such a fool but he knows it. (=Octavius is not such a fool that he does not know it.) 奥克泰弗斯并没有傻到连这个都不知道。

这一句型有一个变体，即否定主语+be+so...but（或but+that）...

Nothing is so hard but（或 but that）it becomes easy by practice. (=Nothing is so hard that it does not become easy by practice. 再难的事情通过实践也会变得容易了。

这一变体很常用，如“再难的任务我们也能完成”就可用这一变体的句型来表示：

No task is so difficult but we can accomplish it. (=No task is so difficult that we cannot accomplish it.)

3 　在特定的语言环境中，but或but that无实义，相等于连词that。

A. 用在“怀疑”、“否定”等表示否定意义的词后面：

I do not doubt but (=that) someone among us leaked the information.

There is no doubt/no question but (=that) he will recover.

I do not deny but/but that (=that) his statement is true.

B. 用在It is not impossible后面：

It is not impossible but (=that) such a day may come. 这样的日子不是不可能到来的。

C. 用在It is ten to one等类似结构中：

You are working so hard. It is ten to one but (=that) you will succeed. 你这么努力，十之八九你会成功的。

D. 在口语中，but往往用在表示歉意或相反意见的词的后面，使语气缓和一些，but本身无实义，不作“但是”解，故翻译时不需译出：

Excuse me, but are you Mr. Brown from the ABC Company?

I'm sorry, but I disagree with you on that point.

4 　用于 not that...but that...省略结构中，作“不是……而是……”解。

Not that I dislike the work, but that I am unequal to it. 不是因为我不喜欢这项工作，而是我不能胜任。

5 　but then。

but和then连用，表示委婉的相反含义，作“但是”，“不过”，“但另一方面却”解：

Your plan is a good one; but then it would take too much time and money. 你的计划好是好，不过费时太久、花钱太多。

6 　but的几个习惯用法

A. but good（口）=thoroughly，completely，forcefully

Tom called Tim a bad name, and Tim hit him but good.

汤姆骂了蒂姆，蒂姆因此狠狠地揍了汤姆一顿。

Kevin fell from a tall tree and broke his leg. That taught him but good not to fool around in high trees. 凯文从高树上跌下来摔断了腿，那彻地教训了他，使他不敢再在高树上嬉戏。

B. but just ...=that and no more 只得，唯此而已

He was but just the fifth in the competition. 他在比赛中只得了第五名。

There are but just two loaves of bread in the house. 家里只有三只面包。

C. but me no buts=do not say“but”to me; do not object or hesitate 不要对我说“但是”；不要推阻；不要犹豫

注：在上面习用语中，第一个but用作及物动词，第二个but用作名词。如：

But me no buts, just get along and do as I say. 不要对我说“但是”，就立刻行动，照我说的去做。

9. for

表示因果关系的从属连词有as，since，because等好几个，但表示这一关系的并列连词却只有一个，即for。

辨　for与because的区别

① because是因果概念最强烈的从属连词，表示主句行为发生的直接原因，故直接回答由why引出的问句时，只能用because，不能用for：

A: Why are you leaving?

B: I'm leaving because I'm fed up with the life style here. 因我对这里的生活方式感到厌烦了。

② because引导的原因状语从句可以置于句首或句末，置于句首时通常要用逗号分开，置于句末时则不需用逗号分开：

Girls are jealous of her because she is beautiful and successful.［because从句置于句末，不用逗号分开］

Because she is beautiful and successful, girls are jealous of her.［从句置于句首，用逗号分开］

但由for引导的原因分句不能置于句首，只能置于句末，并且必须用逗号分开：

Girls are jealous of her, for she is beautiful and successful.

③ because 只是直接表示因果关系，而for是并列连词，它所引导的分句对前一分句所表示的内容则起着补充说明其理由或推断其原因的作用，故不可放在主句前。如：

I decided to stop and have lunch, for I was feeling hungry.［for引导的分句补充说明“我决定停下来吃饭”的理由］

He must have gone to sleep, for the light is off.［从灯关掉这一for引导的分句推断出他肯定已入睡了］

It is going to rain, for it's getting dark.［表示对主句中的事实的解释］

It must have rained last night, for the road is wet.［推断］

在以上三例中，不能用because来取代for。

注：because有时也可表示推测性理由，或必然的因果推断。试比较：

He must have passed this way, because there is no other road. 他一定是从这条路过去的，因为除此之外别无他路可走。［必然的理由］

He must have passed this way, for here are footprints. 他想必是从这条路过去的，因为这里有脚印。［推测性的原因］

另外，for不能用于not...but结构中，也不能用来引导表语从句。例如：

I like her not for she is pretty, but for she is noble-hearted.［×，for要改为because］

It is because he is honest.［不可以用for］

例　Argon（氩，一种元素）is used to fill light bulbs, _____not react with the white-hot metal of the filament（灯泡中的灯丝）.

A. does

B. for it does

C. in it does

D. it does

［分析］答案为B，for可引导一个表示原因的分句。D错，在正式英语中，逗号不能用来连接两个并列分句，须把逗号改为分号。A及D不合语法。

例　“Why is Mary unhappy?”

“_____everyone went to the dance except her.”

A. Against

B.For

C. Because

D. But

［分析］答案为C。问句用why开头，直接回答其原因必须用because。

10. as well as

as well as用作并列连词时，有两个意义：

1 　=not only...but also，但两者在用法上有如下不同。

A. not only...but also侧重后者，as well as则着重前者，即A as well as B=not only B but also A。

Mr. Brown has experience as well as knowledge（不仅有知识而且有经验）.［侧重前者，即experience］

(=Mr. Brown has not only knowledge but also experience.)［着重后者，即but also后面的部分］

◎ I am a Chinese, but I have Chinese friends as well as foreign friends.

as well as强调它前面的成分，故这句的意思是“我是中国人，但我不仅有外国朋友而且还有中国朋友。”显然，这是讲不通的。应改为：

I am a Chinese, but I have foreign friends as well as Chinese friends.

as well as连接的并列成分对调后，则变成“我是中国人，但我不仅有中国朋友而且还有外国朋友”。这样，句意便能成立。

B. 在带有as well as的句子中，动词须和as well as前面的主语在数上取得一致；not only...but also连接句中的并列成分时，动词的数则和but also后面的主语取得一致。试比较：

The pilot as well as two of the passengers has miraculously escaped death.［as well as前的主语pilot系单数，故动词用has］

Not only two of the passengers but also the pilot has miraculously escaped death.［but also后面的主语pilot也系单数，动词用has］

2 　as well as所连接的成分有时并未有侧重的意义，这时它的意义相当于and，但和and又有以下三点不同。

A. as well as比and强调，含有“又”或“都”的含义：

The plan is practical as well as far-sighted. 这方案切实可行，又具有远见性。

This idea of yours is sound in theory as well as in practice. 你的这个主意在理论上和实践中都能站住脚。

B. and 经常用于A，B，and C这一模式，但as well as则不能，A，B，as well as C是错的，应改为A and B as well as C：

We study physics, chemistry as well as mathematics.（×）

上列例句是一个常见的错误，宜改为以下两式：

⇒ We study physics, chemistry, and mathematics.

⇒ We study physics and chemistry as well as mathematics.

C. 鉴于as well as有时候意义相等于and，而and可和both连用，故在现代英语里as well as也可与both连用：

This collection of stories includes both foreign as well as Chinese works.

但标准化结构部分测试则固守传统的语法概念，认为both和as well as是不可连用的。

例　Participation in (A) active sports produces (B) release from both tension as well as (C) physical well-being (D).

［分析］C错，在题句中as well as前面有both，故应把C改为and。

但注意，both和as well as可连用于三者，both A and B as well as C。这一用于三者的结构中，A与B之间必须有连词and。

例　Both Mary and Ellen, _____Jane, are studying nursing at The University of Toledo.

A. as well as

B. as well to

C. well

D. and well as

［分析］题句中有三个主语，both后面有and，故应选A，这样便符合A and B，as well as C这一结构。

3 　as well as有一个否定形式的变体，即as well...as not，意指“反正都行；都一样”，如：

You may as well go to college as not. 你上不上大学都行。

11. as much as

as much as作“与……一样多；同样地；等于……”解：

His remarks were directed at you as much as at me. 他的话是指向你而说的，也是指向我而说的。

That is as much as to say that you are rejecting our proposal. 这等于说，你们在拒绝我们的建议啦。

as much as也可拆开来，即as much...as。

It is as much your responsibility as mine. 这是你的职责，同样也是我的职责。

as much as 的否定式通常是not so much...as，后面接平行结构：

I am impressed not so much by his excellent academic record as by his admirable independence of mind. 给我印象很深的与其说是他的优异的成绩，倒不如说是他的令人钦佩的独立思考能力。

例　According to psychologists, a person's attention is attracted_____by the intensity of different signals as by their context, significance, and information content.

A. much not as

B. not so much

C. so not much

D. so much not

［分析］答案为B。not so much...as...连接介词短语，构成平行结构。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. “Why did the policeman let those boys go?”

“He hoped they would learn from their mistake_____the rules in the future.”

A. and to obey

B. and be obedient to

C. and obey

D. to be obedient to

2. Collecting coins was his favorite pastime, but_____.

A. he also enjoy music listening

B. listening to music also gave him great pleasure

C. also listening to music

D. to listen to music was enjoyed by him also

3. Molds（霉菌）cannot produce their own food_____their nourishment from living on dead organic matter or on other living matter.

A. obtain

B. obtaining

C. but obtain

D. is obtained

4. The teachers have had some problems deciding_____.

A. when to the students they shall return the final papers

B. when are they going to return to the students the final papers

C. when they should return the final papers to the students

D. the time when the final papers they should return for the students

5. I will try to finish this work_____.

A. up until you can come

B. before you can come

C. up to the time you are able to come

D. until you can come

6. Nancy hasn't begun working on her Ph. D._____working on her master's.

A. still because she is yet

B. yet as a result she is still

C. yet because she is still

D. still while she is already

7. “What did you hear?”

“We heard_____long lecture that we were falling asleep.”

A. such a

B. too

C. so

D. such

8. _____people depend to such a great extent on forests, every effort must be made to preserve trees and wildlife.

A. How

B. That

C. Since

D. Which

9. In her writing, Elinor Wylie often dealt with her own personality as it was, rather than_____.

A. as others defined it

B. others' definitions

C. its definition by others

D. it was defined by others

10. The cement and sand are first mixed thoroughly; _____.

A. then added is the water

B. then the water is added

C. then the adding for water is followed

D. then add the water

11. Professor James Jones is both creative_____.

A. or intelligent

B. as well as intelligent

C. and has intelligence

D. and intelligent

12. “That English fellow's songs are very poetic.”

“_____the words to the songs, but he also composes the music.”

A. He also writes

B. Although he writes

C. Not only does he write

D. It is not all that he writes

13. I spent every summer on a farm_____.

A. until my age was about twelve

B. until I was about twelve

C. up until when I was about twelve

D. until twelve years old

14. Jean had not realized how long the magazine was or_____.

A. its reading difficulty

B. that it was so difficult to read

C. its difficulty in reading

D. how difficult it was to read

15. Speeders_____.

A. either have to go to a school where they study traffic problems or to jail

B. have either to go to a school where they study traffic problems or to jail

C. has to go either to a school where they study traffic problems or to jail

D. have to go either to a school they study traffic problems or to jail

16. _____astrology（占星术）and alchemy（炼丹术）may be regarded as fundamental aspects of thought is indicated by their apparent universality.

A. Both are

B. What both

C. Both

D. That both

17. He was_____an honest man that everybody trusted him.

A. so

B. such

C. very

D. as

18. Life would be short, _____hope prolongs it.

A. which

B. but that

C. that

D. while

19. The king was loved by his friends, respected by his subjects, and_____.

A. his enemies feared him

B. frightened his enemies

C. he scared his enemies

D. feared by his enemies

20. In Scandinavian countries household goods are devised both to function well_____.

A. and to be looking beautiful

B. and to look beautiful

C. and to be beautiful looking

D. as well as to look beautiful

21. The bonding power of any adhesive depends on the cohesion of the adhesive itself and_____to the surface to which it is applied.

A. how well does the adhesive adhere

B. how well the adhesive adheres

C. does the adhesive adhere

D. the adhesive adheres

22. _____progress helps to relieve scarcities is a fact accepted by economists.

A. Technological

B. That technological

C. Although technological

D. There is technological

23. The Oregon Trail went through the South Pass, _____in 1842.

A. where was gold discovered

B. it was where gold was discovered

C. discovered where gold was

D. where gold was discovered

24. Earthworms occur_____adequate moisture and food and the necessary soil conditions are found.

A. and

B. but

C. however

D. wherever

25. There comes a time in every man's life_____.

A. then he has to think

B. which he needs

C. when he has to think

D. therefore he has to work hard

26. Although many colonial scholars consider Jonathan Edwards an important writer, _____anymore.

A. though few people read his works

B. but few people read his works

C. and his works aren't widely read

D. his works are not widely read

27. Jean worked just so much_____.

A. like what she told to

B. as she was told to

C. as to what she tried to do

D. like she was told to

28. _____in 1778, the thirteen original states worked together under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation.（美国十三州邦联宪法，制定于1781年，于1789年为现行美国宪法所替代）

A. Not until the Constitution was adopted

B. The Constitution was adopted

C. Adopted by the Constitution

D. Until the Constitution was adopted

29. The largest meteorite on display is in the American museum in New York City, _____over 34 tons.

A. and it weighs

B. it weighs

C. its weight is

D. but it weighs

30. Rotation refers to the turning of the earth, _____to the movement around the sun.

A. besides revolution

B. revolution refers

C. and revolution

D. while revolution referring

31. The earth revolves a little more rapidly_____it is closer to the sun.

A. when

B. or

C. than

D. wherever

32. The moon is not a planet_____the planet in many respects.

A. resembling

B. which resembles

C. but resemblance

D. although it resembles

33. “Susie hasn't written us for such a long time.”

“What do you suppose_____to her？”

A. that she happen

B. happened

C. to happen

D. having happened

34. “Did Mrs. Robert treat you well？”

“Yes, she was_____she treated us like a mother.”

A. as kind as

B. so kind

C. too kind

D. very kind

35. _____that it might be easier to prepare a better map of the moon than of the earth.

A. To say

B. They say

C. The saying

D. It is said

36. _____of a newspaper nor the number of pages in an edition has ever been standardized.

A. The page size is neither

B. Neither is the page size

C. The page size, neither

D. Neither the page size

37. Nearly all trees have seeds that fall to the earth, take root, and eventually_____.

A. generate new seeds

B. new seeds generated

C. by generating new seeds

D. new seeds generated there

38. Symphonies, string quartets, and_____often have a sonata form.

A. for instumental long works

B. works are for instumental solos

C. long works for instumental solos

D. instrumental solos have long works

39. _____within the algae began very early is evident.

A. Evolution that was

B. That evolution

C. There was evolution

D. Evolution

40. _____he has created striking stage settings for the Martha Graham dance drama, artist Isamu Noguchi is more famous for his sculpture.

A. But not

B. Nevertheless

C. In spite of

D. Although

41. _____when public taste favored the sentimental and moralistic, Susan Warner's The Wide, Wide World was for years extremely popular both in the United States and abroad.

A. Her production was in an era

B. Produced in an era

C. She producted it in era

D. An era of production

42. _____do not have webbed feet, gallinules are excellent swimmers.

A. They

B. That they

C. Even though they

D. It is when they

43. _____the Atlantic Ocean crosses the equator, the trade winds cause a flow of water to the west.

A. Where

B. And

C. That

D. At

44. As a choreographer, Martha Graham devised a wide variety of movements and gestures_____new ways of thinking about the body.

A. as well

B. and well

C. and as well

D. as well as

45. A gnat lays its eggs on water, _____they float from one to several days before they hatch.

A. how

B. where

C. why

D. what

46. Dams can be very beneficial to the areas_____.

A. in which they are built

B. building them where

C. which they are built

D. where are they built

47. _____, Mr. Wells is scarcely in sympathy with the working class.

A. Being a socialist

B. Since he is a socialist

C. Although he is a socialist

D. Despite he is a socialist

48. _____the result of his first experiment was inconclusive, Dr. Johnson continued to search for the new subatomic particle.

A. Unless

B. Before

C. Although

D. Since

49. Farmers rotate their crops_____the soil will remain fertile.

A. so that

B. because of

C. in order to

D. rather than

50. That trumpet player was certainly loud. But I wasn't bothered by his loudness_____by his lack of talent.

A. so much as

B. rather than

C. as

D. than

51. The cottage will be cold. Make sure_____the heater.

A. you light

B. lighting

C. you'll light

D. for lighting

52. _____it rains, Mrs. Bakely's elbows always ache.

A. Whenever

B. When

C. Often

D. Sometimes

53. _____is something we can take for granted.

A. To smoke is harmful to one's health

B. Smoking is harmful to one's health

C. That smoking is harmful to one's health

D. It is harmful to one's health to smoke

54. Anthropology is science_____anthropologists use a rigorous set of methods and techniques to document observations that can be checked by others. document这里用作动词，作“记录下来”解

A. in that

B. than in

C. that

D. in

55. The lens of a camera performs_____the lens of the eye.

A. in the same function

B. the same function as

C. the function is the same as

D. and has the same function

56. People's expectations for a higher standard of living increase_____.

A. conditions in their community improve

B. since conditions in their improving community

C. conditions improve in their community

D. as conditions in their community improve

57. _____relatively costly, the diesel engine is highly efficient and needs servicing infrequently.

A. Even

B. It is

C. Even though

D. There is

二、改错

1. Thoreau is remembered for hisattacks on (A) the social institutions he considered (B) immoral but (C) for his faith in (D) the religious significance.

2. The Empire State Building, once (A) America's tallest (B), is now surpassed (C) by either (D) the Sears Tower in Chicago and the World Trade Center in New York.

3. The firemen were unable to determine (A) exactly what (B) caused the fire, when (C) they said that they would continue (D) the investigation.

4. When he was (A) a little boy, Mark Twain would walk (B) along the piers, watch (C) the river boats, swimming (D) and fish in the Mississippi, much like his famous character, Tom Sawyer.

5. Few people (A) realize that Siberia is extremely rich in natural resources (B), having (C) not only oil and gas with (D) vast reserves of coal, timber, land, and water.

6. We had arrived in (A) the city not more than (B) two days until (C) we found that we needed (D) a guide.

7. Since a nation's banks provide supportfor (A) its economy, and any hint (B) of (C) insolvency causes great concern (D).

8. Scientists know very little (A) about the drug's long-term (B) effects, since to having been (C) on the market for only (D) two years.

9. Today was such beautiful (A) day that I couldn't bring myself (B) to complete (C) all my chores (D).

10. Although the Indians lacking animals (A), they had the ability (B) to cultivate (C) plants suitable for (D) daily use.

11. During the Middle Ages people were willing (A) to pay a great deal for (B) spices because disguised (C) the bad taste of spoiled (D) food.

12. That the natural habitats (A) of these types (B) of monkeys are (C) the central and eastern forests of Africa are (D) generally known.

13. When (A) he will come (B) are (C) something that (D) nobody understands.

14. I don't know as (A) you can recognize (B) her from (C) among the big crowd (D).

15. Jerry will not lend (A) you the book because he is fearful (B) if (C) you will forget to return it (D).

16. Being that (A) the United States has a food surplus, it is hard to see (B) why anyone (C) in our country should be (D) hungry.

17. Although Elizabeth likes (A) chocolate candy and cookies very much (B), yet (C) she never eats them on account of (D) her weight problem.

18. The Russians serve tea in glasses instead of (A) cups and sweetening (B) the beverage with (C) a spoonful of jam or (D) a lump of sugar.

19. Because (A) of its (B) strong record during earlier recessions, the mutual fund has and will (C) continue to be attractive to (D) small investors.

20. The historian found the reading of the ancient manuscripts to be an (A) agreeable (B), not (C) a tiresome (D) occupation.

21. The success of a cornel transplant depends on (A) its placement (B) in the recipient's eye (C), so that cannot (D) be oversupplied by the patient's blood vessels.

22. Catholic churches (A) were completed (B) during (C) others were being built (D).

23. Lucid and George are (A) such (B) friendly that they are envied (C) by a lot of (D) people.

24. Neither Russia nor (A) the United States have been able (B) to discover a mutually (C) satisfactory plan for (D) gradual disarmament.

25. My father enjoys (A) fresh air (B), sunshine (C), and to take (D) long walks.

26. That (A) a vaccine for pollen had been invented in so short time (B) was one (C) of the most (D) astonishing events in modern history.

27. Not only may such a love have deepened and exalted (A), and may still (B) deepen and (C) exalt, the life of any man of any age (D).

28. We cannot conquer (A) disease nor (B) we cannot (C) educate all humanity (D).

29. I don't know that (A) you can recognize (B) her from here (C), but the girl reading (D) the newspaper is Susan.

30. A measuring worm（尺蠖，一种昆虫）can hold (A) itself (B) straight out (C) from a branch so that looks (D) like a small twig.

31. If you were to (A) ask Jim what did he (B) with his (C) money, he would have difficulty remembering (D).

32. Tension between (A) church and state in Italy has been an on-and-off affair ever since the mid-19th century, in which (B) the campaign for Italian unification whittled away and finally consumed (C) the Pope's widespread temporal domains in (D) the peninsula.

33. Manslaughter is where (A) a person is killed (B) unlawfully (C) but without (D) premeditation.

34. As automation increases, the problems of unemployment will become progressively (A) more serious unless (B) more men and women would be given (C) the training necessary for white-collar positions (D).

35. Roberto Clemente was recognized (A) for both his great (B) humanitarianism and because his (C) outstanding skill (D) on the baseball field.

36. The streams (A) of Nevada's Great Basin have no outlet to (B) the sea; they either dry up and (C) empty into (D) one of the basin's lakes, where they evaporate.

37. Individuals (A) have several basic (B), life-sustaining needs must (C) be satisfied (D).

38. Some (A) nematodes are very tiny (B) that it (C) is necessary to view (D) them through a microscope.

39. Either (A) humans and animals learn by experience, and (B) what is learned influences (C) the planning and carrying out (D) of simple actions.

40. Elephants are considered (A) to be among the most intelligent (B) of mammals and can be trained (C) to work and performing (D).

41. In Roman (A) law a woman was known first (B) as her father's daughter and later as her husband's wife; she had no name nor identity (C) of her own (D).

42. Sociologists study (A) not only complex (B) urban societies and also (C) many societies which are unfamiliar to (D) most of us.

43. Manufacturers (A) use both (B) chemical or mechanical (C) methods to obtain clear (D) glue.

44. As she was small (A), her huge eyes and her long black (B) hair were (C) neither outstanding or (D) attractive.

45. Man cannot (A) live by bread (B) alone, or (C) can he live (D) without bread.

46. Let the fact be (A) first (B) asked then (C) tested (D).

47. It is (A) ten years after (B) I left (C) my parents in (D) New Jersey.

48. No matter what (A) field you are in (B), you can do (C) your best until you know the language well (D).

49. What (A) remained were (B) only a few (C) unrecognizable fragments (D).

50. Dorothy Parker's satirical (A) verse was quite (B) popular that her books of poetry (C) appeared (D) on best-seller lists.

51. Providence, Rhode Island, is a busy (A) manufacturing city (B) and seaport, as well the (C) state capital (D).

52. When does (A) a neutron from one atom (B) collides with nuclear of another (C) atom, a chain reaction can occur (D).

53. Cayenne peper comes from (A) the pea pod of the pepper plant, which (B) is dried (C) or (D) then ground.

54. The tongue of the okapi is too long (A) that it can extend (B) all the (C) way to its eyes when it cleans (D) itself.

三、以适当连词把每题中的两句连为一句

1. The doctor was still on the way. The patient died.

2. You try. You will never succeed unless you improve your method.

3. The thief ran away quickly. He feared to be caught.

4. They decided to set out. It was late.

5. She felt sorry. She had broken the news to her brother.

6. I waited. The train arrived.

7. We can travel by land. We can travel by sea.

8. My sister was unhappy. She managed to look cheerful.

9. The game went on. It was dark.

10. It was a stormy night. Everyone stayed indoors.

11. She was going home from school. She suddenly met Tom.

12. The clerk came late again. He had been warned many times.

13. I was sleeping soundly. The burglar broke in.

14. I finished the work. I went home immediately.

15. The sun presides in middle of the solar system. It has the greatest mass.

四、按括号内的要求改写画线部分的句子并把两句合并为一句

1. He wants to try a parachute jump. He may change his mind at the last minute.（状语从句）

2. The dean sent me a letter. It said I should attend summer school.（定语从句）

3. The milk bottle fell to the floor. It broke.（分词短语）

4. The dog was chained to the fence. He was barking noisily.（分词短语）

5. John rented a house in London. He planned to live in England for a year.（定语从句）

6. The bread is in the refrigerator. It is stale.（介词短语）

7. I opened the letter. I read about my sister's wedding.（分词短语）

8. My brother was treasurer of the company. He was promoted to vice president.（定语从句）

9. Chicago is built along Lake Michigan. It is known as“the windy city”.（分词短语）

10. I removed the tire. Then Peter repaired the leak.（状语从句）

11. We like to eat dinner at eight o'clock. We like lighted candles on the table.（介词短语）

12. My parents remodeled the room. It had been a garage.（定语从句）

13. The wedding cake had seven layers. It was decorated by the pastry chef.（介词短语）

14. Their own classroom had been cleaned. The students went to help others.（独立结构）

五、选出下列每题两个分句中次要的句子，并按括号内的要求使之从属

1. I made lunch, and Alfredo washed the car.（状语从句）

2. The house is at the end of the street, and it is our dormitory.（介词短语）

3. The airline sent us a letter, and it announced a non-stop flight to Kuala Lumpur.（定语从句）

4. The river was slowly rising, and it began to overflow its banks.（分词短语）

5. You travel，and you will think of me.（状语从句）

6. The children watched the buses passing through the village and their eyes were bright and eager.（独立结构）

7. We were running fast, and we caught up with the hikers.（分词短语）

8. Everything was ready and we started for the construction site.（独立结构）

9. The house has a large fireplace, and it is in the kitchen.（介词短语）

10. It is late, and he has to leave now.（状语从句）

11. We were waiting for the train to arrive, and we read our books.（分词短语）

12. Romola has six elder brothers and sisters, and she has never gone to college.（定语从句）

13. The geyser called Old Faithful is in the Yellow Stone National Park, and it is exciting to see.（介词短语）

14. She wrapped the package as quickly as she could, but the post office was closed when she reached it.（状语从句）

15. The magazine published a special anniversary edition, and it was mailed to all subscribers.（定语从句）

16. Kunt Hamsun was a Norwegian novelist, and he won a Nobel Prize.（同位语从句）

17. Mr. Edwards is the manager of the store, and he is a city councilman.（同位语从句）

18. My uncle bought me a gift, and it was a wristwatch.（同位语从句）

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［C］and连接两个并列动词，即would learn...and obey...。be obedient to后面通常接人。故从用字及结构的对称角度来讲B不如C好。

2.［B］but连接两个以动名词短语作主语的并列分句，构成分句对称的并列式排比结构。

3.［C］but连接两个意义相反的谓语，即cannot produce their won food和obtain their nourishment from...。

4.［C］动名词deciding后接when引导的宾语从句。

5.［B］A中up until=until，C中up to作“直到”解，故A，C及D皆在本题中讲不通。

6.［C］与否定的完成式连用的副词应是yet，不是still, still通常用在肯定句里。如I'm still busy；I have not finished my work yet.

7.［A］按习惯用法应为such a long lecture或so long a lecture。

8.［C］引导一个原因状语从句。注意，在on forests和every effort之间省略了that代之以“,”，这是现代英语的用法。

9.［A］rather than前后要用平行的排比结构，rather than as others defined it同前面的as it was构成两个平行的方式状语从句共同修饰dealt with her own personality。D中it前应加上as。

10.［B］then系连接性副词，用来连接两个表先后顺序的分句，这样用时前需用分号“;”，如改用逗号“,”，then前需加and。

11.［D］因句中出现both，故不能选B (as well as intelligent）。

12.［C］Not only置于句首时，它引导的句子主谓须倒置。

13.［B］表年龄不用my age is...，此系中式英语，故A不妥。C中up until=until，故须去掉when，D系省略结构，便与主语I相隔太远，故不如B好。

14.［D］or连接两个how引导的并列从句。

15.［D］either...to...引导对称的并列结构，在D中either...or...各引导一个介词短语。C中动词has须改为have。

16.［D］句中有两个谓语结构may be regarded和is indicated，且无连词加以连接；显然，第一个谓语应归属主语从句，故选D。

17.［B］such an honest man或so honest a man均合乎正规用法。

18.［D］while可用来表示对比或相反的含义，句意是“生命虽然短暂，但希望都能使之延长。”B中that应取消。

19.［D］连词and连接三个排比的被动态谓语结构。

20.［B］both...and...连接对称的排比或平行结构，句中both接不定式短语to function well，故and应接不定式短语to look beautiful。

21.［B］动词词组depends on接两个宾语，第二个宾语系how引导的从句，故选B。A系疑问句形式，不妥。C及D不合语法。

22.［B］题句中出现两个谓语，即help及is，因而主语须采用从句形式，故选B。其余皆不合语法。

23.［D］where gold was discovered=in which gold was discovered。

24.［D］wherever也可换用where，但where语气及意义均不及wherever强烈。

25.［C］这里when用作关系副词=at which。

26.［D］B中but须删掉，因although和though不能和but连用。A和C不合语法，故D是唯一正确的选择。

27.［B］在正式英语里like不能用作连词；从搭配角度来讲，so much后面也须接as，故B是唯一的选择。

28.［D］Not until置于句首时，主句的主谓须倒置，而题句中的主句并未倒置，故不能选A。B项表示的意义不符合美国史实，而且也不能用逗号来连接两个分句。C中分词荡空，因主语states不能成为其逻辑主语。

29.［A］B不妥，逗号不能用来连接两个独立分句。C应改为独立结构形式its weight being。D不合句意。

30.［C］revolution后省去了动词 refers。D中referring应改为refers。B项也是个独立分句，两个独立分句不能用逗号“,”连接，需把题句中的逗号“,”改为“;”。

31.［A］D不如A合理，B和C讲不通。

32.［D］A和B不合句意，C不合语法。

33.［B］此题属双重疑问句的变体结构，过去时happened也可换用现在完成时has happened。

34.［B］so kind后省略了that，即...so kind (that) she treated us like a mother。其余皆不合语法。

35.［D］It 系形式主语，预示由连词that引导的主语从句。B中代词they，缺乏先行词，须把They改为People，故不如D好。

36.［D］这样neither...nor...在句中便能接平行结构。

37.［A］句中前面部分已有fall to the earth和take root谓语，故and应连接谓语以构成三项式谓语排比结构。

38.［C］and连接主语以形成三项式主语排比结构。

39.［B］That...early系主语从句，谓语为is evident。

40.［D］句中前后两部分含有相反意思，故须用Although或Though。C中In spite of后面应加上the fact that才能接从句。

41.［B］句中主语The Wide, Wide World同时又是分词produced的逻辑主语，故B成立。

42.［C］也可换用Even if they。

43.［A］where引导一个地点状语从句，修饰主句的谓语cause a flow of water。

44.［D］符合A and B as well as C这一结构形式。

45.［B］在句中=on which引导一个非限制性定语从句。

46.［A］也可换用where they are built。

47.［C］句意为“威尔斯先生尽管是个社会主义者，但却简直不同情工人阶级。”故A及B不合句意，D中Despite后应加上the fact that。

48.［D］C在意思上不如D那么顺。

49.［A］C中in order to应改为in order that，因后面接从句。B不合句意；D则不合语法，需在Despite后加上the fact that。

50.［A］not...so much as作“与其说是……毋宁说是”解，如He is not so much ill as (he is) depressed。（他与其说是生病毋宁说是精神压抑。）

51.［A］make sure作“确信，保证”解时，后面所接从句通常用现在时代替将来时，如Before you leave the room, make sure that all the lights are turned off。故不选C项而选A项。

52.［B］主句有always，故用when而不能用A (whenever)。

53.［C］理由请参照第16及22两题。

54.［A］in that一起可用作连词，相等于because引导一个原因状语从句。其余皆不合语法。

55.［B］perform系及物动词，后面不能跟介词，而且same通常接as，故选B而不能选A。C和D两项均不合语法。

56.［D］在这句中，连词as表示时间，作“随着……”解。A、B和C皆不合语法。

57.［C］Even though relatively costly系从句的省略结构形式=Even though it is relatively costly，it指diesel engine。

二、改错

1.［C］but连接表示相反意思的词组或从句，这里不合句意，应把C改为and或as well as。

2.［D］either后面出现and，故把D项改为both。

3.［C］不妥切，根据句意把when改为and更为恰当。

4.［D］按句子的意思及结构来看。would应接walk，watch，swim及fish四个原形动词，故把swimming改为swim。

5.［D］把with改为but also，与前面的not only形成排比结构。

6.［C］按句意until不妥，应改为before。

7.［B］从句由从属连词since引导，主句便不能再由并列连词来引出，故把B项中的and删掉即可。注：insolvency n. 无力偿付债务。

8.［C］since在此句中引导一个原因状语从句，故把C改为it has been，it指drug。

9.［A］改为such a beautiful。such a beautiful day也可换用so beautiful a day。

10.［A］although系表示让步的从属连词，引导的从句应具主谓部分，故把lacking animals改为lacked animals因主句用过去时动词had，故不能再用现在时lack。

11.［C］because引导的从句缺主语，把C改为because they disguised，they指spices。

12.［D］从句作主语时接单数动词，故把D改为is。

13.［C］when引导的从句在句中作主语，应接单数动词，需改为is。

14.［A］连词as在这里不合句意，应改为how。

15.［C］形容词fearful后接连词that，如The playwright（戏剧家）was fearful that his first opening（公演）would be a failure。故把C中if改为that。

16.［A］第一部分应是一个表原因的状语从句，应改为Since或Now that。Now that表示一个既成事实，比since强调。

17.［C］按传统用法，though/although引导让步从句时，主句前可用yet以示强调，但这样用使文体拖沓，以不用yet为上策，须去掉yet。

18.［B］改为sweeten。and应连接现在时sweeten，与前面动词serve形成排比结构。

19.［C］改为has continued and will，这样and连接has continued and will continue两个谓语动词词组，合乎规范用法。

20.［C］not是副词，不是连词，故not前应加and以连接agreeable和tiresome两个并列形容词。

21.［D］so that系连词引导结果状语从句，D项中缺主语，改为that it may not。

22.［C］during是介词，不能直接跟从句，故把C改为when。

23.［B］改为so。

24.［B］neither...nor...作关联连词时，动词与nor后面的词在数上保持一致，故把B改为has been able。

25.［D］and在此句中应连接一个名词短语，与air和sunshine形成三项式名词排比结构，作谓语动词enjoys的宾语。故把D (to take)删掉即可。

26.［B］应改为so short a time，也可采用in such a shout time。

27.［B］not only和but also连用，构成关联连词，故把B改为but it may still。but后有still，故以省略also为宜，同时须补上主语it，it 代表such a love。

28.［C］nor系含有否定意义的连词，单独用来连接分句时，该分句须用肯定式并须主谓倒置，故把C改为can we。

29.［A］表示询问或怀疑之类的动词，如ask，doubt等，它们后面接的宾语从句应由whether或if引导，而不能用that。在此题中，动词know所接的宾语从句表示一个疑问，即“我不知道你是否能从这里把她认出来”，应把that改为whether或if。

30.［D］改为that it looks。

31.［B］改为he did。what he did系间接疑问句，充当不定式to ask的宾语，需用陈述句语序。

32.［B］按句意把B改为when。when前有表时间的短语the mid-19th century，故when在此句中用作并列连词=and at that time。全句意思是“意大利教会和国家之间的紧张对峙自19世纪中叶起时有出现，其时意大利的统一运动逐步削弱并最后耗尽了教皇在该半岛上广泛的世俗领地。”

33.［A］改为that。

34.［C］改为are given。unless引导条件从句。在条件从句中应用现在时代替将来时。

35.［C］把C项中的because删掉，这样and和前面的both都接名词短语，形成排比结构，做介词for的宾语。

36.［C］改为or，因前面有either。

37.［C］needs作谓语动词have的宾语，不能同时充当must的主语，故把C改为needs which must。

38.［B］改为so tiny，因后面有连词that。注：nematode n. 线虫

39.［A］改为Both，因humans后有and。

40.［D］改为perform。

41.［C］改为or，因前面有no。

42.［C］改为but also，与前面的not only形成关联连词。

43.［B］改为either，因后面有or。

44.［D］把or改为nor，因前面有neither。

45.［C］改为nor，后面从句主谓倒装。

46.［C］then是副词，不是连词，应在then前加上and。and连接be first asked及then tested。

47.［B］改为since。since作“自从……”解，引导一个过去时的时间状语从句时，主句该用现在完成时。如Three years have passed since I left my hometown。但如果主句的主语是代词it，而该代词又是指时间的话，则通常用现在时来代替现在完成时；在这一结构中，主句用现在完成时未尝不可，但不及现在时普遍。上例中的主语three years如改为it，便成为：It is three since I left my hometown。

48.［C］应把C改为cannot do句子的文理才通。

49.［B］改为was。名词从句作主语时通常接单数动词，如What has been done is very little known to us/What have been done is very little known to us。在第二例句中，主语从句中的动词用复数形式have，但主句中的谓语动词仍用单数is。

50.［B］改为so，因后面出现连词that。

51.［C］改为as well as。

52.［A］把does去掉即可。

53.［D］改为and。and连接is dried及then ground，表示两个动作的先后动作顺序。or表选择，这里不妥。be ground被碾碎。

54.［A］改为so，因后面有连词that。注：okapi系中非产的一种鹿，极似长颈鹿，但体积小，颈也较短。

三、以适当的连词把每题中的两句连为一句

1. While the doctor was still on the way, the patient died.

2. Even if you try, you will never succeed unless you improve your method.

3. The thief ran away quickly lest he might be caught.

4. Though it was late, they decided to set out.

5. She felt sorry that she had broken the news to her brother.

6. I waited till the train arrived.

7. We can travel by land or by sea.

8. Though my sister was unhappy, she managed to look cheerful.

9. The game went on though it was dark./The game went on till it was dark.

10. It was a stormy night, so that everyone stayed indoors.

11. She was going home from school when she met Tom.［这里when系并列连词，作and just at that time］

12. The clerk came late again, notwithstanding that he had been warned many times.

13. I was sleeping soundly when the burglar broke in.（或：When the burglar broke in, I was sleeping soundly.）

14. As soon as I finished the work, I went home.

15. The sun presides in the middle of the solar system, so that it has the greatest mass.

四、按括号内的要求改写画线部分的句子并把两句合并为一句

1. Though he wants to try a parachute jump, he may change his mind at the last minute.

2. The dean sent me a letter, which said I should attend summer school.

3. Falling to the floor, the milk bottle broke.

4. Chained to the fence, the dog was barking noisily.

5. John, who rented a house in London, planned to live in England for a year.

6. The bread in the refrigerator is stale.

7. Opening the letter, I read about my sister's wedding.

8. My brother, who was treasurer of the company, was promoted to vice-president.

9. Built along Lake Michigan, Chicago is known as“the windy city.”

10. After I removed the tire, Peter repaired the leak.［removed the tire指“把胎卸下来”，故After也可换用When］

11. We like to eat dinner at eight o'clock with lighted candles on the table.

12. My parents remodeled the room, which had been a garage.

13. The wedding cake with seven layers was decorated by the pastry chef.

14. Their own classroom having been cleaned, the students went to help others.（独立结构）

五、选出下列每题两个分句中次要的句子，并按括号内的要求使之从属

1. While I made lunch, Alfredo washed the car. (or: I made lunch whereas Alfredo washed the car.)

2. The house at the end of the street is our dormitory.

3. The airline sent us a letter, which announced a non-stop flight to Kuala Lumpur.

4. Slowly rising, the river began to overflow its banks. (or: The river, slowly rising, began to overflow its banks.)

5. Wherever you travel, you will think of me.

6. The children watched the buses passing through the village, their eyes (being) bright and eager.

7. Running fast, we caught up with the hikers.

8. Everything (being) ready, we started for the construction site.

9. The house has a large fireplace in the kitchen.

10. As it is late, he has to leave now.

11. Waiting for the train to arrive, we read our books.

12. Romola, who has six elder brothers and sisters, has never gone to college.

13. The geyser called Old Faithful in the Yellow Stone National Park is exciting to see.

14. Though she wrapped the package as quickly as she could, the post office was closed when she reached it.

15. The magazine published a special anniversary edition, which was mailed to all subscribers.

16. A Nobel Prizer winner, Kunt Hamsun was a Norwegian novelist./Kunt Hamsun, a Nobel Prizer winner, was a Norwegian novelist.

17. Mrs. Edwards, the manager of the store, is a city councilman.

18. My uncle bought me a gift, a wristwatch.

第十七章　倒装

英语句子通常有两种语序。一种是主语在前，谓语在后，称为自然语序（Natural Order）。大部分的英语句子都采用自然语序。另一种是谓语在前，主语在后，称为倒装语序（Inverted Order）。倒装语序又分为两类：全部倒装（Whole Inversion）和部分倒装（Partial Inversion）。

一、部分倒装

1. 何谓部分倒装

部分倒装指谓语中的一部分，如助动词do，does，did，情态动词can，may，should，ought to，must等，“有”动词have，系动词be等放在主语前面，其余部分包括谓语动词仍在主语后面。

2. 部分倒装的用法

Did he leave a message with you?

1 　用于大多数的疑问句中。

Are you in favor of the plan?

May I smoke here?

Have you ever seen anyone like him?

注意：

A. 当疑问代词作主语或疑问代词修饰主语时，该主语放在谓语前：

Who invented this gadget（小玩意儿）?

Your pocket bulges（鼓起来）. What is in it?

Which group won the intelligence test?

B. 当疑问词在主从复合句中引导主语或宾语从句时，它便成为间接疑问句，须采用陈述句语序，即主谓不再倒装。试比较：

What are they after? 他们追求的是什么？［直接问句，主谓倒装］

What they are after is profit. 他们追求的是利润。［作主语从句，成为间接问句，故主谓不倒装］

How can we raise our efficiency?

Let's see how we can raise our efficiency.［作宾语从句，主谓不倒装］

例　Botanists are not sure where the first plant was grown or even_____.

A. what plant was

B. it was what plant

C. what plant was it

D. what plant it was

［分析］在此题中sure后面省掉了of，接两个间接疑问句作为宾语从句，故应选D（陈述语序）。

例　It is not known exactly when (A) the first immigrants arrived (B) in the New World, but where did that event occur (C) is certain (D).

［分析］在此题的第二部分中，主语是个从句，应采用陈述句语序，故C错，应改为where that event occurred。

2 　用于neither，nor及so后面。

A: I don't like Mozart.

B: Nor/Neither do I.［表示否定］

这句如用either代替nor或neither便不需倒装：I don't, either.

A: My mother plays the piano.

B: So does my father.［表示肯定］

试比较：

A: Your mother plays the piano very well.

B: So she does.

在这句中she指your mother，she和your mother系同一人，故不能用so does she这一倒装形式。

例　“I don't like Bill.”“She doesn't like Bill_____.”

A. neither

B. too

C. either

D. also

［分析］第二句主谓不倒装，表示否定的意义，应选C。

3

Only slowly did I understand what she meant. (=I understood what she meant only slowly.)

Only by working hard can we succeed in this difficult experiment. (=We can succeed in this difficult experiment only by working hard.)

Only when one loses freedom does one know its value. (=One only knows the value of freedom when one loses it.)

注意：only+名词置于句首时主谓则不能倒装。如：Only one person smokes in our office.

4 　not only置于句首时，主谓也倒装，但but (also)后面的主谓部分则不倒装。

Not only do I know William, but I am his best friend.［两个主语相同，主语I在but后须重复］

=I not only know William, but am his best friend.［此句中因第一部分主谓不倒装，故but后面相同的主语I便不重复］

例　_____the surface of metal, but also weakens it.

A. Not only does rust corrode

B. Not only rust corrodes

C. Rust, which not only corrodes

D. Rust not only corrodes

［分析］A错，尽管not only置于句首，后面的主谓也倒装，但but also后面相同的主语应重复却未加以重复；B也错，因not only后面的主语未倒装；C不合语法。D对，not only未置于句首，故but also后面相同的主语则不予以重复。

5 　在正式文体中，带有否定意义的副词或状语置于句首时，主谓就需倒装。

Under no circumstances and at no time shall we be the first to use nuclear weapons.

=We shall not be the first to use nuclear weapons under any circumstances and at any time. 我们决不在任何情况下和任何时候首先使用核武器。

In no way can I be held responsible.

=I cannot be held responsible in any way. 绝不能让我负责任。

On no account are visitors allowed to feed the animals.

=Visitors are not allowed to feed the animals on any account. 游客切不可给动物喂食。

No sooner had she walked out of the classroom than she realized her mistake.

=She had no sooner walked out of the classroom than she realized her mistake. 她刚一出教室门即意识到自己错了。

Hardly/Scarcely had I arrived when a quarrel broke out.

=I had hardly/scarcely arrived when a quarrel broke out. 我刚到就发生了一场争吵。

例　_____received law degrees as today.

A. Never so many women have

B. Never have so many women

C. The women aren't ever

D. Women who have never

［分析］C和D均不合语法；A和B皆以否定副词never开头，但A中主谓未倒装，故不对，应选B。

例　Only gradually they did (A) incorporate into their (B) preaching the earthly (C) Jesus who (D) had ministered to the people of Israel.

［分析］only置于句首，后面的主谓结构要倒装，故A错，应改为did they。

例　Not for a moment_____the truth of your story.

A. he has doubted

B. he doubts

C. did he doubt

D. he did doubt

［分析］此题以否定意义的状语开头，其后之主谓要倒装，故应选C。A如改为has he doubted则也可。

6 　to such lengths，to such a degree，to such an extent等表示程度的介词短语置于句首时，主谓需倒装。

To such lengths did he go on with his windy（冗长的）speech that some of us began to doze.

7 　在正式或文学性文体中，as引导的方式从句中主谓通常倒装。

She travelled a great deal, as did most of her friends.

=She travelled a great deal, as most of her friends did.

He was a Christian, as were most of his friends.

=He was a Christian, as most of his friends were.

than用作连词时，用法同as，它们引导的从句中主谓须倒置。

例　Flying demands a much greater supply of energy_____other forms of transportation.

A. than do most

B. most than do

C. than most do

D. do than most

［分析］答案只能是采用部分倒装结构的A。

8 　not until置于句首时，连词until引导的从句中主谓不倒装，但主句的主谓结构必须倒装，这情况同only when置于句首时一样。

Only when（从句，主谓不倒装）one loses freedom does one know its value（主句，主谓倒装）.

Not until（从句，主谓不倒装）the child fell asleep did the mother leave（主句，主谓倒装）the room.

9 　so+副词置于句首时也引起主谓部分倒装。

So splendidly did they complete their research project that they got a handsome bonus. 他们的科研项目完成得如此出色，因而获得了一笔丰厚的奖金。

So much does my son worry about the college entrance examination that he can't sleep well at night. 我儿子对大学入学考试忧心忡忡，晚上睡不好觉。

10 　方式副词、频度副词置于句首时主谓部分倒置。

Well do I remember the day when I first saw you.

Often did we go to play bowling（打保龄球）together.

Gladly would we pay more if you could supply superior quality goods. 贵方如能供应优质货品我们将乐意多付钱。

Many a time has Mike lent me a helping hand in my hour of need. 在我困难时迈克好多次援助我。

例　Not until an infant hedgehog opens its eyes_____its nest to follow its mother about.

A. it leaves

B. and leaves

C. leaving

D. does it leave

［分析］Not until后面从句的主谓不倒装，主句之主谓要倒装，故应选D。

二、全部倒装

1. 何谓全部倒装

全部倒装是指包括表语或状语在内的整个谓语放在主语之前，它的语序是：表语或状语+谓语动词+主语。

2. 全部倒装的用法

1 　平衡句子结构。

有时，句子的主语后面紧接着较长的修饰语或一个句子出现几个并列主语，主语部分显得太长，给人一种头重脚轻的感觉，采用全部倒装后便能平衡句子结构。试比较：

One（主语）of the biggest and tallest men I had ever set eyes on（主语修饰语）was sitting under a tree.［主语加上它很长的修饰语置于句首，使句子看来像根芦苇头重脚轻根底浅，不好］

Under a tree was sitting one of the biggest and tallest men I had ever set eyes on.［采用全部倒装，介词短语置于句首，句子结构便显得平衡、庄重］

Chairman and vice-chairman of the board as well as managing directorand treasurer of the corporation（属并列主语）were present at the banquet.［并列主语太长，置于句首不妥，理由同上组第一句］

Present at the banquet were chairman and vice-chairman of the board as well as managing director and treasurer of the corporation.［用作表语的形容词present置于句首，句子结构正文为全部倒装，理由同上组第二句之说明。此句意指“出席宴会的有董事长、副董事长以及公司的总经理和财务主管。”］

2 　突出句子主语的中心地位。

有时，句子的主语并不长，但为了强调句子主语作为中心词的意义，也采用全部倒装的结构，使读者或听者的悬念完全系于主语上，从而突出主语的中心词地位。试比较：

An old invalid lay on the bed.［此句属主谓状自然语序结构，平铺直叙而已］

On the bed lay an old invalid.［地点状语置于句首，成为状谓主全部倒装结构；这样一改，读者便会产生悬念“躺在床上的是谁呢？”看到句子结尾处才知原来是个“老病号”，从而对该主语产生较为深刻的印象］

为了平衡句子结构或突出句子主语的中心地位所用的全部倒装句式多用于文学性或描绘性写作中。在标准化应试中碰到这类结构时，要注意句中主谓在数上的一致性。

例　Such were (A) the predominant (B) land life throughout (C) the Mesozoic Age (D)（地质学上的中生代）.

［分析］这是一句以形容词such置于句首的全部倒装句，主语land life系单数，故A错，应改为was。

3 　某些副词用于句首所产生的倒装结构。

A. here，there，now，then置于句首而主语不是人称代词时，就需采用全部倒装结构：

There goes the bell. 铃响了。

Here is a ticket for you.

Now comes your turn. 现在轮到你了。

Now is the hour when (=at which) we must say good-bye.

Then came the day we had been looking forward to.

▶▶ 如果主语是人称或非人称代词，主谓便不能倒装：

A: Where is my key?

B: Here it is.（在这儿。）

Here we are.This is the new filling station. 我们到了。这就是新开的加油站。

A: Give me some carbon paper（复写纸）.

B: Here you are 给你。

There he comes. 他来了。

例　“Where is the report?”

“_____.”

A. There it is

B. There is it

C. There the report is

D. Is the report there?

［答案：A］

B. 小品词（如out, in, away, off等）或拟声词置于句首时，需全部倒装。

Following (=After) the roar out rushed a tiger from among the bushes. 一声吼叫后一只猛虎从丛林中唰地窜出来。

In came the girls talking and laughing. 姑娘们边说边笑地走进来。

Click-click went the weaving loom. 织布机咔嗒咔嗒地响着。

三、倒装句和主题前置强调句之间的区别

我们知道倒装句，不论部分倒装还是全部倒装，必须主谓位置倒置，这里不再举例。主题前置强调句是指主要部分被移至句首予以强调的一种句式，但句中的主谓位置则不能倒装。主题前置强调句有以下几个句式：

1. 宾语或宾语从句移至句首

A terrible mess you have made of the work.

They have asked me to join them in the smuggle. That I will never do.

Mr. Li sent his two sons abroad for further study. One of them he sent to the United States; the other he sent to Japan.

以上三例中宾语移至句首

Whether he will succeed in his experiment or not I can't say.［宾语从句移至句首］

注意：宾语置于句首而前面有强调性修饰语时，主谓也可以采用部分倒装语序：

Greater efforts should we make to speed up our modernization.［在此句中主谓不倒装也可］

有时在一定的语言环境中，带有修饰语的宾语前置时则强调其反面的意义，因此具有讽刺含义：

Much gratitude I get for helping him. (=I have helped him, but he is ungrateful.) 我帮了他忙，可他感谢我个屁。

2. 介词的宾语移至句首

His personality I'm not fond of.

War we are not afraid of, but war we are opposed to.

3. 表语移至句首

An unidentified flying object（不明飞行体）it might be.

Keener and keener he became on stamp collecting.

有时表语移至句首不仅为了强调而且可以使上下文紧密联系：

We should not resent being called Eurasians. Eurasians（欧亚混血儿）we are, and Eurasians we shall remain.

4. 宾语补语移至句首

Chairman of the board（董事长）they have elected him.

A scandal people call the whole matter.

5. 副词或状语短语移至句首

In China I was born, and in China I'll die.

Reluctantly, he agreed to the plan.

6. 在though或as引导的让步从句中，形容词、名词或副词常移至从句之首以起强调作用

Young as he is (=Young though he is), he is equal to the task. 他虽然年轻，却能胜任这项工作。

Much as I like this book (=Much though I like this book), I like others much better. 我虽然喜欢这本书，却更喜欢其他的那些书。

Child as she is (=Child though she is), she knows a great deal. 她虽然还是个孩子，可已懂得不少事了。

在有关as及though的这一主题前置的强调句型中，要注意以下几点：

1 　如果形容词、名词或副词不置于句首时，as便不作“though”解，而意义上等于“since”或“because”。

As he was ill, he did not attend the meeting. 他因生病未出席会议。

Ill as he was, he attended the meeting. 他虽然生病仍出席了会议。

2 　单数名词置于句首时，前面不用a(n）。

这是习惯用法，故不能说“A child as she is, she knows a great deal.”

3 　在主题前置强调句的句型中，as有时也可作“因为”解而不作“虽然”解，意义上的区别主要取决于句子的内容。

Tired as he was, he sat up late writing his book.［表让步］他虽然很疲倦，还是写书到很晚才睡。

Tired as he was, he went to bed early.［表原因］他因疲倦，很早就睡了。

Absorbed as he was in his experiment, he did not notice my entering the laboratory.

as如作“虽然”解，文理显然不通，作“因为”解，便顺理成章，“Absorbed as he was in his experiment”这一主题前置结构要比“As he was absorbed in his experiment”强调得多。

4 　在as和though的主题前置句型中，动词也可置于句首。

Try as I might, I could not bring him round to the realization of his erroneous behavior. 我虽然作了很大努力，还是不能使他认识自己的错误行为。

I lost Cabrie; search as I would, I could find no sign of him. 我失掉了格勃黎，不论我怎样寻找，也不能发现他的踪迹。

例　_____, the most familiar to general public is the criminal jurisdiction.

A. All the activities

B. The activities

C. Of all the activities

D. It is the activities

［分析］答案为C。原来的自然语序是“The most familiar of all the activities to general public is...”现把介词短语置于句首以示强调。

例　_____, Jane is not prettier than her younger sister.

A. Pretty though is she

B. Pretty as is she

C. As she is pretty

D. Pretty as she is

［分析］A和B错的原因是形容词Pretty置于句首时，它们的主谓不应倒装而都倒装了；C也错，因As放在句首作“因为”解，全句句意不通。D对，Pretty置于句首而主谓并不倒装，as则作“虽然”解，全句便顺理成章。

Exercises

一、多项选择

1. The magnetic compass does not operate satisfactorily near the magnetic pole, nor_____near the geographic poles.

A. does the marine gyrocompass

B. with the marine gyrocompass

C. the marine gyrocompass does

D. the marine gyrocompass operates

2. Never again_____political office after his 1928 defeat for the presidency.

A. Alfred E.Smith seriously sought

B. seriously Alfred E.Smith sought

C. when did Alfred E.Smith seriously seek

D. did Alfred E.Smith seriously seek

3. Western Nebraska generally receives less snow than_____eastern Nebraska.

A. does

B. in

C. it does in

D. in it does

4. South of Gallup, New Mexico, _____one of the legendary Seven Cities of Cibola visited by Colorado in 1540.

A. where the ancient ruins of Hawikuh lie

B. the ancient ruins lie of Hawikuh

C. the ancient ruins of Hawikuh lie

D. lie the ancient ruins of Hawikuh

5. _____at conveying her underlying message（寓意）through topical plots（结合当前时事的故事情节）and contemporary characters（当代人物）that by 1940 her book had sold some three million copies.

A. So successful, Grace L.Hill

B. So successful was Grace L.Hill

C. Grace L.Hill, so successful

D. Because Grace L.Hill was so successful

6. Bill wasn't happy about the delay, and_____.

A. I was neither

B. neither I was

C. I wasn't either

D. either was I

7. Do you know_____?

A. what time the movie starts

B. what time starts the movie

C. what time does the movie start

D. the movie starts what time

8. I didn't hear_____because there was too much noise where I was sitting.

A. what said

B. what did he say

C. what he said

D. what was he saying

9. I am going to the meeting, and_____.

A. so does Dave

B. so is Dave

C. so goes Dave

D. Dave is so

10. The African killer bees could not be handled safely, nor_____.

A. could their honey be harvested

B. their honey could be harvested

C. harvested could their honey be

D. could not their honey be harvested

11. Especially important to many people_____.

A. there is legislation against pollution

B. is legislation against pollution

C. it is legislation against pollution

D. is legislation against pollution is

12. Only when humans employ nonchemical approaches to pest control_____.

A. will creatures such as roaches and rodents be successfully eliminated

B. creatures such as roaches and rodents will be successfully eliminated

C. if creatures such as roaches and rodents will be successfully eliminated

D. that creatures such as roaches and rodents will be successfully eliminated

13. The brown thrasher is not a particularly large or strong bird, _____equipped for fighting.

A. it is not

B. but not

C. neither is

D. nor is it

14. A sneeze cannot be performed voluntarily, _____be easily suppressed.

A. nor can it

B. and cannot it

C. nor it can

D. it cannot

15. “Can you tell me where my niece is?”“Yes, of course, _____!”

A. here your niece comes

B. here comes your niece

C. comes your niece

D. your niece here comes

16. No sooner_____gone home than it began to rain heavily.

A. had I

B. have I

C. I had

D. I have

17. Never before in similar circumstances_____.

A. a British Prime Minister had refused to step down

B. did a British Prime Minister have refused to step down

C. a British Prime Minister did have refused to step down

D. had a British Prime Minister refused to step down

18. “Will Lily be here today?”“No, and_____.”

A. her sister won't, too

B. neither her sister

C. neither won't her sister

D. neither will her sister

19. Nowhere in the world_____.

A. travelers can buy so much beauty for so little as in Hawaii

B. no one can buy so much beauty for so little money as Hawaii

C. so much beauty can be bought for so little money in Hawaii

D. can travelers buy so much beauty for so little money as in Hawaii

20. Hardly had she seen her husband_____she ran to him.

A. when

B. than

C. as

D. that

21. Not only_____a promise, but he also kept it.

A. did he made

B. he made

C. did he make

D. he makes

22. John doesn't like American beer. _____does Anna.

A. So

B. Neither

C. Either

D. Also

23. Mary likes strawberry splits（草莓甜食）. _____John.

A. So

B. So does

C. Also

D. Too

24. _____1895 did Cornell University begin to offer a degree in ornithology（鸟类学）.

A. Not until

B. Not since

C. Until

D. In

二、改错

1. Never before I have seen (A) anyone who has (B) the skill John has (C) when he repairs (D) engines.

2. No sooner had she begun (A) to sing when (B) her audience began (C) to applaud and cheer so loudly (D) that she stopped and bowed.

3. Within the Alamo was (A) one hundred and eighty men, more than two thirds of whom (B) had recently migrated (C) from near-by states (D).

4. Our civilization is so commonplace (A) to us that (B) rarely we (C) stop to think about its complexity (D).

5. Not only did the Egyptians preserve (A) the dead bodies of important people, but they also buried with the dead person (B) every object which (C) he might possibly (D) use in an after life.

6. From the chart shown (A) on (B) page 115, one can easily see (C) how large each country is and how many inhabitants does it have (D).

7. No sooner had he begun (A) to speak as (B) his auditors (C) started to boo and hiss（发嘘声；喝倒彩） (D).

8. Neither he can do (A) as (B) he is told, nor can his parents (C) hope to change (D) him.

9. Hardly he had (A) entered (B) the room when he was asked (C) to leave (D) the room at once.

10. It is not known exactly when (A) the first immigrants arrived (B) in the New World, but where did that event occur (C) is certain (D).

11. Such were (A) the predominant (B) land life throughout (C) the Mesozoic age (D).

12. Only by (A) then he became aware (B) of (C) the fact that there should be more hardships ahead than he had always expected (D).

13. Hardly had he received (A) his pay (B) than (C) he bought (D) a new color television set.

三、用倒装句改写下列句子，使之能强调括号内的单词或词组

1. The little boy ran (out) from behind his mother to meet his father.

2. A birthday card for you is (here).

3. He was excited (to such a degree) that he couldn't go to sleep till the wee hours.

4. We (often) thought of visiting that city, but we (never) had a chance.

5. The Great Hall of the people stands (on one side of the square).

6. The question was (so difficult) that I couldn's answer it then.

7. The morning was (fine and sunny) when we started.

8. The whistling of a steam engine was heard (in the far distance).

9. A sixteen-year-old boy from the Republic of Korea（韩国）played (so well) that he won the boy's singles（单打）in the table tennis invitational tournament（邀请赛）.

10. I (seldom) watch TV these days.

11. The east is (red).

12. The teacher had (no sooner) left the classroom than the pupils rushed out.

13. Some of them didn't realize how tempting the proposition was (until then).

14. The prospecting team（地质勘探队）had been (hardly/scarcely) placed in a serious predicament（严重的困境）when the local people rushed to its rescue.

15. We tried (in vain) to make him accept our good advice.

16. You find bars like this only in Paris.

17. His photograph taken in Macao hung (behind him).

18. A partial answer will be found (in this chapter).

19. The door burst open and the crowd rushed (in).

20. There was a sudden gust of wind and his hat went (away).

21. The quotations on the stock market (up and up).

22. The gun went (crack) and the hawk crumpled out of the sky.

23. A department store stands (opposite our building).

24. That young man who has gone through many hardships is (intelligent and courageous).

25. The workers did their work (so) well that they fulfilled the plan ahead of schedule.

26. China will not seek territorial expansion（领土扩张）(under any circumstances).

27. Such an opportunity occur (to few people).

28. I (little) thought a year ago that I would be sitting here today reading sentences in English.

29. He (not only) complained about the food, but he also refused to pay for it.

30. He worries about his financial position (so much) that he can't sleep at night.

31. I did not learn the truth (till) the next day.

Keys

一、多项选择

1.［A］句中第二个分句由nor引导，主谓须倒装。（gyrocompass n. 环动罗盘）

2.［D］Never置于句首时主谓须倒装。

3.［A］than does eastern Nebraska=than eastern Nebraska receive snow。C中的it只能指Western Nebraska，代入句中便是Western Nebraska does（指receives snow）in eastern Nebraska，显然不通。

4.［D］用作表语或状语的地点（或方位）副词置于句首时，句子通常采用全部倒装语序。此题句不仅具备这一条件，而且Hawikuh后面接一个很长的同位语短语“one of the legendary...in 1540”，故只能选用全部倒装语序的D。

5.［B］“So+形容词”置于句首时，句子也采用全部倒装语序。A和C两项中都缺动词was。D项中之从属连词Because需去掉。

6.［C］A和B需改为Neither was I。

7.［A］句中谓语动词know接一个间接疑问句作为其宾语，该间接疑问句须用陈述句语序。

8.［C］理由同第11题中所述。

9.［B］A项（so does Dave）中的does不能替代题句中的am going to，故错。

10.［A］

11.［B］在此句中形容词important用作表语置于句首，句子宜采用全部倒装。

12.［A］请参照第5题的解释。

13.［D］C项中is后面应补上主语it才对。

14.［A］

15.［B］

16.［A］

17.［D］A中主谓未倒装，故错。B和C不合语法。

18.［D］A项中的结构系否定式，故须把too改为either。

19.［D］Nowhere in the world系否定式，置于句首就需要句子主谓倒装。

20.［A］注意，在Hardly/Scarcely开头的句子结构中也可用before替代when。

21.［C］A项中的made需改为make；B项中的he made错在未倒装。

22.［B］第一句表否定意义，故不能用so来引导第二句。

23.［B］第一句表肯定意义，第二句便应用so来引导。

24.［A］not until置于句首时，主句的主谓须倒装。

二、改错

1.［A］改为have I seen。

2.［B］改为than。

3.［A］改为were。题句系倒装句，主语one hundred and eighty men是复数。

4.［C］改为do we stop。在此句中that引导一个结果状语从句，在该从句中表否定意义的副词rarely置于从句之首，主谓须倒装。

5.［C］改为every object that。在本句中Not only位于句首，主谓也倒置。故A不错，由于先行词object为every所修饰，故在正式英语里关系代词宜用that而不用which。

6.［D］改为陈述句语序it has。句中谓语动词see接两个间接疑问句作为其宾语。

7.［B］改为speak than。

8.［A］改为can he do。

9.［A］改为had he。带有否定含义的副词hardly, scarcely，rarely，seldom等置于句首时主谓需倒装。

10.［A］应改为that event occurred。在本句并列连词but引导的分句中，主语系一间接疑问句，需采用陈述句语序。

11.［A］改为was。此题采用全部倒装语序，主语为land life。

12.［B］改为did he become aware。

13.［C］改为when或（before）。No sooner后接than，但Hardly/Scarcely接when（或before）。

三、用倒装句改写下列句子，使之能强调括号内的单词或词组

1. Out ran the little boy from behind his mother to meet his father.

2. Here is a birthday card for you.

3. To such a degree was he excited that he couldn't go to sleep till the wee hours.［the wee hours凌晨时］

4. Often did we think of visiting that city, but never did we have a chance.

5. On one side of the square stands the Great Hall of the People.

6. So difficult was the question that I could not answer it then.

7. Fine and sunny was the morning when we started.

8. In the far distance was heard the whistling of a steam engine.

9. So well did a sixteen-year-old boy from the Republic of Korea play that he won the boys' singles in the table tennis invitational tournament.［the Republic of Korea韩国］

10. Seldom do I watch TV these days.［这些日子我难得看电视。］

11. Red is the east.［改为全倒装便产生强烈修辞效果，即“东方红啊”。］

12. No sooner had the teacher left the classroom than the pupils rushed out.［注意No sooner...than的搭配］

13. Not until then did some of them realize how tempting the proposition was.

14. Hardly (or:Scarcely) had the prospecting team been placed in a serious predicament when the local people rushed to its rescue.［注意Hardly/scarcely...when的搭配］

15. In vain did we try to make him accept our good advice.

16. Only in Paris can you find bars like this.

17. Behind him hung his photograph taken in Macao.

18. In this chapter will be found a partial answer.

19. The door burst open and in rushed the crowd.

20. There was a sudden gust of wind and away went his hat.

21. Up and up went the quotations on the stock market.［股市行情一路上蹿］

22. Crack went the gun and the hawk crumpled out of the sky.

23. Oppsite our building stands a department store（百货公司）.

24. Intelligent and courageous is that young man who has gone through many hardships.

25. So well did the workers do their work that they fulfilled the plan ahead of schedule.

26. Under no circumstances will China seek territorial expansion.

27. To few people does such an opportunity occur.

28. Little did I think a year ago that I would be sitting here today reading sentences in English.

29. Not only did he complain about the food, but he also refused to pay for it.

30. So much does he worry about his financial position that he can't sleep at night.

31. Not until the next day did I learn the truth.

第十八章　介词

一、介词的分类

英语中常用的介词就其构成来说大致可分为两类：简单介词和成语介词。简单介词由一个单词构成，其中较为常见的有：

成语介词是由两个或两个以上单词构成，如：

在这些成语介词中，要注意词的前后搭配，如ahead of不能说成ahead for，apart from 不能说成apart with，记得它们的搭配在实际应用和应试时至关重要。

例　Cowboys in movies never seem (A) to have (B) any trouble drawing guns out from (C) their (D) holsters.

［分析］C错，out from不是成语介词，应改为out of，作“自……”解，表示动作或位置的变化。

例　Robert always does whatever (A) he pleases (B), without regard of (C) feelings of others (D).

［分析］C错，按regard的搭配应为without regard to，作“不考虑……；不顾及……”解。

二、介词短语及其句法功能

1. 充当介词宾语的成分

介词在句中不能独立使用，它后面必须接一个宾语构成介词短语，又称介词词组，才能充当一个成分发挥其句法功能。能充当介词宾语的主要有：

1 　名词。

The train pulled into London at 7:30 a.m.

2 　代词。

If you take overweight luggage with you, you will have to pay an extra charge. 如果你带的行李超重，你就得加付超重费。

3 　数词。

In nine (cases) out of ten we will win the match. 十有八九我们会赢得这场比赛。

4 　动名词（短语）。

He insisted on my going there immediately.

5 　不定式（短语）。

不定式结构一般不可以用作介词宾语，在现代英语中可用在含有否定意义单词but和except后面；另外要注意的是，如果前面谓语部分有实义动词do，does或did时，but和except后面接不带to的不定式，如无实义动词do，does or did，则跟带to的不定式：

介词but及except后面均跟不带to之不定式，因前面都有动词do或did。

The girl did nothing but cry.

I could do nothing but wait for the reply.

We cannot do anything except lend you some money.

试比较下面的例子：

［无谓语动词do，故but与except后接带to不动式］

I had no choice but to do it at once.

My son seldom comes except to ask me for money.

疑问词+不定式也可作介词宾语，详见第十章“动名词与不定式的比较”那一部分。

6 　某些地点副词和时间副词。

It is very warm in here.

There is a department store over there.

The light came from afar. 这光由远处射来。

We didn't learn of the discovery until recently.

7 　形容词。

不是所有的形容词都可用作介词宾语，实际上只是在一些固定的词组中形容词才用作介词的宾语，构成介词短语。以下是一些常见的介词接形容词的固定搭配：

· at large 逍遥法外；一般的

The police are sure to catch the criminal;he won't remain at large for long. 警察一定会抓住那罪犯；他不会长期逍遥法外的。

Sydney Sheldon's novels are well received by the public at large. 西德尼·谢尔顿的小说深受广大读者欢迎。

· at (the) best 最好也不过；充其量也不过

We can hope to get there at four o'clock at best. 我们最早也只能在四点钟到达那里。

· at one's (its)+最高级形容词处于……状态

Tomatoes are at their best in early summer. 初夏时的番茄最佳。

Children are at their gayest at Christmas time. 圣诞节期间是孩子们最快乐的时刻。

· at (the) latest 最迟；至迟

I'll be at your place by three at latest. 我最迟三点钟到你家。

· at least 至少

Today there are at least five hospitals in my home town. 如今我的家乡至少有五家医院。

· at (the) longest（指日期）至多；最晚

The suit of clothes will be ready in a week at the longest. 这套衣服最晚一个星期就可做好。

· at (the) most 至多

I won't take too long to get there, three quarters of an hour at most. 我到那里不会花太长时间，最多三刻钟。

· for better or worse 不论好歹；不管怎么样

At their wedding, they promised to live together for better or worse. 在婚礼上，他俩表示要苦乐与共，永矢不渝。

· for good (and all) 永久地；一劳永逸地

He says he is leaving the country for good. 他说他这次离国将不再回来。

He told me that his stomach trouble had been cured for good and all. 他告诉我他的胃病已根治了。

We thought she had come for a visit, but it seems she is staying for good. 我们还以为她只是来逗留几天，但看来她要永久待下去了。

· for short 简称；缩写

The United States of American is called USA for short. 美利坚合众国简称为USA。

· for certain（或sure）肯定地；确实地

I can't say for certain when the project will be completed. 这项研究计划将什么时候完成，我可说不准。

It's raining hard, but I think our teacher will come for sure. 雨下得很大，但我想老师一定会来的。

· for the better 好转

His state of health has changed for the better recently. 近来他的健康状况有所好转了。

· for the worse 恶化；变坏

His condition changed for the worse, so we decided to send him to the hospital. 他的病情恶化了，所以我们才决定送他入院。

· far from+形容词　远远不……

The preliminary results are far from satisfactory. 初步成果很不理想。

· from bad to worse 越来越坏；每况愈下

The situation went from bad to worse when first the father fell ill and then the son. 先是父亲病了，接着儿子又倒下，家里的情形是每况愈下。

· in brief/in short 简言之；总而言之

In short, if we want to do our work well, we must make preparations carefully. 总而言之，如果我们想把工作做好，就得好好准备准备。

As time is limited, please tell us in brief exactly what happened. 时间有限，请简短地跟我们说说究竟发生了什么事情。

· in bad (with sb.) 失去（某人的）欢心

Smith lost his job after he got in bad with his boss. 史密斯由于不讨老板的欢喜而失业了。

· in common 共同

The two brothers have very little in common in their taste and manners. 这两兄弟的嗜好和态度极少相似。

· in common with 与……相同；如同

The two sisters have nothing in common with each other. 这两姐妹毫无共同之处。

· in earnest 认真地

My cousin has been studying English in earnest since he arrived in the United States. 我的表弟自从到了美国就认真学起了英语。

· in full 全部地；充分地

The foreign minister's speech was published in full in the newspapers. 外交部长的讲话全文刊载在各家报纸上。

· in the clear 按内宽计算；无嫌疑；无罪；还清债务

The corridor is four meters in the clear. 走廊内宽为四米。

Lawrence was formerly suspected of having stolen a video recorder, but now he is in the clear. 劳伦斯原先被怀疑偷了录像机，但现在已解除了嫌疑。

With obstructions removed, the engine is now in the clear. 障碍排除后，发动机运行正常。

Jennifer borrowed some money when she was out of a job, but now she has paid it back and she is in the clear. 珍妮弗失业时借了些钱，但现已还清，不欠债了。

· in the open 在户外；公开地；在露天；在野外

The school concert tonight will be held in the open. 今晚的校音乐会将在户外举行。

The negotiations between the two countries are being carried on in the open. 两国正在进行公开的谈判。

· in the raw 处在自然状态的；没有加工的；裸露的

Not long ago they supplied us with some foodstuffs in the raw. 不久前他们给我们提供了一些没有加工的食品。

When I passed by the small river, I saw several boys splashing about merrily in the raw. 我沿小河边走过去时，看到好几个男孩光着身子在河浜里嬉水。

· in the red 亏损；出现赤字

Mr. Patterson ran his farm in the red because of successive crop failures. 由于连年作物歉收，帕特森先生经营的农场出现了赤字。

· in the right 有理的；正确的

The situation is complicated.It's hard to say which of the two sides is in the right. 情况复杂，很难说两方中哪一方正确。

· in the rough 粗糙的

The plan is still in the rough, and we need to improve on it. 这项计划还很粗糙，我们还需加以改进。

· in the wrong 不对；错的

Don't put me in the wrong;you yourself should be responsible for the error. 别把错推在我身上，你自己应对这一错误负责。

· in vain 徒劳；无效

We all advised him not to smoke so much, but in vain. 我们都劝过他烟不要吸得这么多，但不起作用。

· in particular 特别；尤其

I noticed her eyes in particular, because they were very large. 我特别注意到她的眼睛，因为她的眼睛特别大。

· of late 近来；最近

There have been too many high school dropouts of late. 近来很多中学生都中途退学了。

· of old 昔日的；当年的；很久

My parents often recollect days of old. 我的父母经常回忆过去的日子。

That fellow can't deceive me; I've known him of old. 那家伙骗不了我，我早就了解他的为人了。

· on the sly 偷偷地；秘密地

As the speech was boring and I didn't want to listen any longer, I left the hall on the sly. 由于这次讲座枯燥无味，我也不想再听了，就偷偷地溜出了礼堂。

· on the whole 总的来说；大体上；基本上

Our get-together last night was on the whole a success. 我们昨晚的联欢会，总的来说，开得不错。

· to the contrary（相反的；相反地）

People will continue to believe it until you can produce proof to the contrary. 在你提出相反的证据之前，人们会继续相信这件事。

· to the full 尽量地；充分地；十分

You should develop your talent to the full. 你应充分施展你的才华。

· to the good 有好处；净赚

An apple a day is all to the good. 一天吃一个苹果是大有好处的。

With that deal we netted 500 dollars to the good. 那笔生意我们净赚了500美元。

8 　从句（充当介词宾语）

The girl is afraid of what people will say of her if she marries a man 30 years older than she.

The mother stayed up till after her son got home safely.

I'm thinking of how I can shorten the article to 2,000 words.

The suit is all right except that the sleeves are a little too long. 这套衣服，除了袖子稍长以外，是不错的。

Criticism and self-criticism are necessary in that it helps us to correct our mistakes. (in that=because)

There was not a sound save that a bird called from time to time. 除了不时有一两声鸟叫之外，一点声音也没有。（save that=except that）

注意，that引导的从句，除了except that，in that，save that之外，通常是不能直接用作介词宾语的，需在that从句前加上先行词it才可。试比较：

We are counting on that you will cooperate with us in our research.（×）

We are counting on it that you will cooperate with us in our research.（√）

You are my close friend.I depend upon that you will lend me a helping hand in this matter.（×）

You are my close friend.I depend upon it that you will lend me a helping hand in this matter.（√）

从以上这许多例子中可以看出，介词接从句作其宾语时，介词便不可省略。

例　We spent (A) endless hours in (B) the discussion what we should do (C) as (D) a group.

［分析］C错，discussion和从句what we should do不能接上关系，需在从句前加上介词of，即discussion of what we should do；这样，从句what we should do作介词of的宾语。

2. 介词短语的句法功能

1 　用作名词后置修饰语。

Abraham Wilson is a man of integrity（正直的人）.

In China all students in institutions of higher learning（高等院校）enjoy freedom of speech.

Most of the articles on display（展出的物品）are new products.

The splendid building at the foot of the mountain is a sanitarium（疗养院）.

Have you change for a hundred-dollar bill? 你有兑换一张100元美钞的零钱吗？

2 　用作状语。

The audience remained very quiet during the performance.［用作时间状语］

Put the magazine back in its place as soon as you finish reading it.［用作地点状语］

My eyes are tired from long reading.［用作原因状语］

Today I got up early in order to catch the earliest bus.［用作目的状语］

You may pay for your purchase by cash, credit card or check. 你可用现款、记账卡或支票支付你所购买的东西。［用作方式状语］

Despite his illness, he goes to work every day.［用作让步状语］

As time went on, the friendship between them grew into love by degrees. 随着时间的推移，他俩的友谊逐渐发展成为爱情。［用作程度状语］

The vixen stood there with arms akimbo. 那泼妇两手叉腰地站在那里。［用作伴随性状语］

In all probability Quirk will defeat his opponent. 夸克打败他的对手是十拿九稳的。［用作评注性状语］

To her horror, the beast approached. 那野兽渐渐逼近，使她很惊恐。［用作结果状语］

Hob is not stupid; on the contrary, he is very intelligent.［用作连接性状语］

3 　用作表语。

The new samples are of interest to many clients. 许多客户对新样品很感兴趣。

Many of the actors and actresses are on location now. 许多男演员和女演员现在在拍外景。

I am for putting the meeting off. 我赞成推迟会议。

4 　用作宾语补语。

It is wrong to think oneself above others. 自以为高人一等是错误的。

We found the goods in good condition. 我们发现货物情况良好。

5 　用作另一介词的宾语。

I didn't go to bed until after the work.

Suddenly a new singer appeared from behind the curtain.

6 　偶尔也用作主语。

A: What time do you think will be convenient?

B: Between two and four will suit me.［主语］

Over there is where the film studio（电影制片厂）is situated.［主语］

三、介词词组的分类及其同状语或定语从句的相互转换

在英语中介词是最为活跃的成分，能和动词、名词、形容词和副词等构成词组。由于其活跃性，介词词组可分为双词介词如because of，三词介词如by virtue of和四词介词如on the basis of。介词词组在句中主要起状语或后置定语作用；因此，介词词组按其在句中的意义能与状语或定语从句相互转换。如：

The government official eventually succeeded in convincing the public of his innocence.

该政府官员终于使公众相信他是清白的。

The government official eventually succeeded in convincing the public that he was innocent.

［介词短语转换为that从句］

In spite of his slight miscalculation about the cost of production, the company suffered a big loss.

尽管他对生产成本的计算错了一点点，但公司却蒙受了很大的损失。

Though he made a slight miscalculation about the cost of production, the company suffered a big loss.［介词短语转换为though引导的让步状语从句］

You indulge in sensual pleasures; I have to remind you of your responsibility towards your family. 你沉迷于声色；我得提醒你对家人负责。

You indulge in sensual pleasures; I have to remind you that you have a responsibility towardsyour family.［介词短语转换为that从句］

To my knowledge they are going to break ground for the new project next week. 据我所知，他们的新工程下周破土动工。

So far as I know, they are going to break ground for the new project next week.［介词短语转为so far as I know状语从句］

四、表示时间的介词在使用上的区别

1. at，on，in，of

1 　at。

A. 表示一点时间（a point of time）。

在计时上at表示点钟，past表示“过”几分，to表示“差或缺”几分，在美国英语中也可用of来代替to。如：

at two o'clock 2点

at seven minutes past two 2点过7分

at six minutes to（或of）three 3点差6分

at 5:20 p.m. 下午5点20分

B. 表示破晓、黎明、正午、子夜、日出、日落等时，含有时间上“一点”的概念。

at daybreak

at midnight

at dawn

at sunrise

at noon

at sunset

at night

at nightfall

注意：在上列at介词短语中不能有冠词，可以说in the night，但不能说at the night。

C. 表示每天进餐的时间。

at breakfast

at supper

at lunch

at dinner

由于at指短暂的一点时间，该介词在时间上的意义，在实际应用中，便被引申来表示“一……就……（=as soon as...）”这一前后紧接的时间概念。特别用于at the sight of和at the thought of词组中：

At the sight of the actor's appearance on the stage（=As soon as the audience in the hall saw the actor's appearance on the stage）, the hall rang with thunderous applause. 一看见该演员出现在舞台上，大厅里掌声雷动。

He felt uneasy at the thought of (at the thought of=as soon as he thought of) his mother's illness.

例　He went pale_____the news.

A. of

B. at

C. with

D. from

［分析］答案为B。at表示前后紧接的时间关系，at the news意同as soon as he heard the news。

2 　on则指比一点时间稍长的时间。

A. 表示特定的某一天：

on Sunday

on New Year's Eve（除夕）

on her birthday

on May 4(th)

on New Year's Day（元旦）

on the 2nd of July

B. 某天的早晨、中午或晚上：

on the morning of March 3(rd)

on the evening of June 6(th)

on the afternoon of April 5(th)

on the night of August 8(th)

▶▶ 在 morning，afternoon等这些词前加上形容词时，也用on：

on a sunny（阳光明媚的）morning

on a quiet evening

on a dull（无聊乏味的）afternoon

on a cold night

on+动名词也表示前后紧接的时间关系，即谓语动词的动作紧接发生在动名词的动作之后：

On hearing the news, she jumped for joy. 听到这个消息，她高兴得跳了起来。

On coming into the school, the teacher found large crowds of pupils waiting to welcome her. 一走进学校，老师就发现一大群学生在等着欢迎她。

The man told me all he knew on my asking for information. 当我一打听，那人就把所知道的全告诉了我。

例　_____he went to New York.

A. On the next day morning

B. On the next day's morning

C. In the next day's morning

D. On the morning of the next day

［分析］on表示某天的朝夕，故C明显不对。A和B不符习惯表达法，应改为next morning（前无介词及冠词），或the next morning（前有冠词，但无介词），或on the next morning（前有介词及冠词，但不能用day），故正确的选择是D。

例　_____at the town hall, the Queen was welcomed by the mayor.

A. On arriving

B. At arrival

C. On arrival

D. At reaching

［分析］答案为A。on+动名词表示前后紧接的时间意义，即“一进入市政厅，皇后就受到市长的欢迎。”

3 　in 用来表示较长的一段时间，如年、月、周、季节等。

in one week

in 1985

in two months

in winter

in January

in the nineteenth century

▶▶ in 也可用来表示短于一天的时段：

in the morning

in the evening

in the afternoon

in the night

4 　of表示时间时有一特殊句型，即of+a(n)+周日（或早晨/下午/黄昏）。

在这一结构里，虽然用不定冠词，表示的却是一个复数的概念，即表示经常性的行为：

We usually go shopping of a Sunday (=on Sundays). 我们通常星期天去买东西。

What do you do of an evening (=in the evening)? 你晚上做些什么？

用of表示的时间短语还有 of late（近来），of late years（最近几年），of (in) recent years（近年来），of old/yore（从前，往昔，很久）。

in days of old 从前；in days of yore 往昔，古时候

in the recent past 最近，近来

In days of yore man lived in caves. 古时候人类住在山洞里。

Things are very different now from what they used to be of old. 现在的情况跟以前大不一样。

There have been many high school dropouts of late. 近来中学生退学的很多。

Industry in our country has made remarkable progress of late years. 我国工业近几年来发展很快。

A great number of individual and institutional stock investors have lost money hand over fist on the stock market in the recent past. 近来大量股民和机构投资者在股票市场上输得惨重。

2. during，for，in，over，throughout

1 　during和in在用法上的异同。

A. 在表示一段时间时，during和in一般可以相互换用。

There were three telephone calls during（或in）your absence.

He came to see me during（或in）my illness.

I went swimming every day during（或in）the summer.

注意：和四季的名称连用时，不论表示泛指还是特指，during后面必须有定冠词the；in则稍有不同，在现代英语中in后面有the既可表示特指又可表示泛指，无the便系泛指：

I shall go to the seaside during the summer.［动词用将来时，指未来的夏季，故表示特指］

Many people go to the seaside during the summer.［句子中动词用一般现在时，指每年夏天，故表示泛指］

I shall go to the seaside in the summer.［动词用将来时，表示特指，有the］

Many people go to the seaside in summer.［动词用一般现在时，泛指每年夏天，通常无the，但在当代英语中也可有the］

B. during和in的不同点在于：during可指“在整个过程中”，更强调时间的延续；因此，当谓语动词表示持续性状态或习惯性动作时，则应用during；in则单纯指一段时间，在那一段时间里发生些什么。

试比较：

The American（该美国人）was in Brazil during the Korean War.［“待在巴西”是持续性状态，故用during］

The American was killed in the Korean War.［“was killed”是一时性动作，故用in］

There were repeated negotiations on disarmament between the two countries during 1964.［“反复举行裁军谈判”是重复性的持续动作，故用during］

The agreement was signed in 1964.［“签订”是一时性的短暂动作，故用in］

同样，during也通常和具有时间延续性的名词搭配使用，如stay，visit，meal等：

I visited many of my old friends during my stay in San Francisco. 在旧金山逗留期间，我拜访了许多老朋友。

During the meal the two prime ministers talked about world issues of common interest. 进餐时两位总理谈论了共同关心的世界问题。

We saw quite a few operas and art exhibitions during our visit in Paris. 在访问巴黎期间，我们观看了不少歌剧和艺术展览会。

2 　for和during用法上的异同。

for和during都表示一段时间，区别在于for通常与几小时、几周、几个月、几年连用，表示一个动作或状态继续或停滞的长短，而during则表示比较不大确定的时段。试比较：

I slept for one day.［指睡的状态持续了一天，即“睡了一整天”］

I slept during the day.［可能但不一定在整个白天都在睡觉，即“白天睡觉”］

I lived there for two months.［指连续住了两个月］

I lived there during my holidays.［可能整个假期，也可能假期中的一段时间住在那里。］

▶▶ 由于during和for都表示时间长度，两者在很多场合可以互换使用：

Though worried, Tom slept during（或for）most of the night.

We stayed in Rio Grande during（或for）the remaining days of the carnival. 在狂欢节剩下的几天里，我们待在了里奥格兰德。

但要表示在具体的时间长度里动作或状态的连续不断时，则必须用for，而不能用during。

只能用for不能用during。

We waited for two weeks.

I have known him for 10 years.

例　The progress (A) made (B) in space (C) travel for (D) the early 1960s was remarkable.

［分析］D错。句意指“20世纪60年代初期外层空间运行所取得的进展非常显著”。表示在某一时期内发生些什么，不是表示某一动作持续多久，故应把D改为in。

例　When in childhood (A), Mozart seemed to have few (B) interests apart from (C) music, about (D) which he had an insatiable curiosity.

［分析］A错。句意指在其整个童年时期，莫扎特只是对音乐具有浓厚的兴趣。强调整个过程时，宜用during，故应把A改为During his childhood，在childhood前加上his则明确指莫扎特。

例　We have lived in Washington_____about ten years.

A. since

B. in

C. during

D. for

［分析］句意指在华盛顿住了约10年，表示在具体的时间长度里动作的持续，故应选D (for)。

3 　表示“在（一般不是很长的）期间”时，during和over可换用。

He was so tired that he went to sleep during（或over）his work. 他非常累，干着干着活儿就睡着了。

4 　表示“在一段很长的期间”时，during和throughout可换用。

Food and other basic necessities of life were scarce during（或throughout）the war. 战争期间，食物及其他生活必需品比较匮乏。

Throughout his life（或During his lifetime）he had kept pigeons. 他有生之年一直养鸽。

During（或Throughout）their/marriage, she had only once seen him lose his temper. 在他们婚后的日子里，她只看到他发过一次脾气。

▶▶ 但在表示“千古，万世”等历史时期时，不能用during，宜用through或throughout如：

As sagacious prime minister of the Tang Dynasty, Wei Zheng will be remembered throughout the ages. 魏征作为唐朝一代贤相将万古流芳。

This poem by Li Bai has been read through all ages. 李白这首诗乃千古传诵之作。

In Chinese history QIN Gui was a traitor through the ages. 在中国历史上秦桧是千古罪人。

3. after，in，for

A. after和in都可用来表示将来时间，两者的区别在于after用于一点时间，in用于一段时间。

所谓一点时间是指具体的某时某分、某天、某月、某年；此外，皆算一段时间。after后面还可接具体的事件，in表一段时间时，有时作“在……以后”解，有时作“在……以内”解。一般说，谓语动词表示一时性的行为时，in作“在……以后”解；动词表示继续性的行为时，in作“在……以内”解。试比较：

The railway time-table will be altered after the first of August.［“8月1日”是具体日子，属一点时间，故用after］

The railway time-table will be altered in four weeks.［“四星期”是一段时间，故用in。altered作“变更”解，表示一时性行为，in应作“四星期以后”解］

The lawyer will be back after next Tuesday.［“下星期二”指一点时间，用after］

The lawyer will be back in a few days.［“几天”属一段时间，用in。will be back是一时性行为，in作“几天以后”解］

The distinguished guests（贵宾）will arrive after two o'clock.［“两点钟”是一点时间，用after］

The distinguished guests will arrive in two hours.［“两小时”不指明具体的几点钟，是一段时间，用in。arrive表示一时性动作，in作“两小时以后”解］

These new products will be available after July（或after 1987）.［“7月”或“1987年”均指具体月份、年份，属一点时间，故用after］

These new products will be mass-produced in a month（或in a year or two）.［“一月”或“一、二年”，不具体点明月名或年名，属一段时间，用in。mass-produce（成批生产）是继续性行为，故in作“将在一月以内”（或“将在一、二年内”）解］

▶▶ 大体说来，in表示将来时间通常多作“在……以后”解，要明确表示“在……以内”时，宜用within，如：I shall be back within a week. in后面还可接“一段时间+'s+time”作“在一段时间以后”解，如：The book will be published in five weeks' time.指“该书将在五星期以后出版。”

B. in与for在表示将来时间上的区别是：在肯定句中用in，但在否定句中只能用for。

The sun will rise in about a quarter of an hour. 太阳将在约一刻钟内升起。

The sun will not rise for about a quarter of an hour. 太阳不会在一刻钟内升起。

C. in 与for表示一段时期时，美国用in，英国则用for。

This is the best TV play that has appeared in（或for）years. 这是几年来上演的电视剧中最好的一个。

It is the hottest day in（或for）six years. 这是六年来最热的一天。

例　_____the next few days we will be studying Japanese culture.

A. On

B. After

C. In

D. At

［分析］the next few days，非具体时间，属一段时间，选C (In)，In the next few days作“过几天”解。

例　I_____there in three years.

A. went

B. have been

C. haven't been

D. was

［分析］选C。英美人在表达上倾向具体化，A和D都是过去时，题中的“三年”便可指过去年月中的任何三年，句意在时间概念上便显得模糊不清，不合习惯，可改为I went（或was）there three years ago（或in 1980，指明具体年份）。B用现在完成式，in three years 便指从三年前到现在，但全句还嫌笼统，宜在there后面加上once或twice或several times。C用否定现在完成时，明确表明“这三年来我（一次也）未去过那里。”three years是一段时期，可用in（美国英语）或for（英国英语）。

4. since，after

表示将来时间时，after接某一点时间；表示过去时after则可跟一点或一段时间：

They arrived after three o'clock.［接一点时间］

They arrived after three weeks.［接一段时间］

▶▶ 注意：after在时间计算上，通常不把它的宾语所表示的时间计算在内。

My son fell ill the day after getting home. 我儿子到家第二天就病倒了。

如要表示“到家的当天就病倒”，宜把介词短语改用从句：

⇒ My son fell ill the day he got home.

辨　after与since的区别

after后面接过去时间时，只表示某时以后，并没有一直继续到现在或过去某时为止的意思，故句中谓语动词要用过去时：

After liberation we became masters of the country.［After liberation=After China was liberated，指明过去时间，故句中谓语动词应用过去时。］

After my departure I heard nothing from her.［After my departure=After I departed，也点明过去时，故谓语动词用过去时heard］

since引导的过去时间词组则表示从过去某一点时间开始一直延续到现在或过去的说话时间，故谓语动词不能用过去时，要按实际情况用现在完成时或过去完成时：

I have heard nothing from her since my departure.［现在完成时指自我离开以来直到现在讲话时为止］

I had heard nothing from her since my departure.［过去完成时指直到我过去某时说那话时为止］

since另有两点该注意的地方：

A. since后面通常接一点时间，不接一段时间。

试比较：

I have been here since four years.［×因four years是一段时间，应改为since four years ago或for four years］

B. since作为连词，当句子以表示时间的it为主语时，句子时态用一般现在时远比用现在完成时自然、普遍：

It is（或has been）ten years since our corporation was established.［在此句中since用作连词。如果主语改为ten years，则必须用现在完成时］

Ten years have passed since our corporation was established.

但需注意，如果it不表时间而是表事物时，则需用现在完成时。如：It（指东西）has been laid here since yesterday.

例　I am especially glad that Bob decided to come to the party because we hadn't seen him_____several months.

A. since

B. until

C. before

D. for

［分析］答案为D (for)，for表持续性，指几年来一直未见他。

例　Since (A) the building of many modern factories and enterprises in the (B) twenty years from (C) 1948 to (D) 1968, the country's industry expanded enormously.

［分析］句意表示在1948年至1968年的20年中，该国建立了许多现代化工厂和企业，使其工业获得巨大发展。故A错，改为After，after可接过去某一事件，这里指building这一事。

5. behind，after

在表示时间时，after通常指“某一时间过去之后”，而behind则指“落后于”或“迟于”某一规定的时间标准。比较：

The old diabetic died after a few days. 那个年老的糖尿病患者几天之后就死了。

After all his efforts, Pat failed in his experiment. 在他百般努力之后，帕特的试验还是失败了。

Today you come here behind your usual time. 今天你来得比平常晚些。

在时间上，after还能表示顺序，指时间先后的次序，而behind通常指位置“在某人或某物的后面”：

Spring comes after winter. 冬去春来。

A little garden lies behind the house. 这幢房子后面有个小花园。

6. to，till，until，by

1 　to表示时间时，和till和until有时可以通用，有时则不能。

A. 表示钟点，作“离……差或缺几分”解时，只能用to。

It is five minutes to four by my watch. 我的表是四点缺五分。

It is five minutes past four by my watch. 我的手表是四点零/过五分。

B. 表示离某一事情的时间长度时，to和till可以换用。

It is only a quarter of an hour to（或till）lunch. 离午饭只有一刻钟了。

We have postponed the meeting to（或till）Friday. 我们已把会议推迟到星期五。

C. 与from连用表示“从……到……”一段时期时，to和till或until可相互换用：

We stayed in Hawaii from July to（或till）October.

In busy seasons farmers worked from morning till night.

I'll be on duty from one o'clock until（用till或to也可）half past five.

from July to (till/until) October指从7月（直）到10月。

from July to (till/until) October inclusive更明确表示7月和10月都包括在内。

from July to (till/until) October则表示7月和10月不包括在内。

from July through October指从7月（直）到10月底。

有些人认为from...until...不对，这一看法不免偏颇，实际上from...until...也很普通，当代名作家西德尼·谢尔顿（Sidney Sheldon）在其名著《天使的愤怒》Rage of Angels第五章的开头就用from...until...这一模式：

The next few weeks raced by; Jennifer found herself busy from early morning until late at night, serving summonses.

D. 在应用A till（或until）B即A所表示的动作或状态在till (until) B出现时立即停止这一模式的场合里不可以换用to。

I knew nothing about it till（或until）yesterday.

He waited until six o'clock.

在采用A till B这一模式的句子中，如换用to便成病句。

2 　till和until是同义词，until语气庄重，多用于句首以表示强调。till在口语里较常用，通常不宜用于句首。

The school authorities（校方当局）did not announce the decision till（或until）yesterday afternoon.

Until（不宜用till）yesterday afternoon, the school authorities did not announce the decision.

上面两例意思相同，即“直到昨天下午校方领导才宣布该项决定”，但第二句语气比第一句强。

▶▶ 必须注意，till及until用作介词时后面接表示时间的名词，不宜接表示地方的名词，这是一个极易疏忽的问题。

例　Jane walked until (A) the shopping center where (B) she got on (C) the bus for (D) school.

［分析］A错，因until后面接的shopping center是一个表地方的名词，故应把until改为to或as far as。

3 　by表示时间时作“在或到……前”或“不迟于……而可能早于”解，它后面接表示一点时间的宾语。

试比较下面各例句在时间概念上的差别：

I shall be there in two hours. 我将在两小时左右到那里。

I shall be there by two o'clock. 我将最迟不超过两点钟到那里。

I shall be there till two o'clock. 我将在那里待到两点钟。

7. with

with+宾语这一介词短语也可用来表示时间上的前后紧接关系，作“一……就……”或“随着……”解：

Most of the students at school rise with the bell. 在校大多数学生一听到铃响就起床。

With the first appearance of the sun, the birds begin to sing. 太阳一露脸鸟儿就开始鸣叫。

Temperature vary with the time of the year. 气温随季节的变化而变化。

8. inside of

在美国英语中，inside of用作成语介词，作“在……时间以内”解：

The manager will be back inside of an hour.

I think things will improve inside of a week.

9. as

as表示时间，作“在……时”解。

As a girl (=When she was a girl), Mrs. Simpson was rather delicate. 辛普森夫人做姑娘的时候，身体相当纤弱。

As a schoolboy, Jim showed every sign of genius. 杰姆还是学生的时候就显示出他是个天才的种种迹象。

10. about，around

about，around都作“大约（某时）”解，相等于approximately。

The project will be completed around/about the 10th. 这一项目将于本月10日左右完成。

Those styles were fashionable around the turn of the century. 那些式样在世纪之交时很流行。

注：表“大约（某时）”解时，英美都用around，不用round；表其他意思时around与round可换用，美国则更多地用around。

11. toward(s)

toward(s)作“接近或将近（某一时间）”解。

Food shortage will probably get worse towards the end of the century. 食物短缺的情况临近本世纪末将可能更为严重。

注：towards为英式拼法，toward为美式拼法。

12. between

between与and连用，作“在一段时间（如两天、两年、两次事件等）之内”解。

The bread and cakes at the bakery are at a 20% discount between 6 p.m. and 11 p.m. 晚上6点至11点那家面包房的面包和糕饼打八折。

Children must attend school between five and sixteen. 5岁到16岁的孩子必须上学。

I am not in the habit of eating between meals. 我没有在正餐之间吃零食的习惯。

Many significant changes took place between the end of the Second World War and the turn of the century in the fields of politics, economy, culture and science. 从二次大战结束到世纪之交，政治、经济、文化和科学领域发生了很多具有重大意义的变化。

五、表示地点、位置的介词在使用上的区别

1. at，in，on

A. at后面接小城镇或村庄，in接大城市。

I arrived at my home town early in the morning.

We arrived in Paris on January 10.

He lives in Shanghai but works at Pudong.

注意下面两组介词短语的差别：

狄克还在念书。

Dick is still at school.［英国式］

Dick is still in School.［美国式］

Oil paintings look better at a distance.［at a distance作“稍远的地方”解，句意是“油画远看起来较好。”］

After walking about an hour, we saw a village in the distance.［in the distance作“远处”解，句意是“走了约一小时后，我们看到远处有一个村落。”］

B. 在road前用on，street前用in或on皆可，门牌号码前则用at。

Many traffic accidents have happened on this road.

Our enterprise is well on the road to success.

在比喻用法中，road前面仍用on，后面则接介词to。

I met Patrick in（或on）the street, not inside a shop.［in the street是英国英语，on the street是美国英语］

Curtis lives at 140 Madison Street（住在麦迪逊街140号）.

C. 在一个机构前at和in均可用；用at是把该机构看成一个机关或组织，用in则把该机构看成为一个具体的地方。

Both my sons study at Harvard University.

Professor Marshall lives in Harvard University.［表地方］

D. 在地点、地名前用in表示某处的范围之内，用at则把某处视为空间的一点。

Let's meet at the library.

Every day he spends several hours reading reference books in the library.

E. 注意at，in和on与corner一起用时含义上的差别。

Walter is standing at the corner of the street.［at指街角的外面，即“……站在马路角旁”］

I found the cigarette-lighter（打火机）in the corner of the room.［in指房角的内面，即在房间的角落里找到该打火机］

There is a grocery（食品杂货商店）on the corner.［on指该商店是角的本身，不是角的内面，也不是角的外面，而是内外兼有，即“有一家食品杂货店坐落在街角上。”］

F. on作“在……上”解时，表示两者上下紧贴在一起的意思；in作“在……之中”解。

He put the pen container（笔筒）on the desk.［on指放在桌面上］

He put the pocket-size dictionary in the desk.［in指放在抽屉内］

“照镜子”指看反映在镜子中自己的形象，故应说look in the mirror，而不能说look at the mirror。

2. underneath，over，under，above，below，beneath

1 　underneath和on。

underneath是on的反义词，表示“一个东西紧贴在另一个东西的底下”。

The letter was pushed underneath the door. 该信是从门底下塞进去的。

2 　over和under。

over和under是一对反义词，over作“在……上面”解，under作“在……下面”解，两者均表示一种直接的垂直概念，但没有上下紧贴的意思。

There is a lamp (hanging) over the table. 桌子上方吊着一盏灯。

You will find it under the seat. 你会在座位下找到它的。

In the rain quite a few people were sheltering under the big tree.

3 　above和below。

above和below也是一对反义词，前者作“高于”解，后者作“低于”解，两者均不表示垂直的上下概念，也无相互紧贴的意思。

The sun rises above the horizon. 太阳升起在地平线上。

The sun sinks below the horizon. 太阳落在地平线下。

辨　比较above与over，below与under

The castle stands on a hill above the valley. 这个城堡坐落在溪谷之上的一座小山上。［不指垂直的上面］

Leslie was leaning over the dead body of his father when we went in. 当我们进去时，莱斯利正俯身在他父亲的遗体上。［指垂直的上面］

注：用于水面上时，above可表示“在……以北”解，如：

The fishing boat sank just above the island. 渔船就在那座岛以北的海面上沉没了。

This plain is below sea level. 这块平原低于海平面。

The traveller rested under a tree. 该旅行者在一棵树下休息。［under表示处于垂直线的下面］

4 　beneath表示具体的“在下”意义时，可指垂直的上下关系，也可指不带垂直的上下关系，有时也表示上下接触的意思，换句话说可和under，below和underneath互换使用。

There is a rock about ten meters beneath（或below）the surface of the lake. 在湖水下约10米处有一块岩石。［不表示上下垂直关系］

They are having a rest beneath（或under）the big tree.［表示垂直关系］

The hero is buried beneath（或underneath）this stone.［表示上下接触］

beneath较多地用于抽象意义，表示“不值得；不屑；有失……的身份”的意思：

Melvin entertains the notion that doing manual work is beneath his dignity. 梅尔文抱有干体力劳动工作有失身份的这种想法。

The book is beneath criticism. 这本书不值得批评。

A lazybones is beneath contempt. 懒骨头是极可鄙的。［a lazybones（须用复数形式）=a lazy person］

3. at，by，beside，besides，alongside (of)，near，next to

1 　at，beside和by在表示位置时，都作“在……旁边”解。

它们之间的区别是：at指有目的的接近，通常含有接触的意思；by与beside往往表示偶然的靠近，不一定含有接触的含义，但by比beside语气较强。

Father is at the desk again. 父亲又伏案工作了。［伏案目的为了工作，人和书桌接触］

The manager sat by（或beside）the desk，giving an interview to the journalist. 经理坐在写字台旁边，接见新闻记者。［表示随意而坐］

▶▶ 注意，用动词stand表示“站在……旁边”时，后面只能跟beside，因stand by是短语词组，作“支持（某人）；遵守（诺言、决议和声明等）”解。试比较：

They stood beside me, watching the volleyball match. 他们站在我的身旁，观看排球比赛。

Whatever happens, I'll stand by you. 不论发生什么，我总会支持你的。

Adams is a man who stands by his promises. 亚当斯是个遵守诺言的人。

2 　alongside of=alongside，两者和beside同义。

The car parked alongside (of) the curb. 汽车靠街道的路缘停着。［curb路缘系英式，美式为kerb］

If you stay alongside of me, you won't get lost. 你如不离我身旁，便不会走失。

3 　beside，besides。

beside和besides在拼法上仅差一个字母，但意思却迥然不同。beside除作“在……旁边”解外，还可引申为“与……相比”的意思。besides则作“除……外还”解，在肯定句中，表示“除……外还有”的意思。试比较：

There is an orchard beside our house. 我们的房子旁边有一座果园。

Curtis isn't very good at mathematics, but beside Roger, he is a genius at it. 柯蒂斯数学不太好，但与罗杰相比，他已是个天才了。

The point you have just raised is beside the question.［beside作“irrelevant to”解，句意是“你刚才提出的论点与这个问题风马牛不相及。”］

There were four others present at the meeting besides Mr. Randall.［这是肯定句，besides作in addition to（除……外还有……）解，故句意是“出席会议的除兰德尔先生外还有其他四个人。”］

We spoke of no one besides you.［这是否定句，besides同except，作“除……外不再”解，句意是“我们只提到你，没有提到别的任何人。”］

例　“They were the only men who received votes_____me.”

“Oh, I see.”

A. next

B. besides

C. unless

D. beside

［分析］答案为B，此题的意思是“除我之外，他们是唯一得到选票的人。”故不能选D，因beside作“在……旁边”解。

4 　near作“在……附近；靠近（not far from；close to）”解。

The only disadvantage in my neighborhood is that there is no hospital near it. 我住的地段的唯一不利条件就是附近没有医院。

Don't go near the dog.It is dangerous. 不要走近那条狗，它会咬人的。

① near作“在……附近；靠近”解时，可与near to换用，但near要比near to更普通，如：

The municipal library is near (near to) the school. 市图书馆在学校附近。

② 当near用于转义或作副词用时，不可换为near to。例如：

The graduation thesis is near completion. 毕业论文快要完成了。

This bottle of wine is nowhere near full. 这瓶酒一点也不满。

另外，near to可表示“对……亲密”，near则不能。比较：

She is near the manager. 她在经理旁边。

She is near to the manager. 她同经理关系密切。

③ 在习语come near或come near to中，near仍作介词处理，后接动名词，不能接不定式。如：

The traffic accident came near (came near to) killing him. 那起交通事故几乎使他丧命。

在英式英语的上列习语中，往往用go代替come。go near 接动名词，go near to则可接动名词或不定式。

④ “他们的住所离这儿很近”的习惯表达法并不是“Their residence is near here”，而应是“Their residence is not far from here.”

⑤ 在表示“靠近，接近”的习语“get near to”中，to不能省略，如：As we got near to the inner city, the traffic grew denser. 我们接近市中心时交通变得拥挤起来。

⑥ near to可一起用作副词，作“几乎，差不多，近似于”解，如：Mrs. Li is as charming near to as she was. 李太太风韵几乎不减当年。

5 　next to表示“紧接在……的路旁边；紧挨着；仅次于”解。

The shop is located next to the street corner. 该店就位于街角的旁边。

Abraham is sitting near the window, next to Henry. 亚伯拉罕坐在靠窗口的地方，紧挨着亨利。

4. before，in front of，behind，after，at the back of，back of

1 　before与in front of。

按正式英语的要求，before用于“某人前”，in front of用于“建筑物前”。

Michael sat just before me. 迈克尔刚好坐在我前面。

A big oak tree stood in front of the building. 这幢楼房的前面挺立着一棵大橡树。

注：in front of和ahead of指空间时常可换用，但指时间时只能用ahead of。例如：

The children entered the zoo in single file with their teacher in front of（或ahead of）them. 老师领着孩子们鱼贯进入动物园。

我们能够提前完成工作。

We can finish the work in front of time.（×）

We can finish the work ahead of time.（√）

2 　before与behind。

在现代英语中也有把before用于建筑物前的倾向。表示位置时，before的反义词是behind。

Loretta sat behind me.

一般讲，behind表示位置或方向的先后，after表示时间的先后：

The couple sat behind a tree talking love（谈情说爱）.［表示位置先后］

He went to work immediately after breakfast.［表示时间先后］

表示“随手”，“随在……后”这种先后顺序时，behind和after可通用：

Shut the door behind（或after）you. 请随手关门。

There was rain after（或behind）the wind. 刮风后接着便下雨。

3 　at the back of与back of。

A. at the back of=behind 在……后面

At the back of（或behind）the house there is a vegetable garden. 房子后面有一块菜园。

B. at the back of和behind均常用于比喻用法中。

Let's try and find out what's at the back of this problem. 咱们想法弄清造成这一问题的真正原因是什么。

The chairman of the board put the proposal behind him. 董事长把该建议置之脑后，不予考虑。

Malice lay behind his smile. 他笑里藏刀。

Never say anything behind a person's back that you couldn't say to his face. 有话当面说，不要背后议论人。

The agreement was reached behind the curtain. 这项协议是秘密达成的。

Jack Scanlon was an important man behind the scenes. 杰克·斯坎伦是个重要的幕后人物。［scenes用复数］

C. back of是at the back of的缩略形式，也可用于比喻用法，常见于美国英语中。

There is a hall back of the staircase. 楼梯后面有一座大厅。

Investigations are being conducted to find out what was back of the incident. 人们正在进行调查，以弄清事故发生的原因。［比喻用法］

5. about，round，around

about表示空间位置时的用法。

A. 作“向……各处；在……各处”解。

We wandered about Tokyo on our first evening there. 到达东京的第一个晚上，我们就到各处逛了逛。

Tom, don't leave your toys lying about the room. 汤姆，别把玩具丢得满屋子都是。

Tulips dotted about the fields. 田野里到处点缀着郁金香。

在美国口语中常用around代替about表示上述意思。

B. 作“在……周围（surrounding，encircling）”解。

Who is the lady that has a gold chain about her neck? 那位颈上戴着一条金项链的女士是谁？

The prisoner escaped by climbing in darkness over the high wall about the prison. 犯人在黑暗中越过监狱四周的高墙逃跑了。

▶▶ about作“在……周围”解已是一种较陈旧的用法，现代英语通常用round，在美国则用around：

In early winter I usually have a silk scarf round my neck. 初冬时我通常在颈间围着丝巾。

Ted is going to put a frame around this picture. 特德准备给这幅画配上框子。

▶▶ 表示“在……周围”这一意义时，about和round及around的不同还在于，about有时可以笼统表示“靠近……的周围”，而不明确表示“把……团团围住”。在下面一个例句中，about便不能用round或around来代替：

A few hooligans crowded about the young man whose back was to the wall. 几个流氓分子向背靠墙壁的那个青年围上来。［不是指四面围住，故不能用round或around］

C. 作“在……附近（in the vicinity of）”解时，about的意义不如near那么明确。

I have been living apart from my parents since I got married, but I live quite near them. 我结婚后便和父母住开了，但我住得离他们很近。［不能说quite about］

Most of them live somewhere about their factory. 他们中的大多数人住在工厂附近的地方。［靠近某处的具体地点不定，也可说somewhere near...］

6. about，with，on，by

about与with都可作“随身携带”解。在表示随身携带小物件时，二者能通用：

Have you any money about（或with）you? 你身边有钱吗？［也可用on或by代替about］

但像dictionary，umbrella，portable typewriter，recorder等大一些的物件，就不能用about而只能用with。

Take an umbrella with you in case it rains. 随身带上雨伞以防下雨。

如要强调“在身上”这一含义，则用on；表示“在手边”时，用by：

The watch was found on his person. 这只表是在他身上找到的。

I'm sorry I haven't got it by me. 很抱歉，我没有把它弄到手。

7. to，towards，toward，for，in

表示方向时，to和towards的不同在于：

1 　to表示向某方向运动时，作“到达”解，towards则强调“朝着某个方向”，不含有“到达”的意思。

Cynthia walked to the lawyer's office.［指走到律师事务所］

Cynthia walked towards the lawyer's office.［指朝律师事务所方向走］

2 　to和towards表示静止的方向时，可以通用。

My house looks towards（或to）the south. 我的房子朝南。

The needle points towards（或to）the north. 针指向北方。

3 　单纯表示方向，不带有主观意志时用towards, to则可以表示主观意志。

Joshua's back was towards me. 乔舒亚背朝着我。［不带主观意志］

Joshua turned his back to me. 乔舒亚把背转向我。［表示主观意志］

4 　towards和toward的意思和用法均相同，英国多用towards，美国则用toward。

5 　表示方向时，to表示动作的目的地，与动词come，go，return，proceed，move，march等连用；for表示动作的方向，即目的地的方向，与动词leave，start，depart，clear及形容词bound等连用。

My wife went to the market the day before yesterday. 我太太前天去了市场。

My wife will leave for Yokohama next week. 下周我太太将动身去横滨。

I shall soon be moving to the twenty-fifth story of a new high-rise. 不久我将搬到一幢新的高层建筑的25层去住。

We are starting for home tomorrow morning. 明晨我们将起程回家。

The train is bound for Taibei. 这辆列车是开往台北的。

6 　in指方向时，表示“在其中”的意思，即“在境界内”；而to表示“界外”的意思，即“在境界外”。at也表示“界外”，on则表示“与境界相接”。

Japan is（或lies）in the east of Asia. 日本在亚洲的东部。［指在亚洲境内］

Japan is（或lies）to the east of China. 日本在中国的东边。［指在中国的境外］

Taiwan is at the east of Fujian Province. 台湾在福建省的东边。［指在省外］

The country is bounded on the west by a sea. 那个国家西边与海接界。

这里要补充有关方位的一个常见句型，即：

The church is located one or two miles to the west of the village. 那座教堂位于村庄以西一二英里的地方。

例　“Where's your home town?”

“It is about twenty miles_____the east of Chicago.”

A. in

B. on

C. to

D. by

［分析］答案为C。在本题中to指方位，相当于in the direction of或towards。句意是“我的家乡在芝加哥以东约20英里的地方。”

7 　由于by可作“在……附近”解，故表示方向时，by便有“偏于”的意思。

The lorry went west by north. 卡车朝西偏北方向驶去。

The ship is sailing north by east. 船正向北偏东的方向驶去。

The island lies south by east from here. 从这儿看该岛位于南面偏东的方向。

8. in，into，inside，inside of，within

1 　in表示“在内”的静止状态或一定范围内的动作；into表示由外向里或从外往里的动作。

They are having a meeting in the room. 他们在房间里开会。［指在内的静止状态］

They came into the room to watch TV. 他们进屋看电视。［指从外往里的动作］

She put the change in her purse. 她把零钱放入钱包里。［指一定范围内的动作］

Herbert jumped into the water to save the drowning child. 赫伯特跳入水中去救那个快要溺死的小孩。［指由外进入水中的动作］

因此，下面两组中的各句就表示不同的含义：

Run quickly into the house. 快往屋里跑。

Don't run in the house. 别在屋里跑。

The escaped criminal hid himself in the trees. 逃犯躲藏在树林里。

The escaped criminal went into the trees to hide. 逃犯跑到树林里藏了起来。

但in可跟put，throw，go，disappear等少数动词连用来表示由外往里的动作，这时in和into可以换用：

To destroy the evidence, the man hurriedly threw the letter in（或into）the fire. 为了灭迹，那人匆匆把信扔进炉子里烧掉了。

The birds disappeared into（或in）the woods at the approaching footsteps of passers-by. 鸟儿听见过路人渐近的脚步声，都飞进树林里不见了。

The matter was so urgent that he immediately went out in（或into）the rain. 事情很急，他立刻冒雨出去了。

Daniel walked in（或into）and out of the room. 丹尼尔走进又走出这个房间。

into后面省去宾语时，into必须为in所代替，因in可用作副词，into不能用作副词：

Come in (=into the room, house, etc.). 进来！

The ship has come in (=into port). 船已驶进港。

2 　inside和into表示“从外入里”时，往往可通用：

Don't let the cat come inside（或into）the bedroom. 别让猫跑到卧室里来。

两者之间含义上的区别是：into仅表示“由外向内进入”这一动作，inside却指“进入到里面”，比into要深入。试比较：

Antonio came into the house. 安东尼进了屋里。［指跨过大门入屋］

Antonio came inside the house. 安东尼进到房门里面。［指进入屋子内部］

3 　inside在意义上比in更为强调，因它具有“被围在内”的含义，着重与“外面”相对比的含义。

Luckily I was inside the house when it started hailing. 落雹子时幸亏我在家里。［含有“幸亏不在外面的意思”，故在此句里in就不及inside语气强］

inside还可表示“在……的内侧”这一含义，in则不能：

He stood inside the gate.指大门的内侧，即“他站在大门内。”如改为in the gate，便成为“站在大门（本身）的里面”，是讲不通的。

4 　指定空间范围时，inside和within同义。inside常用于指“小的东西”，within则多用于大的范围。

They live within the castle (=within the walls of the castle).（表示大空间的范围内）

但指“在某一团体、组织内”这一较大范围时，inside则和within同样普通：

However much it may be kept from the public, inside（或within）the cabinet it is common knowledge that there is disagreement on important matters of policy. 不管怎样对外保密，在该内阁内部，大家都知道在重大的政策问题上有意见分歧。

5 　inside和within表示“不超过”某一时间、距离等范围时。

这两词也可通用，都作“not beyond；in less than”解，在美国则多用inside of来代替inside：

Bob will arrive here inside（或inside of）an hour. 鲍勃将于一小时内到达。

I'll be coming with them within half an hour. 半小时内我就和他们一道来。

Our car ran only inside（或inside of）a mile before it broke down. 我们的汽车跑了还不到一英里就出了毛病。

I was within a few miles of home when the accident occurred. 事故发生时，我离家只有几英里路。

9. out of，outside，outside of，without

out of是into的反义词，美国英语多用out来替代out of，如look out the window意同look out of the window。outside是inside的反义词，outside of是inside of的反义词。without是within的反义词。这里就不再一一举例说明。

10. along，across，by，through，past，beyond，throughout

along和across是一对意义正相反的介词。along指“沿着（一条线平行）”，across则指和一条线交叉，表示“横过”。比较：

He walked along the street. 他沿着这条街走。

He walked across the street. 他穿过这条街。

现再分别说明如下：

1 　along的用法。

A. along也可和表示静止状态的动词一起用。

There are farmhouses here and there along the river banks. 沿河两岸到处可以见到农舍。

B. along有时可指“沿着……的某一点或一段空间上”。

The attorney lives along this street. 该律师住在这条街上。

C. along可和here或there连用，表示“朝这个或那个方向”：

He is coming along here. 他正朝这儿走来。

The bird flew along there. 鸟儿朝那个方向飞去了。

D. along前可加all达到强调效果，表示“沿着整条线”的意思：

There are willows all along the river banks. 沿河两岸，柳树成行。

2 　across的用法

A. across除了表示“横过；穿过”的意思外，还可用作“在……的另一边”解。

The appellate court is just across the street. 上诉法院就在街道的对面。

Linda was carried from the school to a hospital across the road. 琳达被从学校送到了马路对面的一所医院。

B. across指在空间内从一端到另一端或成十字交叉穿过，through着重指从物体中间穿过，而by则表示从物体或人的旁边走过。

He went across the square. 他穿过广场。

He went through the square. 他从广场中间穿过。

He went by the square. 他从广场旁边走过。

The burglar came in through the window. 夜贼从窗户进来。

I go by your house on my way to work every day. 我每天上班路过你家。

C. across表示方位时，指“在……的对面或另一边”，而past和beyond则指“on the farther side”，即“在……对面或另一边再过去一些地方”，含有比across更为远隔的意思。

They live across the river. 他们住在河的对面。

They live beyond（或past）the river. 他们住在河对面再过去一些地方。

例　“Where did Carol disappear to?”

“She went to that jewelry store_____the street.”

A. across

B. near

C. by

D. from

［分析］答案为A，这里across表示方位，作“on the opposite side of (the street)”解。B项和C项同义，意味着选B项也就能选C项，故两者均不能考虑；D项不通。

D. across和over有时都可指“两点着地中间腾空”的架空意思，两者含义上的区别是across着重“横过（crosswise of）”，over则强调“屹立（rising above the surface of）”。

There is a bridge across the river. 河上有一座桥。［含意是：桥和河横成十字形］

There is a bridge over the river. 河上有一座桥。［含意是：桥屹立在河面上］

E. across与from在现代美国英语中常把他们搭配一起使用，表明“以……为出发点的地点的对面”：

The ballet dancer lives across the street from my house.那位芭蕾舞演员住在我家对面的那条街上。

F. across表示空间时，往往用作throughout，作“遍及（整个地区）”解，这是现代美国英语用法：

The candidates stumped across（或throughout)the country. 候选人到全国各地作竞选演说。

有时，across前加上all使其“遍及”的意义加以强化：

Serious anti-smoking campaigns should be launched all across the world. 全世界应展开严肃的禁烟运动。

11. through，throughout，over

1 　through和over均可用来表示空间，作“遍及”解。

The detective searched through the house, but found no clues. 侦探搜遍了整个房子，但没发现什么线索。

The heartening news spread through all lands. 这个振奋人心的消息传遍了各地。

The director showed the visitors over the factory. 厂长领参观者到工厂各处参观。

2 　through和over作“遍及”解时，不及throughout强调，但它们前面加上all后意义便和throughout相等。

A description of the wanted man（通缉犯）was circulated all through（或all over）the country.［句中的all through或all over=throughout，句意是：对通缉犯相貌特征的描述文告散发到全国各地。］

▶▶ 当“遍及”后面的宾语不是指“区域”或“立体空间”，而是指“某个抽象范围”时，不能用through或throughout，只能用over：

My son's interests now spread over several subjects. 我儿子的兴趣现在扩展到了好几个学科。

12. up，down

up和down是表示“运动和位置上、下”的一对反义词，用法如下：

1 　与表示运动的动词连用时，up表示“由下而上”的运动；down表示“由上而下”的运动。

I met Mr. Smith as I was going up the mountain. 我上山时碰到了史密斯先生。

I met Mr. Smith as I was coming down the mountain. 我下山时碰到了史密斯先生。

The ship sailed up the river. 船逆流而上。

The ship sailed down the river. 船顺流而下。

2 　表示静止的空间位置时up作“在……上面”解；down作“在……下面”解。

The city is situated up the river. 这个城市坐落在河的上游处。

The city is situated down the river. 这个城市坐落在河的下游处。

3 　由沿海到内地，由南方到北方，由市区到住宅区，由乡下到城市等均用up，反之则用down。

They went up north. 他们北上了。

They went down south. 他们南下了。

We shall go up country on business. 我们将因公去内地。

We shall go down to the coast for our holidays. 我们将去海滨度假。

He has gone up to town. 他进城了。

He has gone down to the country. 他下乡了。

Mr. Mackey lives up town, but comes down town every morning. 麦基先生住在住宅区，但每天早晨来商业区。

4 　说（沿街、巷、路、过道等）行走而不表示明确的方向时，用up或down都可以，没有区别，实际上和along相等。

The old man walked unsteadily up（或down）the street. 那老年人脚步蹒跚地沿着街道走去。［句中未表示街道的方向，故up或down皆同along，可以通用］

5 　单纯表示静止的空间位置而不明确具体方向时，up和down都作“在……的较远的那一端”解。

Lawrence lives just up the street. 劳伦斯就住在街道的那一头。

There is a department store down the road. 马路的那一头有一家百货商店。

6 　down的个别用法及含义上的区别。

A. 阅读东西时，down表示从开头读到结尾，含有浏览的意思。

The manager glanced down the list of names to be invited to the fair. 经理把拟邀请参加交易会的名单浏览了一遍。

I usually look down the advertisement column in the newspaper before starting to read the news. 我阅读报纸上的新闻之前，通常先把广告栏浏览一下。

B. 注意down和down from含义上的区别。

The cat jumped down the ladder. 那只猫从扶梯上跳下来。［含意是：沿着梯子一级一级地跳下来］

The cat jumped down from the ladder. 那只猫从梯子上跳下来。［含意是：从梯子上一下子跳下来，指一刹那的一次性动作］

7 　up和down可以一起用，表示“上下往返”的运动。

The boy can climb up and down a tree quickly. 这男孩能沿着树飞快地爬上爬下。

The technician walked up and down the room, thinking how to solve the technical problem. 技术员在房间里踱来踱去，考虑如何解决那个技术问题。

I've looked up and down for it. 为了它，我上上下下都找遍了。［这里up and down用作副词］

13. from，to，for，off

1 　from表方位时，表示动作的出发点，后面通常接to来表示终点。

They set sail（起航）from Manchester（曼彻斯特）.

The tourist group travelled from Florence（佛罗伦萨）to Madrid（马德里）.

2 　for用在表示运动的动词后面，指终点或目的地。

We started for Houston. 我们动身去休斯敦。

Mr. Morris left for Santa Clara. 莫里斯先生动身去圣克拉拉。

The ship sailed for Hongkong. 该船驶往香港。

The surgeon departed for Brazil the other day. 该外科医生几天前动身去巴西。

The soldiers embarked for Taiwan. 部队乘船去了台湾。

Those ships were destined for Cuba. 那些船只驶往古巴。

When they received the warning of the typhoon, the fishing boats speedily made for the bay. 收到台风警报后，渔船急忙驶向海湾。

They will set out for Singapore next week. 他们下周将动身去新加坡。

有两点须注意：

注①：在上列例句中，for都不能改为to。

注②：表示来往行动的动词后面，如go，come，run，move，walk，return，repair，fly，proceed，drive，ride，march等则用to表示运动的方向。

3 　from和off表示方向时，都具有“离开”或“与……分离”的意思；两者用法上的异同如下：

A. 表示陆上距离时，from和off可通用。

Our school is about six miles from（或off）yours. 我们的学校距你们的学校约六英里远。

B. 指船行驶或停泊于海上的距离时，只能用off，不能用from。

The ship anchored four miles off the sea. 船在离海四英里处抛锚。［不能改用from］

C. 当一个生物或物体从另一个生物或物体上被分离开来或自行分离开来时，通常用off；如两者相处在一起使之分开时，可以用from，前面往往有away。试比较：

Adam took his clothes off the sofa. 亚当把他的衣服从沙发上拿开。

The rider was thrown off the horse. 骑手被抛下马来。

The cover has come off the book. 封面已从书本上脱落下来。

I took the book (away) from Nick. 这本书我是从尼克处拿来的。

在上列前三个例句中，clothes和sofa，rider和horse，cover和book可以说粘连在一起，故分离开来用off来表示；在第四个例句中，book和Nick两者并不粘连在一起，而只是处在同一空间内，故用from来表示分离。

D. be far后面只能用from，不能用off。

The research institute is far from here. 该研究所离这儿很远。［不能用off代替］

be far from后接形容词或名词（形容词或名词前省掉being），常常用于比喻，作“远远不；极不”或“不仅……（而且）……”解：

The preliminary results are far from satisfactory. 初步成果远远不能令人满意。

The performance was far from a failure; it was a great success. 这次表演不仅没有失败，反而获得极大成功。

far from也可置于句首，用作状语，作“不仅……（而且）……”解：

Far from relieving my cough, the medicine aggravated it. 这药不仅没有缓解我的咳嗽，而且使咳嗽越来越厉害了。

far off=far away，后面通常不接什么，作“离得很远”解，如“He is far off”或“He lives far off”。

例　“Where's Baltimore?”“It isn't_____Washington D. C.”

A. far away

B. far off

C. far to

D. far from

［分析］答案为D。如用A或B，则应去掉题句中的Washington D. C.才对。C错，因far后面不能用to。

14. between和among

between和among表示位置时都作“在……之间”，“在……中间”解，两者的区别是：

1 　between一般用于两者，而among用于三者或三者以上。

There is a small river between the two villages. 两座村庄之间隔着一条河。［两座村庄，故用between］

There is a cottage among the trees. 树林中有一村舍。［不止两棵树，故用among］

例　_____the most versatile of the common metals, lead was widely valued and used in ancient times.

A. Among

B. It is

C. Therefore

D. That it is

［分析］选A，among用于三者或三者以上。B错，两个独立分句之间不能用逗号连接。C不符合实际情况，D不合语法。

例　The leader emphasized the need (A) for justice (B) and equality between (C) his people (D).

［分析］C错。people系集体名词，这里又指leader之属下，肯定不止两人，故应把C改为among。

2 　between有时也可用于三者或三者以上以强调其中每两者之间的关系或区别。

Now even primary school students know the difference between gases, solids and liquids. 现在甚至连小学生也知道气体、固体和液体之间的区别。

The speaker referred to the complicated relations between the three countries. 讲话人提到该三国之间的相互复杂关系。

3 　表示地理上明显、准确的位置时，即使是指处于三者或三者以上之间，也用between，而不能用among。

Ecuador lies between Columbia, Peru and the Pacific Ocean. 厄瓜多尔位于哥伦比亚、秘鲁和太平洋之间。

Berlin lies between London, Riga, and Vienna. 柏林位于伦敦、里加和维也纳之间。

4 　当and连接三个或三个以上的人或物而仍表示两方的并列时，通常用between而不用among。

My home town is situated between a stream and hills. 我的故乡坐落在一条小溪与群山之间。［这里hills用复数，表示两座或两座以上，加上一条溪水，虽构成三者或三者以上，但系两方并列，一方为溪水，另一方为群山，故仍用between］

5 　表示“分配；共有；联合行动；共同作用的结果或效果”时，between可用于两者或两者以上；用于两者以上时，和among同义。

Between（或among）the three factories the project was completed ahead of schedule. 在三家工厂的协力合作下，该项工程提前完成了。

The big loaf was divided between（或among）the members of the family. 那只大面包分给家庭中的每一个成员。

The two children shared the property between them. 两子女分享那笔财产。［这里指两者，不能用among］

Between shopping, cooking, cleaning, washing, sewing, knitting and looking after children, my wife and I were very busy. 我爱人和我要买东西、煮饭、打扫、洗衣、缝补、针织和照顾孩子，忙得不可开交。［这里罗列一系列具体事项，between比among用得更多些］

6 　表示“两者的不同或区别”时，实际上具有“两者之间”的含义，故不能用“the difference of two things”，需用“the difference between two things”。

Would you tell me the difference of the two verbs?（×）

Would you tell me the difference between the two verbs?（√）

7 　注意divide...among和divide...with含义上的区别。

divide...among作“给……分”解，指把东西完全给他人，自己丝毫不拿；divide...with作“和……一起分”解，含有自己也拿一部分的意思。

The teacher divided the prizes among his students. 教师给学生们分发奖品。［他自己不拿］

The manager divided the profits with his employees. 经理和他的雇员们一起分润。［经理自己也拿］

8 　between us和between you and me意义上的区别。

between us作“你我之间”解；between you and me作“咱们私下说说”解，含有“别说出去或保守秘密”的意思。

Uncle Albert left his money to be divided between us. 艾伯特叔叔留下钱，分给我们两人。

Just between you and me, Mickey is a stick. 就咱们私下说说，米基是个木头木脑的人。

between you and me也可用between ourselves来表达，意义完全相同：

This is something between ourselves (=between you and me), so don't let anyone else know about it. 这件事只有咱们两人知道，不要再让其他人知道了。

9 　among和amid。

A. amid后可接复数可数名词，也可以接表示质量、物质等的不可数名词；而among只能接指人或物的可数名词，不能接抽象单数名词及复数名词。

He stood firm amidst temptations. 他不为种种诱惑所动。

He finished his speech amid tremendous applause. 他在雷鸣般的掌声中结束了演讲。

B. among多用来表示“在友好的、善意的事物中”，amid多用来表示“在困难、危险或敌对中”。

I felt at ease among them. 跟他们在一起，我感到很自在。

The company closed down amid allegations of fraud. 这家公司在一片指责欺诈声中倒闭了。

C. among表示处于易分辨的事物中，amid表示处于混杂的事物中。

He saw his girlfriend among the crowd. 他在人群中看见了女友。［可分辨出］

The escaped criminal is amid the crowd. 逃犯混在人群中。［难分辨出］

D. among 表示在同类中，amid表示在异类中。

The missing refugee was found among the dead. 该走失难民是在死人堆中发现的。［含意是，该走失难民也死了］［表示同类中］

The missing refugee was found amid the dead. 该走失难民是在死人堆中发现的。［还活着］［表示异类中］

10 　among的一些常见结构。

A. among常置于from后，构成复合介词，作“从……中”解。

They were mostly selected from among the workers. 他们大都是从工人中挑选出来的。

B. 在系动词be后面用作表语时，among+the+最高级形容词+复数名词=one of the+最高级形容词+复数名词。

The Changjiang is among the longest rivers in the world.

=The Changjiang is one of the longest rivers in the world.

This building is among the tallest in the city.

=This building is one of the tallest in the city.

如里面不是系动词时，则不作“one of the...”解。试比较：

Professor Bailey is sitting among his best students. 贝利教授坐在他的最优秀的学生中间。［is这里用作助动词，主要动词是sitting］

Jackson is among Professor Bailey's best students. 杰克逊是贝利教授最优秀的学生之一。［在此句中is用作系动词］

C. among other things和among others这两个介词词组常被错误地理解为“在其他东西（或：事情）中”及“在其他中。”实际上among other things=among others，正确的意思是“除……以外还……”：

The speaker, among other things, talked about his experiences abroad. 那个作演讲的人，除了其他话题以外，还谈了他在国外的经历。

Among other things, I am interested in stamp-collecting. 我除了其他爱好以外还对集邮很感兴趣。

11 　between和among之习用语

between husbands 再嫁之前（不能理解为“丈夫之间”）

The young woman was a fashion model between husbands. 该年轻妇女在再嫁人前是服装模特儿。

few and far between 相隔很久才发生，稀少的

At this late hour, the buses are few and far between. 这么晚了，公共汽车班次稀少，而且间隔拉长。

be in between 介于两者之间

He is neither a radical nor a conservative, he is in between. 他既非激进分子，亦非保守派，而是介于两者之间。

There is honor among thieves.（谚语）盗亦有道（意指各行都有其各自的行为规范）。

fall among+（不良分子）与……为伍

He has fallen among hoodlums. 他已与流氓为伍。

六、表示原因、理由的介词在使用上的区别

1. of，from，through，for，by，with，in，on，at

1 　在动词die后面，不同的介词则表明不同的死因。

A. of表示疾病、中毒、冻、饿、悲伤等原因。

The old man died of pneumonia. 那老人患肺炎而死。

After her son was killed in a traffic accident, the widow died of a broken heart. 那寡妇在她儿子死于交通事故以后，也因伤心而死了。

The rich man died of poison. 那富翁中毒而死。

B. from表示创伤的原因，也可表示不明的死因。

The soldier died from a severe wound. 那个士兵因伤重而死。

He died from some (=a certain) unknown cause. 他死因不明。

C. through表示偶然或消极的原因。

Many workers have died through neglect. 许多工人因疏忽而送命。

In Africa lots of children die through lack of proper nutrition every year. 在非洲每年有许多儿童因缺乏必要的营养而死去。

D. by表示因暴力、凶杀的原因。

The patriot died by violence. 那位爱国志士惨遭罹难。

When his scandal was exposed, the police officer died by his own hand. 那位警官的丑闻被揭露后，就自杀了。

He died by the sword. 他死于剑下。

E. with表示羞愧、高兴等原因。

The traitor died with shame in prison. 那个卖国贼在监狱中羞辱而死。

F. for表示为了某一目的、事业的原因。

The fighters who died for the country will always be remembered. 那些为国捐躯的战士们将永远流芳人间。

G. in和on也可表示死因。

The engineer died in harness. 那位工程师工作时死去了。［die in harness为习语］

I was shocked to learn that he had died in his boots. 听到他暴死，我惊愕不已。

Joshua died in an industrial accident. 乔舒亚死于工伤事故中。

Frank died on the battlefield（或in battle）. 弗兰克战死沙场。

2 　除与die连用之外，上列各介词在表示原因或理由方面还存在着一些差别。

A. of表示情绪上或生病的原因。

My father's illness comes of smoking too much. 我爸爸的病是由于吸烟过度造成的。

He is sick of a fever. 他因发烧而生病了。

由于of可表示情绪上的原因，它常和表示欢乐、骄傲、害怕、羞愧、厌倦、向往等形容词一起用：

We'll be glad of your company. 我们将很高兴有你结伴。

My daughter is very fond of flowers. 我女儿非常爱花。

I am proud of (having) you as a friend. 有你这样一位朋友，我感到很自豪。

She is afraid of snakes. 她怕蛇。

Don't be ashamed of being poor. 别因为穷而感到羞愧。

Don't get tired（或weary）of life; you're still so young. 别对人生感到厌倦；你还这么年轻呢。

B. with多用来表示由外界影响到身心的原因，既可指生理上的，也可指感情上的原因。

We are tired with two hours' walking. 走了两小时的路，我们累了。

The old man was bent with age. 那位老年人由于上了年纪背都驼了。

The beggar was dying with hunger. 这个乞丐快要饿死了。

Hearing the good news, the girl jumped about with excitement and joy. 听到这个好消息，这个姑娘兴奋快乐地雀跃起来。

His voice trembled with anger. 他的声音因愤怒而震颤。

上面五例中，前三例的with表示生理上的原因，后两例的with表示感情上的原因。

C. for多表示内在的、心理的原因，通常接表示喜、怒、哀、惧等表示感情的抽象名词：

They sang and danced for joy. 他们高兴得又唱又跳。［在此句中，for也可换用with］

I tiptoed into the library for fear of disturbing other people. 我踮着脚尖走进图书馆以免打扰别人。

for还常用来表示奖赏或处罚的原因：

They will reward you for your help. 他们将酬谢你的相助。

The motorist was fined for overtaking. 汽车驾驶员因超车而受到罚款。

例　“How did you manage to get the project finished on time?”

“It was easy_____.”

A. because John's help

B. by John's help

C. for John's help

D. with John's help

［分析］答案为D，with可表原因。A应改为because of John's help或because John helped me；B错，因by表示方法，不表原因；C不妥，for通常表情绪方面的原因。

D. from表示自然或直接的原因，through通常表示消极、偶然的或意外的原因。试比较：

The boy fell ill from drinking unclean water. 这男孩喝了不洁的水而生病了。

The accident happened through his negligence. 这事故是因他的疏忽发生的。

One feels weak from lack of sleep and nourishing food. 由于缺乏睡眠和具有营养的食物，人变得虚弱无力。

His health broke down through overwork. 他因劳累过度身体垮了。

We obeyed only from fear. 我们只是因害怕才服从的。

The mistake was made through my fault. 由于我的过失才犯了这个错误。

▶▶ 但在实际应用中through有时也用来表示积极、正面的原因：

Leslie refused help through pride. 莱斯利因自尊而拒绝接受帮助。

The self-employed trader finally got rich through persistent hard work. 那个体户因坚持努力苦干终于致富。

E. at用来表示感情上的原因、理由或动机时，前面通常是表示看、听、收到或喜、怒、吃惊等的动词或形容词。

People wonder at his superb skill. 人们对他高超的技术很惊异。

I rejoiced at the news. 听到这消息，我很高兴。

We grieved at her misfortune. 我们为她的不幸难过。

I am pleased at your coming to help. 你来帮忙我很高兴。

Mother is angry at your laziness. 妈妈因你的懒惰而生气。

F. by表示原因或理由时，相当于by reason of，是由手段的含义转化而来：

Alfred made himself ill by constant drinking. 艾尔弗雷德因不断饮酒而把身体搞垮了。

The launching of the satellite failed by mistake. 人造卫星的发射因差错而失败了。

▶▶ by表示手段或方法时，相当于by means of。我们完全可以从句意判断by是表示原因还是手段。如下面一个例子，by明显表示手段：

The scientist achieved success by working hard. 那位科学家通过努力苦干取得了成功。［by表示“通过努力工作”这一手段，达到成功的目的］

G. in也可用来表示原因，通常指主观方面的原因：

Of course, I rejoice in my success. 当然，我是为自己的成功感到欢欣鼓舞的。

The girl screamed in terror. 这姑娘因恐惧而尖叫起来。

▶▶ 注意，in that=because，成为引导原因状语从句的连接词，是个常见的习语：

I like the city, but I like the country better in that (=because) I have more friends in the country. 我爱城市，但我更爱乡下，因我在乡下的朋友更多些。

In that (=Since) you won't have time for supper, let me give you something now. 既然你没有时间吃晚饭，我现在给你一点东西吧。

H. on表示原因时，通常指依据或条件。

On what grounds do you want to quit the job? 基于什么理由你要辞职？

I come, sir, on your invitation. 先生，我是因你邀请才来的。

I read Maugham on my teacher's recommendation. 我是在老师推荐下读毛姆的书的。

He did it on the instructions of his superior. 他是在上级授意下做的那件事。

My younger brother always acts on my advice. 我弟弟总是依我的意见行事。

We will accept the settlement on that condition. 我们愿意按那条件接受该项解决办法。

Ken was arrested on a charge of theft. 肯因被指控犯偷盗罪而被捕。

I. as也可用来表示原因，多指内在或本质方面的原因，后面往往省掉be的动名词形式being，而直接跟形容词。

We chose this location as the most suitable for our purpose. 我们选择了这个地段，因为它最符合我们的目的。

The young man wished to join the air force, but was rejected as medically unfit. 该青年想参加空军，但因体检不合格而未被录取。

2. due to，owing to，thanks to，because of，on account of

上列表示原因的成语介词极为常见，它们在用法上的区别如下：

1 　due to是由形容词due加介词to构成，故在传统英语中，due to引导的介词短语只用作表语。

These are errors (which are) due to sheer carelessness. 这些错误纯粹是由于粗心所造成的。

但现代英语已打破这一界限，越来越多的人把due to短语用作状语，相当于owing to：

Due to certain unforeseen circumstances, we didn't start yesterday. 由于某些未能预见的情况，我们昨天未能出发。

The football match was cancelled due to bad weather. 这场足球赛因天气不好而取消。

2 　owing to引导的介词短语平常多用作状语，较少用作表语。

Owing to his lack of experience, Joshua failed to do the work well. 由于缺乏经验，乔舒亚没能把工作做好。

A power failure（停电）plunged the whole town into darkness, owing to a fault in the cable. 因为电缆的故障而发生停电，使整个城镇陷于一片黑暗之中。

These slips are owing to the author's insufficient acquaintance with the life of the slums. 这些小错是由于作者对贫民区的生活不够熟悉而造成的。［在此句中，owing to介词短语用作表语，相当于due to，但不及due to普遍］

3 　because of引导的介词短语表示原因时需注意几点：

A. 通常用作状语。

Because of her bad leg, Esther couldn't walk as fast as the others. 由于她的一条腿有毛病，埃斯特不能像别人那样走得快。

I said nothing about it because of his children's being there. 因为他的几个孩子在场，我对那件事只字未提。［because of短语放在后面时，通常不用逗号分开］

▶▶ 有时候，because of短语可以用来修饰主句中的一部分，而不是修饰全句；这时，它必须放在主句的后面，不能用逗号分开。试看下列一个例子：

They refused to give up the project merely because of the lack of skilled personnel.［because of短语修饰的仅仅是不定式to give up，不包括谓语动词refused在内，故正确的理解应是“他们不肯仅仅因为缺乏技术人员就放弃那计划。”］

B. because of短语一般不能用作表语，但当主语不是一个名词而是一个事实时，because of短语用作表语便属正常。

Our stay at home was because of the snow.［×因主语stay是名词］

We stayed at home; that was because of the snow.［√主语that表示 We stayed at home这一事实，故because of短语用作表语可以成立］

试再看一个例子：

It is because of the job that I have taken（租）this apartment.

上例也属正常英语，“It is...that...”是强调句型，because of短语不是用作表语，而是用作状语修饰全句，改回到自然式，该句便成为“Because of the job, I have taken this apartment.”

4 　on account of用法和because of相同。

I'm thinking of going down to the seaside for a holiday, on account of my health. 由于我的健康之故，我正在考虑去海滨度假。

On account of her timidness（胆小）, the young girl is never left alone.

His health is failing; that is on account of the lack of exercises.［on account of短语用作表语，主语that表示His health is failing这一事实］

例　The mockingbird（反鸹，产于北美南部及墨西哥）was so named (A) since (B) its ability to mimic other birds' songs and calls, to which (C) it adds some variations of its own (D).

［分析］B错。since表原因时是连词，后面需接从句，故应改为because of，或on account of或owing to。

5 　thanks to作“由于，幸亏，亏得”解（近于原义“感谢”）；它引导的介词短语只能用作状语，不能作表语。

Thanks to the new archeological finds, we can now learn more about the history of early mankind. 由于新的考古发现，我们现在对于早期人类的历史能了解得更多了。

Thanks to you, I was saved from drowning. 幸亏你，我才获救没有淹死。

但thanks to也可用于讽刺口吻中：

The economy of that country is now in a state of total collapse, thanks to its neighboring country's“aid”. 由于邻国“援助”的结果，该国经济目前已处于全面崩溃的状态。

6 　owing to，because of，on account of

这三个成语介词通常只接名词；如接that引导的从句，则需在连词that前加上the fact：

We closed the factory because of (on account of/owing to) the fact that we had no funds.

七、表示“除外”的介词在使用上的区别

1. but，except，save

1 　but，except和save是同义词，都表示“除……以外”。

请注意以下两点：

① 在三者中，save带有古体，只用于极正式文体中。

② but通常与no, nobody, nothing, all, every, everybody, anywhere等代词或与who, what, where等疑问词连用。在“We go to work every day but Sunday”这一例句中，因句中有every这一代词，故可用but，但在下列的一个例句中，情况就不一样：

The house is never used except（或save）in summer. 这幢房子只是在夏天才使用。［注意，在此句中无上述之代词或疑问词，故不能用but］

2 　but和except后面可接带to的不定式作为宾语。

3 　but或except用作介词时，通常是不能出现于句首的。

可以说：Everyone is tired but him.

可以说：Everyone but him is tired.

不说：But him, everyone is tired.

可以说：We all went except Frank.

不说：Except Frank we all went.

2. except，excepting，except for，but for

1 　excepting和except同义，但较except少用，通常只用于句首。

Excepting their daughter who is down with acute hepatitis, Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all right. 除了他们的女儿患急性肝炎病倒之外，史密斯先生和夫人都好。

当excepting用于not，without，always等词后面时，它可以不用于句首：

We are all fallible, without excepting the saint. 我们都会犯错误，圣人也不例外。

All my friends come to the club every Saturday evening, always excepting George Matthew. 我所有的朋友每周六晚上来俱乐部，乔治·马修总是例外。

2 　except和except for的区别是，except强调整体，着重在除去的部分。

They all went except Hob. 他们中除了霍布外都去了。

except for引述了一个相反的原因或细节，因而部分地修正句中的主要意思，故可译作“只是……”解：

Your article is all right except for a few misprints. 你的文章没问题，只是有一些印刷上的错误。

The room is in good condition except for a few scratches on the door. 这间房间情况良好，只是门上有几处划痕。

由于except for引导的介词短语部分地修正了句中前面部分的意思，故该介词短语常被用来策略性地或委婉地表示讲话人评论性的意见：

Your cosmetics are of excellent quality except for their poor packing. 你们的化妆品质地精良，只是包装太差劲。

▶▶ 上述except和except for的区别是从意思而言；我们还可从形式上来考虑，前后有相对称的同类语时就用except，不然就用except for：

They all went except Hob.［they和Hob都属于人，是相对称的同类语，故用except］

Your cosmetics are of excellent quality except for their poor packing.［cosmetics和packing属不同范畴，非属同类语，故用except for］

注意　尽管excepting和except同义，但except for则不能以excepting for代之。

例　Excepting for (A) special (B) exhibitions, most (C) museums in the United States have (D) no admission charge.

［分析］A错。主语museums和介词宾语exhibitions不是同类语，故不能用excepting for或except，需把A项改为except for，因excepting for不能用来代替except for。从另一角度讲，在本题中except for引导的介词短语部分地修正了后面句子的意思，故也只能用except for，不能用except或excepting。

3 　except后面还可接名词从句、状语从句、副词、介词短语或不定式。

A. 接名词从句。

He took nothing except what was due to him. 除了他应得的以外，他并未接受任何东西。

B. 接状语从句。

My mother usually goes to work by bike except when it rains. 除了下雨天，我妈妈一般都骑自行车上班。

C. 接副词。

We looked everywhere except there. 除了那个地方，我们到处都找了。

D. 接介词短语。

I get up early every day except on Sunday.［except on Sunday=except Sunday］

The troops take no orders except from the supreme commander. 该部队只接受最高司令员的命令。

E. 接不定式。

Nothing remains for us except to report the case to the police. 除了向警察局报警外，我们没有其他办法可想了。

Our housemaid does nothing except clean the rooms. 我们的女佣人，除了打扫房间之外，什么都不干。［因谓语有does，except便接不带to的不定式］

We have nothing to do except to sit back and enjoy ourselves（悠闲地坐着享受）.［句中主要谓语动词是have，to do系不定式，故except后接to sit back］

4 　but for和except for用法上的异同。

A. but for和虚拟语气连用，可以表示与现在或过去相反的事实。

But for the sun (=If it were not for the sun), we could not live. 要不是有太阳，我们就不能生存。［表示同现在相反的事实］

But for the storm (=If it had not been for the storm), we could have arrived earlier. 要是没有那场风暴，我们到得可能更早。［表示与过去相反的事实］

例　I readily forgive the prejudice which leads my friend to wrong conclusions because I understand it. It is a minor error into which I myself, _____the grace of some happy chance, might have fallen.

A. because of

B. by dint of

C. but for

D. by virtue of

［分析］答案为C，but for the grace of...=if it had not been for the grace of...，表示与过去事实相反之虚拟条件，故谓语动词用might have fallen。because of（因为），by dint of（凭借），by virtue of（凭借）不能与虚拟语气连用。

例　“You finally made it, didn't you?”

“Yes, _____your help, I would not have succeeded.”

A. but that

B. if not

C. but for

D. thanks to

［分析］答案为C，这里but for也表示与过去事实相反的虚拟条件。A错，but that 后应接从句，不能接短语；D也错，thanks to（由于）不能与虚拟语气连用。B完全不合语法。

B. except for一般和陈述语气连用。

The room is bare except for a desk and a chair. 房间里没有别的东西，只放着一张书桌和一把椅子。［句子谓语动词用陈述语气，except for引导的短语部分地修正了句子的意思］

但except for有时候也可和虚拟语气连用，代替but for：

Isabella would leave her husband except for the children. 要不是为了孩子们，伊莎贝拉就离开她的丈夫了。

3. except that，but that

except和but后面接that引导的从句时，都用陈述语气，不用虚拟语气。

Howard works very hard except that he is occasionally careless. 霍华德干工作很努力，只是有时候粗心大意。

The young man is not clever but that he is diligent and keeps himself busy all the time. 那小伙子人并不聪明，但干活倒很勤快，一刻也不闲着。

但在日常应用时，except that或but that前面的主句往往采用虚拟语气，这是因为该主句后面的if条件从句被省略了，当然except that或but that后面还是接陈述语气的从句：

I would go with you except that I have to work today.［I would go with you后面省略了条件从句“if I did not have to work today”］

Owen would have helped us but that he was short of money at the time.［Owen would have helped us后面的条件从句“if he had not been short of money”被省略了］

例　“Why didn't Mary go?”

“She_____except (that) she didn't have time.”

A. would have gone

B. will go

C. would go

D. be going

［分析］答案为A，补上省略部分的全句应为She would have gone (if she had had time) except (that) she didn't have time。except (that) 这里引导一个表示过去时的陈述语气从句，主句应采用表示与过去事实相反的虚拟语气，故只能选A，不能选C，因C表示与现在事实相反的虚拟语气。

例　I would go abroad but that I_____poor.

A. am

B. was

C. were

D. shall be

［分析］答案为A。主句I would go abroad 后面省去了“if I were not poor”，是表示与现在事实相反的虚拟语气，故but that后面应接表示现在时的陈述语气从句，只能选A，不能选B或C。

4. as well as

as well as 除用作连词处还可以充当介词=in addition to/besides，接动名词或名词。如：

He is a linguist as well as being a violinist. 他不但是个小提琴家而且还是个语言学家。

Women as well as men have a fundamental right to work. 妇女和男人一样享有工作的权利。

八、表示“让步”的介词在用法上的区别

表示让步意思的介词有despite，in spite of，notwithstanding，with all one's...，for all one's...，regardless of，都作“尽管”，“不顾”，“任凭”解。在用法上要注意以下几点：

1. despite (=in spite of)

He attended the meeting despite（或in spite of）his illness. 他抱病出席会议。

He went out in spite of（或despite）the rain. 他冒雨出去。

例　_____his cold, he came first in the athletics meet.

A. Regardless

B. In spite

C. In spite of

D. Despite of

［分析］答案为C。A应在Regardless后加上of；D需把Despite后面的of划掉。

2. regardless of，notwithstanding

regardless后面必须有of，notwithstanding后面则不能再接其他介词：

Regardless of danger, he climbed the tower. 他不顾危险爬上该塔。

They insisted on trying, utterly regardless of the possible grave consequences. 他们全然不顾可能产生的严重后果，执意要试一试。

Notwithstanding the long delay, I shall still go abroad for further study. 尽管拖延了很久，我还是要出国深造。

3. for all one's...，with all one's...

for all one's...和with all one's...都作in spite of解，但应注意，for和with都必须跟all one's...才能表示让步的意思。

With all their achievements, they remain modest and prudent. 尽管有成就，他们依然保持谦虚谨慎。

For all his faults, he is still a good friend. 尽管有很多缺点，他仍不失为一位好朋友。

4. 在特殊情况下，through也被用来表示“让步”，如：

On hearing the good news , the girl smiled through (her) tears. 听到那好消息，姑娘破涕为笑了。

九、表示“关于”，“至于”的介词在用法上的区别

表示“关于”，“至于”的介词有with regard to, in regard to, regarding, as regards, concerning, respecting, touching, with reference to, in respect of, in the matter of, as to, as for, about, on等。现说明如下：

1. with regard to, in regard to, regarding, as regards

1 　with regard to和in regard to这两词组里的to是介词，不能以of或其他介词换用。

With（或In）regard to writing essays, I should like to have your advice.［注意，在上面例句中，writing不可改作write］

2 　regarding后面不能再加上to或其他介词。

Nothing is known regarding her plans for the future.

3 　as regards 可看作复合介词，regards 中的结尾“s”不能去掉，as regards前面不能加介词。

At the time I knew very little as regards philosophy. 那时关于哲学的东西我懂得极少。

As regards the matter you brought up, I think it should be settled as speedily as possible. 关于你提出的那个问题，我认为应该尽快解决。

2. concerning, respecting, touching, as regards

concerning，respecting和touching这三个表示“关于”的介词都用于正式文体中：

1 　concerning=about；with regard to

They showed anxiety concerning their retired allowance. 关于他们的养老金，他们显得很焦急。

concerning还可和as连用，有两种形式，即as concerning和as concerns都作“关于”解，但意思比concerning（更强调些）：

As concerning the subject of my research, I should like to keep a secret for the time being. 关于我研究的课题，我想暂时保密。

As concerns that matter, I'd like to add two points. 关于那件事，我想补充两点。［注意，concerns有“s”］

2 　respecting=with regard to

A discussion arose respecting the merits of different automobiles. 关于各种汽车的优点引起了一场讨论。

3 　touching=concerning；as regards

He asked me many questions touching my home and school life. 他问了我许多关于我的家庭和学校生活的问题。

3. with reference to，with respect to，in respect of，in the matter of

1 　with reference to或in reference to意同in connection with，但with reference to比in reference to普通。

I would like to draw some conclusions with（或in）reference to what has been said at the meeting. 我想就大家刚才在会议上所讲的问题得出一些结论来。

With（或 In）reference to editing a school paper, Professor Brown has given us several valuable suggestions.（注意：to是介词，故editing不能改为edit。）

2 　with respect to和in respect of均同with reference to或with regard to。

With respect to the President's views on the matter, nothing has yet been published in the press. 总统关于此事的观点尚未在报上发表。

His work is good in respect of quality but bad in respect of quantity. 他的工作就质量而论是好的，但就数量来说是差的。

例　The colleges vary so greatly that the problem was finally answered only_____.

A. with respect to a specific college（专科学校）

B. with a view to specific college

C. getting to specific college

D. with a regard to a specific college

［分析］答案为A，with respect to=with regard to。B不合句意，因with a view to不作“关于”解，作“为了……的目的”解。C不合语法。D错，应把with a regard to改为with regard to。

3 　in the matter of=concerning，后面通常接具体的东西。

The children have everything they need in the matter of clothes, but few toys. 这些孩子在衣着方面的需要得到了满足，但玩具甚少。

4. as for，as to

1 　as for和as to均可作“关于”或“至于”解。

As for the terms, they are too harsh to be acceptable. 就那些条件来说，它们太苛刻了不能令人接受。

You can have a bed, but as for the children, they'll have to sleep on the floor. 你可以睡在床上，至于这些孩子，他们只能睡地板了。

I don't know anything as to the others. 关于其他人的事，我一无所知。

As to that technical problem, I will deal with it in detail later. 至于那个技术问题，我以后再详细讲。

2 　as for和as to的不同。

A. as for还经常用来表示轻蔑的意思。

As for Esmond, I never want to see him again. 至于埃斯蒙德，我再也不要见到他了。

I only want you to join in my research; as for others, they don't count. 我只要你参加我的研究工作；至于其他的人，他们并不重要。

B. as to常与表示讯问、争论、疑问等动词连用。

I have no doubts as to your daughter's ability. 我对你女儿的能力一点也不怀疑。

We will inquire again as to that matter. 我们将再次了解那件事情。

C. as for后面通常只接名词或动名词；as to后面可接动名词、名词从句或疑问词+不定式构成的短语。

As for going back — that is out of the question.［接动名词］

As to doing that, I haven't decided yet.［接动名词］

He asked my advice as to what to do.［接疑问词+不定式］

We made enquiries as to when the next train would be leaving.［接名词从句］

I'm terribly uncertain as to whether Eve is the right girl for me.［接名词从句］

5. on，about

在表示“关于”时，on用于有准备的、正式的语言交流，如讲演、讲学、写作等；而about多用来表示非正式谈话或是随便提到：

He spoke on basic economic concepts. 他论述了经济学的基本概念。

He spoke about basic economic concepts. 他谈到有关经济学的基本概念。

例　“Here is an article on disarmament（裁军）。”

“I've heard many debates_____that issue recently.”

A. at

B. from

C. on

D. for

［分析］答案为C。on能用作“关于”解，含有论述的意思，比about强调；A，B和D中的各介词都不能表示“关于”的意义。

例　“Why is Dr.Jones speaking at the seminar?”

“Because he is an authority_____urban planning.”

A. at

B. from

C. on

D. for

［分析］答案为C。an authority on...系固定搭配，作“……方面的权威”解，on也是表示“关于”的意思，不能以in，of或with代之。

十、表示方法、手段或工具的介词在用法上的区别

表示方法、手段或工具的介词有by，on，in，with，through等，可译作“通过”，“用……”，“以……”，“凭……”，“藉……”，“靠……”，“由于……”，“按照……”等。

1. by

by=by means of或by dint of，表示方法或手段：

Though he has no great abilities, the student gained his scholarship by dint of close application. 虽然无很大才能，该学生却靠刻苦学习获得了奖学金。

We want to settle this by direct negotiation with them. 我们要通过跟他们直接谈判来解决此事。

Multiply the amount by ten and then divide by three. 把该数乘以10，然后除以3。

Judged by ordinary standards, he is quite competent. 按照一般的标准来看，他是很能干的。

By my watch, it is already past ten o'clock. 按我的表，已10点过了。

I knew by his appearance that he was not English. 凭他的外表我知道他不是英国人。

例　“How do you know John was angry?”

“I could tell_____his face.”

A. for

B. with

C. to

D. by

［分析］答案为D。by可用来表示方法或手段，这里作“凭……；靠……”解，意同from。

▶▶ by表示方法或手段时，有两个变体，即：

by+交通工具（单数，无冠词）=交通方式

by+通讯工具（单数，无冠词）=通讯方式

· 表示交通方式：

I came back by bus.

Barbara has probably gone off somewhere by boat.

They went there by underground/tube/subway/metro.［by后之四词都表示地铁、underground和tube是英国英语，subway是美国英语，metro指法国及欧洲其他国家城市中的地铁］

Are you going by plane or by train?

The senator（参议员）went to California by helicopter yesterday.

The delegation arrived here by air（乘飞机）at nine sharp（九时整）this morning.

This time he came by land（从陆路来）.

They are going to travel by sea（乘船）next month.

· 表示通讯方式：

It will be cheaper to send that package by express（以快递方式）.

The store will send your order（订货）by parcel post（以邮包方式）.

I'll inform you of our decision by letter（以函件方式）.

Nowadays people prefer to communicate with each other by telex（电传方式）in business.

It is much quicker to send a letter by air mail than by sea mail.

The matter is urgent.Please let me know by telegram.

Shall I send it by post（邮寄）or by hand（专人递送）?

The information was delivered by messenger（信使）.

We can listen to music broadcast by radio.

从上面众多的例句中可以一眼看出，用by表示交通方式或通讯方式时，by后面的名词必须用单数，且不带任何冠词。如换用on，in表示交通方式，则须在名词前加上不定冠词a(n)，如换用on，over，through表示通讯方式，便须加定冠词the。比较：

这里还要作三点补充说明：

A. on/in+不定冠词+交通工具这一模式除表示方式外，还可表示“处于运送状态之中”，而by则不能表示这一含义。

I met Miss Parker on（或in）a bus.［表示“在乘公共汽车途中碰到帕克小姐”这句可以成立］

I met Miss Parker by bus.［表示“以乘公共汽车方式碰到帕克小姐”用得不当，是病句］

B. 要表示交通工具的具体出发时间或到达时间时，by或on后都应接定冠词the：

He will arrive by（或on）the 9:20 train.［乘9时20分的列车到达］

I shall leave by（或on）the 10:40 train.［乘10时40分的列车离开］

C. by表示方法或手段时一些常见的习语：

by all means 务必；一定要

Come and see me by all means this evening. 今晚务必要来见我。

by any means 总之；无论如何

Fanny said that she would by any means make a tour of France. 范妮说她无论如何都要去法国旅游。

by backstairs influence 幕后势力；用不正当的手段

Fergus was elected as a congressman by backstairs influence. 弗格斯通过幕后势力当选为国会议员。

by dint of 由于；凭借

Ellen succeeded by dint of hard work. 埃伦凭借其艰苦努力的工作获得了成功。

by fair means or foul 不择手段；用种种方法

In capitalist countries many businessmen make their fortune by fair means or foul. 在资本主义国家里许多商人不择手段地发财致富。

by fits and starts 断断续续

I have studied English by fits and starts for several years. 我断断续续地学了几年英语。

If you work by fits and starts, you will never achieve much. 做事情一曝十寒是永远不可能取得多大成就的。

An athlete should do his drills regularly, and not by fits and starts. 一个运动员应该经常锻炼，而不能三天打鱼，两天晒网。

by force 用武力；强迫

You can't obtain my consent by force. 你不能强迫我同意。

by halves 不完全地；半途而废地

He never does anything by halves. 他做事从不半途而废。

Whatever you do, do it with your might; things done by halves are never done right. 不论做什么事都要全力以赴，半心半意是什么也做不好的。

by hand 用手工；由专人递送；人工［喂养］

Are these woolen socks knitted by hand or machine made? 这些羊毛袜是人工织的还是机器织的？

This valuable parcel was delivered by hand. 这个贵重的包裹是派专人送的。

The child was brought up by hand. 孩子是一口一口喂大的。

by heart 熟记；牢记

This is a good poem; you should learn it by heart（背下来）.

by hook or by crook 千方百计地；不择手段地

Intent on nothing but profit, the merchant tried to get rid of the defective goods by hook or by crook. 那商人唯利是图，千方百计想把那批次货脱手。

by leaps and bounds 飞快地；迅速地

Production in our factory has increased by leaps and bounds in the past few years. 最近几年我们工厂的产量有了飞跃的发展。

The school enrollment is going up by leaps and bounds. 入学人数正在迅速增加。

by means of 用；以；依靠

Shirley has laid aside some money by means of thrift and frugality. 雪莉靠省吃俭用节约了一些钱。

by no means 决不；决没有

Jude's fury by no means showed his strength, but rather his weakness. 祖德的大发脾气并不说明他有力量，而恰恰说明他的软弱。

I have ideals, but I am by no means a visionary. 我有理想，但我绝不是一个空想家。

by profession/trade 职业是……

Leonard is a lawyer by profession. 伦纳德的职业是律师。

That friend of mine used to be a plumber by trade. 我的那位朋友过去是当水管工的。

by right(s) 按理

By right this house belongs to me. 按理这幢房子是属于我的。

By right, all the small and medium-sized countries should have their say on the question of disarmament. 所有中小国家在裁军问题上理应都有发言权。

By rights, I think I should have an opportunity to reply to the criticisms of my article. 公正地说，我认为我应该有机会对批评我的文章的言论作出回应。

by proxy 代理；代表

by rote 机械地；死板地

It's not advisable to learn things by rote. 死记硬背的学习方法不足取。

by rule and line 按规矩；按程序；正确地

The students were told to do the experiment by rule and line. 教师告诉学生要按程序做试验。

by rule of thumb 凭经验［不根据理论］

The figure was worked out by rule of thumb. 这个数字是凭经验算出来的。

by some means or other 用某种方法；设法

Don't worry. We'll solve the problem by some means or other. 别担心，我们会想方设法把这个问题解决掉的。

by surprise 出其不意地；使……大吃一惊

The passenger took the pickpocket by surprise. He caught the latter's hand as it sneaked into his pocket. 那位乘客在扒手刚把手伸进他口袋里的时候，出其不意地抓住了他。

The guests all came half an hour early, taking the hostess by surprise. 客人们都提前半小时到了，弄得女主人措手不及。

The dean's appearance in the dormitory took the students by surprise. 学监突然出现在宿舍里，使学生们大吃一惊。

by the sweat of one's brow 靠自己的辛勤劳动

Even with modern labor-saving machinery, the workers support their families by the sweat of their brows. 即使有现代化的省力机械，工人们还是以自己的血汗养家糊口的。

by virtue of 凭借；依靠；由于

Plastic bags are useful for holding many kinds of food by virtue of their cleanness, toughness, and low cost. 塑料袋因其清洁、耐用而又价廉，可用来装各种食物。

by way of 取道；经由；当作；作为；通过；以……方式

They returned to China by way of Japan. 他们取道日本回到中国。

Steffan was not serious.He said it by way of a joke. 斯蒂芬并没有当真，他是说着玩的。

In many countries the state gives the farmers support by way of subsidy. 在许多国家，国家以贴补的方式支援农业经营者。

by word of mouth 口头地

The news spread quickly throughout the city by word of mouth. 这消息很快在全市传开了。

2. with

表示方法或手段时with和by用法上的差异

A. by表示方法，而with则表示行为所使用的具体工具或手段（包括人身上的器官和四肢）。

We see with our eyes and hear with our ears. 我们用眼睛看，用耳朵听。

The housemaid cleaned the table with a rag and swept the floor with a broom。

The urchin（顽童）broke the window with a stone.

比较下面两例：

The front door is closed; we'll have to leave by the back door. 前门关了，我们得从后门走。［表示方法，故用by］

He killed the leopard with bare hands. 他赤手空拳把豹子打死了。［表示具体手段，故用with］

再以hand为例；hand前用by，表示行为方式，作“用手工”解；with one's hand(s) 则表示行为所使用的具体手段。

Was this made by hand? 这是手工做的吗？

He plays pingpong with his left hand. 他用左手打乒乓球。

注意by hand（无冠词）和by the hand（有定冠词）的区别。by the hand 则着重手在身体上的部位：

The mother took her child by the hand. 妈妈拉着孩子的手。

He came forward and shook me by the hand. 他走上前来，握住了我的手。

B. 在被动语态中，表示行为者用by，表示使用的工具用with。

The passerby was killed by a falling flowerpot.［falling flowerpot是行为执行者，故前用by，应译为“那个过路人被坠落的花盆砸死了。”主动式是：A falling flowerpot killed the passerby.］

He was killed with a stone.［stone是执行动作时使用的工具，故前用with；实际上，动词killed后面省去了行为执行者（by someone），正确的译文应是“他被（人用）石头砸死。”主动式是：Someone killed him with a stone.］

下面一例同时使用by和with这两个介词，更能说明问题：

The lock was opened by the thief with a skeleton key. 门锁是被窃贼用万能钥匙打开的。［by后面接行为执行者thief，with接行为的使用工具skeleton key］

掌握这一区别，有助于在被动语态中正确地判断和使用by和with。试判断下列两句的正误：

（√）The members of the prospecting team were driven indoors by the storm wind. 勘探队的队员被暴风驱赶到室内。［storm wind是行为的执行者，故by用得不错，此句能成立］

（×）The members of the prospecting team were driven indoors with the storm wind.［此句把by改用with，则意味着storm wind是“驱赶”这一行为所使用的工具，那么谁是行为的执行者呢？人不具备操纵这种自然力的能力，除非所谓神道。故此句改用with后便不能成立］

由于在被动语态中by表示行为执行者，故书籍的著作者不能用with来表示，只能用by：

Of Human Bondage was written by Somerset Maugham. 《人性的枷锁》一书是萨默塞特·毛姆所写。

C. 如果行为者是抽象的无形之物，如思想、感情、意见、状态、疾病等，一般要用with，而不用by：

We were struck with terror. 我们感到非常恐怖。

Many people were attacked with influenza. 许多人得了流行性感冒。

当然，当行为的执行者是可看到或可触及的具体事物时，就得用by。比较：

He was seized by a policeman. 他被警察抓住了。［policeman是具体的人，故用by］

He was seized with pneumonia. 他得了肺炎。［pneumonia是无形，故用with］

D. 当句子的谓语由be+由分词转化成的形容词时，行为者则不管其是抽象还是具体，通常都用with：

The teacher was pleased with the pupil's answer.

The scientist was disappointed with the result of the experiment.

E. by表示无形的手段，with则表示有形器具：

The houses are lighted by electricity.

The houses are lighted with electric lights.

上两例意思相同，均作“灯光照亮了房屋”解；在第一例中，electricity（电）是无形的，前用by；在第二例中，electric lights（电灯）是有形的器具，前用with。同样，动名词表示无形的动作概念，前用by构成一种方法。一句话或一首歌则显得比较具体，便用with表示一种具体的手段。试比较：

The speaker concluded his speech by remarking that intelligence, hard work and honesty are the elements of success. 演讲人结束他的发言时说，智慧、努力和诚实是成功的要素。［remarking是动名词，前用by］

The speaker concluded his speech with a remark that intelligence, hard work and honesty are the elements of success.［句意同上。remark指“智慧、努力和诚实是成功的要素”这一句具体的话，故前用with］

例　“How can I help you the most?”“_____out of the way.”

A. For you to stay

B. To stay

C. By staying

D. With your staying

［分析］答案为C。by staying out of the way表方法。

例　“Did you find the dog?”“It was tearing the cloth_____its teeth.”

A. with

B. by

C. through

D. in

［分析］答案为A，with its teeth表示狗撕破布头所使用的工具。B不行，因这里用by表示方法在句意上讲不通。

例　With passing (A) the referendum（市民表决）to establish the civilian reviewing board（市民评议会）, the voters have made certain (B) that the actions of the police will be observed (C) more closely (D).

［分析］A错。动名词前用by表示一种方法，不能用with。句意是“通过公民表决成立市民评议会，选民已确保能更清楚地注意警方的作为。”

例　It is remarkable (A) how much (B) a scientist can learn about (C) the structure and history of the moon by (D) a sample of lunar soil.

［分析］D错。sample（样品）是具体手段，故应把by改为with。

3. on

如前所述，on也可用来表示交通方式及通讯方式；它和by的不同在于，by后面不能用冠词，而on后面则要加冠词；定冠词表示特指，不定冠词表示泛指。有一点还得注意，交通工具除bike这类无厢、无舱的用on以外，其他则用in或on都可，但car则以用in较为常见：

He has gone out for a ride on a bike. 他骑自行车出去兜风去了。

Mr. and Mrs. Robinson will take me in their car（带我坐他们的轿车）this afternoon.

Don't read books in（或on）a bus.

同时，还要注意在foot，horseback，tiptoe三词前不能用by或in，只能用on，而且该三词必须用单数，前面不可加上冠词：

Did you come on foot or by bus? 你是走来的还是乘公共汽车来的？

I like riding about the country on horseback. 我喜欢骑马在乡间周游。

Nigel walked into the room on tiptoe for fear he might disturb his wife who was sleeping. 奈杰尔踮着脚尖走进房里，以免打扰他正在睡觉的妻子。

▶▶ on foot，on horseback和on tiptoe这三个介词词组还用于比喻用法中：

There is a scheme on foot to build another two high-rise buildings in this area. 正在筹划在本地区再造两座高层建筑。

Disease comes on horseback but goes off on foot. 疾病来得快去得慢。

They were on tiptoe to learn the result of the election. 他们迫切希望知道选举的结果。

除交通方式及通讯方式之外，on还可用来表示以下两种方式、方法：

A. 表示行为的方式、方法。on常见的习语如下：

on one's best/good behaviour 表现很好

The naughty boy is on his best behaviour today. 今天这个调皮鬼表现得很好。

on end 竖着地；继续不断地

Please put the barrel on end. 请把这只桶竖起来。

The horse ran forty minutes on end. 那匹马不停地跑了40分钟。

For miles on end the road was lined on both sides with plane trees. 那条大路两旁栽的梧桐树绵延了好几英里。

on one's feet 站起来，恢复［健康］

Look! The baby is on its feet. 瞧！这小孩站起来了。

The doctor's careful treatment soon put the patient on his feet. 医生的精心治疗很快使这位病人恢复了健康。

It took a long time for our corporation to get on its feet after the big loss. 那次重大亏损后，我们公司花了好长时间才恢复元气。

on good authority 有确实可靠的根据

I heard it on good authority; I'm sure that it's true. 我听到的这话有根据，我相信它是真的。

on one's high horse 趾高气扬；目空一切；自高自大

When he got good marks in the exam, Colin began to get up on his high horse. 科林在考试中得了高分后便自高自大起来。

on one's knees 跪着；屈服；处于困境

The captured enemy soldier fell on his knees and begged for his life. 被俘的敌兵跪下来乞求饶命。

The corporation is on its knees owing to its failure in speculation. 由于投机失败，该公司陷入了困境。

on one's last legs 行将就木；垂死挣扎

The sick old man is on his last legs. 那个生病的老人快要死了。

On account of a sharp decrease in its sales, my uncle's business is on its last legs. 由于销售额急剧下降，我叔叔的企业濒临破产。

on pins and needles 如坐针毡；坐立不安

The young boy was on pins and needles, wondering whether his father was going to beat him for misconduct. 那小男孩做错事后感到如坐针毡，不知道他父亲是否会因此而打他。

on purpose 故意地

It's not likely that Reuben broke the vase on purpose. 鲁本不像是故意摔坏这个花瓶的。

on schedule 按照预定时间；准时

The school bus arrived at school on schedule. 校车准时到达学校。

on sb's shoulders 在（某人的）肩上

Don't take too much work on your shoulders. 别承担太多的工作。

The success of the research rests on your shoulders. 这次研究能否成功全要看你了。

on strike 罢工

The coal miners went on strike a few days ago, demanding shorter working hours and higher pay. 几天前，煤矿工人举行罢工，要求缩短工时，增加工资。

on the crook 不正当地；欺骗地

They tried to win the game on the crook but in vain. 他们想用不正当的手段赢得这场比赛，但未得逞。

on the cuff 以赊账方式

We bought this expensive car on the cuff. 我们以赊账方式购买这部昂贵的汽车。

on the level 诚实公正；说实话

You can trust Terence; he always acts on the level. 你可以相信特伦斯，他行事一向诚实公正。

on the stroke 准时地

He arrived on the stroke in spite of the heavy snow. 尽管下大雪，他还是准时到了。

on the trot 连续地；接连地；跑来跑去；忙个不停

Since her child fell ill, the mother hasn't slept well for three nights on the trot. 自从孩子生了病，那位妈妈已接连三个晚上没有睡好觉了。

The job kept me on the trot most of the day. 这件事使我大半天忙个不停。

on thorns 如坐针毡；焦急不安

The parents were on thorns, waiting for their son to come back. 爸爸妈妈焦急不安地等着他们的孩子回来。

B. 表示处理方式。on常见习语如下：

on approval［商品］供使用的；包退包换的

One way to secure more orders is to send samples on approval. 要想获得更多订单的一个方法就是提供试用样品。

This refrigerator was bought on approval. 这个冰箱买的时候讲明包退包换。

on business 因公

The managing director has left for New York on business. 总经理已出差去纽约了。

on call 随时可支付的；随叫随到的

The money is payable on call. 这笔钱可随时支付。

The doctors in our factory clinic are on call day and night. 我们工厂医务室的医生们，不论白天黑夜，总是随叫随到。

on sb's coattails 利用或依靠［某人的］威望；沾［某人的］光

The lazy son could muddle along simply because he rode on his father's coattails. 这个懒儿子之所以能混下去完全是仗着他父亲的威望。

Many of the governor's supporters rode on his coattails and got important offices. 州长的许多追随者都依仗他的势力爬了上来担任要职。

on credit/on tick 用赊欠的方法

Can I buy goods on credit? 我能赊账货物吗？

Goods in our shop are not sold on credit but have to be paid for in cash. 我店货物现金交易，概不赊欠。

on deck 准备就绪

Everyone was on deck for the dress rehearsal. 大家都为彩排做好了准备。

on demand/on application/on request 提出要求就可

A complete list of new books will be sent on application/on demand. 完整的新书目录承索即寄。

Further information will be sent on request. 如提出要求，将继续提供有关情况。

on equal terms 以平等关系；按照平等的条件

All the nationalities in our country participate on equal terms in the management of state affairs. 我们国家的各族人民一律平等地参与管理国家事务。

on faith 毫不怀疑地

If you love him, you'll have to accept his word on faith. 如果你爱他，就应该完全相信他的话。

on file 存档

We put on file all the data we had collected for future reference. 我们把收集到的全部资料存档以供将来参考。

on one's head 易如反掌地

The boy said that he could lift the big wooden case on his head. 那男孩说他能不费吹灰之力把那只大木箱抬走。

on one's (word of) honor 以自己的信誉担保

The man pledged on his honor never to gamble again. 那人以自己的信誉保证今后不再赌博。

on ice 冷藏；把……搁置起来；把……关入牢狱中

If you keep the vegetables and meat on ice for too long, they won't taste nice. 你如把蔬菜和肉冷藏太久，它们吃起来就会没有味道。

As no fund is available, we cannot but put the plan on ice for the moment. 因无资金，我们不得不把这计划暂时搁置起来。

The murderer was put on ice before he was on trial. 该杀人犯在受审前被关在狱中。

With the score so much in our favor, our volleyball team has the match on ice. 我们比分领先这么多，这场比赛我们排球队赢定了。

on one's mettle 奋发；激励

My parents' encouragement put me on my mettle, and I finally managed to pass the difficult entrance examination. 我爸爸妈妈的一番鼓励使我振奋起来，我终于设法通过了这场很难的入学考试。

on orders 遵照命令

He said he did it on orders. 他说他是遵照命令行事的。

on one's own 独自地，独立地；凭自己的力量；主动地；自愿地

Halph is a promising student.He is able to solve academic problems on his own（独自解决学业上的问题）.

No one asked them to come;they came on their own. 没人请他们来，是他们自己要来的。

on one's own account 独自地；自担风险地

He started to go into business on his own account last year. 去年他开始独立经商。

on one's own time 在规定工时以外的时间；在非工作时间

He wrote the work report mainly on his own time. 这份工作报告他基本上是利用业余时间写出来的。

on paper 以书面形式；表面上；理论上；在筹划中

We think it advisable to get the agreement down on paper. 我们认为宜把此项协议以书面形式确定下来。

The plan looks good on paper, but whether it is workable remains to be seen. 这个计划看上去不错，但是否切实可行，还有待于观察。

The project had been on paper for two years before it was put into construction. 这项工程筹划了两年才动工的。

on parole 作出不逃跑的保证后获释

The prisoner was released on parole. 那犯人获假释后出狱。

on tenterhooks 提心吊胆；焦虑不安

The students are on tenterhooks to learn about the result of the examination. 学生们焦虑不安地打听考试的结果。

I should like to have the matter settled as soon as possible, because it keeps me on tenterhooks. 我愿这件事尽早解决，因它使我烦躁不安。

on the sly 偷偷地；秘密地

The man smoked on the shy though his wife forbade him to do so. 虽然妻子不让他抽烟，但他还是偷偷地抽。

on the spot 当场

The criminal tried to run away, but he was killed on the spot. 那名罪犯试图逃跑，但被当场击毙。

on the spur of the moment 即席地；临时地；凭一时冲动地

Though unprepared, he was nevertheless able to make a speech on the spur of the moment. 尽管毫无准备，他还是能够即兴发表演说。

We had not planned to do any shopping;we just bought these things on the spur of the moment. 我们事先并未打算买东西，只是凭一时兴起才买了这些物品。

C. 表示对人、对物的态度。on的习语如下：

be hard on 对……太严厉

Don't be so hard on your children. 别对孩子太严厉。

be keen on 喜欢

I am not keen on cold drinks. 我不喜欢吃冷饮。

be on bad terms with 与［某人］不和睦

They have been on bad terms with each other since they quarrelled last month. 打上月吵了架，他们的关系就一直不好。

be on good/friendly terms with 与……和睦，与……友好

Mrs. Ford is on good terms with all her neighbors. 福特夫人和她的左邻右舍都相处得很好。

4. in

1 　表示书写的方式。

Don't write your name in pencil; write it in ink. 名字不要用铅笔写，要用墨水写。（注意，pencil和ink前均无冠词。）

Corrections are made in red pencil or red ink. 作业是用红铅笔或红墨水批改的。

由于in表示书写方式，故在单数可数名词pencil前不用冠词。试与with比较，with表示书写的工具，由于工具是具体的东西，因此with的宾语前需加冠词。

A: What are you writing with?

B: I'm writing with a pencil（或with a pen）.

例　“How do I write my composition?”

“Write your composition_____ink.”

A. in

B. on

C. with

D. by

［分析］答案为A，in表示书写方式。C错，因with表示书写工具，需把with ink改为with a pen。

但如说“用钢笔与墨水”时，则用with pen and ink，但不能在pen前加不定冠词：

The teacher told us to write our compositions on every other line with pen and ink, but not with a pencil. 老师叫我们写作文时要隔行写，要用墨水和钢笔写，不要用铅笔。［两个或两个以上名词并列使用时，通常省去冠词，故不讲“with a pen and ink”］

2 　表示表达的方法（包括语言、原料等）。

He wrote a paper in English. 他用英语写了一篇论文。

A book bound in hardback is far more expensive than one bound in paperback. 精装本要比平装本贵得多。

It is bad manners to talk in a loud voice. 大声讲话是不礼貌的。

3 　表示行为的方式，作“以……”，“按照……”，“……地”解。

After I explained the hidden meaning of the passage to him, the student still looked at me in a puzzled way. 我向该学生解释了这段文章的隐晦的意义后，他仍然困惑地看着我。

The hotel is built in European style. 这座旅馆是按欧式建造的。

Most past participles end in-ed. 大多数的过去分词以-ed结尾。

在习惯用语中，in后面还可接某些形容词，表示行为的方式、形式。以下在习惯用法中，是一些由in+形容词构成的常见习语：

in brief 简单地说

Could you tell us in brief how to operate this machine? 你能简单扼要地给我们说说怎么操作这台机器吗？

in common 共同；共有；公有

After a full discussion we found that we shared some views in common. 经过充分讨论，我们发现我们有一些共同的观点。

The swimming pool is used in common by all the children in the neighborhood. 这个游泳池供邻近所有的孩子共同享用。

in earnest 认真地

Sidney is likely to succeed; he works in earnest. 西德尼有可能会成功，因为他工作很认真。

in full 详细；全部

Would you describe the circumstances in full? 你能否将情况详细叙述一下？

The prime minister's speech was published in full in all the newspapers yesterday. 总理的讲话昨天全文刊载在各家报纸上。

in general 总的来说；概括地说；笼统地

In general, I agree with what you said. 总的来说，我同意你讲的话。

We just talked in general, and didn't discuss anything specific. 我们只是泛泛而谈，并未涉及到具体情况。

in particular 特别；尤其

First, the teacher gave a general outline, and then dealt in particular with the main points. 老师首先讲了个大意，然后着重讲解重点。

in private 私下地；秘密地

Joseph said he would like to have a talk with you in private. 约瑟夫说他想私下里找你谈谈话。

in public 当众；公开地

I don't like to speak in public. 我不喜欢在公开的场合讲话。

in secret 私下；暗地；秘密地

The information was sent out in secret. 这个情报被秘密地送出去了。

in short 简言之

There is not much time left; I'll tell you about it in short. 时间不多了，我简单地给你讲一下。

in vain 无效；徒劳

They protested to the President, but in vain. 他们向总统抗议，但无效。

Everyone advised him not to do that, but it was all in vain. 人人都劝他不要那么做，但都无效。

5. through

在表示方法、媒介手段时，常可和by相互替用，但不如by那么直截了当：

Inflammable articles must not be sent through（或by）post. 易燃物品不得邮寄。

The old woman makes her living（或makes a living）through（或by）washing. 这位老妇人以洗衣为生。

Eugene achieved success through（或by）sheer hard work. 尤金的成功完全是通过苦干得来的。

如果单纯强调手段时，by用得比through更普通。我们过去常说“在游泳中学习游泳，”常见的译文便是“learn to swim by swimming”。但是当through所表示的意思超过一般的或间接的媒介手段，便不能为by所替用：

I got the job through my father. 我的工作是靠我父亲的影响谋来的。［这里，through的意思超越一般的媒介手段，=by the influence of，故不能换用by］

十一、表示标准、比率、对比、速度、价格的介词在用法上的区别

表示标准、比率、价格的介词有by，at，for，to，against等。

1. by可用来表示标准、度量单位，作“以……计”，“按……计算”解

Milk is sold by the pint, butter by the pound, and eggs by the dozen. 牛奶论品脱卖、黄油论磅卖、鸡蛋论打卖。［品脱为容量名称，1品脱=1/8加仑］

In Britain most workers are paid by the week. 在英国大多数就职人员按周领工资。

注意，by后有定冠词the时，用作计量单位的宾语必须是单数。再看：

Meat and fish are sold by the catty. 肉和鱼按斤出售。

Time is measured by the hour. 时间按时计算。

The temporary workers here are paid by the day. 这里临时工是按日计酬的。

在前面三例中，用作计量单位的catty，hour和day都采用单数形式。但如by后的计量词由数词来担任，该数词可以是单数，也可以是复数，采用复数形式则需去掉定冠词the。

比较：

This small commodity is counted by the hundred.［hundred用单数，前有the］

This small commodity is counted by hundreds.［hundreds 用复数，便不用the］

这两例意思相同，指“这一小商品按百计数。”

Books come in by the thousand.

Books come in by thousands. 书籍按千进货。

注意　by还可和retail（零售），wholesale（批发），auction（拍卖）等词一起用表示计量标准。这样用时，习惯用法要求这些词都用作单数，而且不用冠词。在美国英语中，则往往用at代替by：

Some goods are sold by retail and some goods are sold by wholesale. 有些货物是零卖的，有些货物是批发卖的。［英国式］

Some goods are sold at retail and some goods are sold at wholesale.［美国式］

I am going to sell my furniture by auction.［英国式］

I am going to sell my furniture at auction. 我打算拍卖我的家具。［美国式］

▶▶ 从表示计量标准这一用法加以引申，by还常被用来表示时间、空间、数量等的相差：

The prices of most commodities have risen by 10 percent. 大多数商品的价格上升了百分之十。

Adam is my senior by five years. 亚当比我大五岁。

They increased the amount by one third. 他们把金额增加了三分之一。

The bullet missed my head by half an inch. 子弹差半英寸就击中我的头部。

The rope is short by two feet. 这绳子短了二英尺。

A master is below a doctor by one degree. 硕士比博士学位低一级。

This is by far the best of all. 显然，这是最适当的方式。

例　“Is she older than you?”

“Yes, she is older than_____two years.”

A. me for

B. me by

C. I for

D. I by

［分析］答案为D。原句=...older than I (am old) by two years，by在此表示相差的程度。B在口语中可用，但在正式英语中不算正确。

例　The bond issue, proposed as (A) a way of financing (B) a centennial celebration, (C) failed in (D) a narrow margin.

［分析］D错，改为by a narrow margin，作“差一点儿”解，是常用的副词短语，这里修饰failed，by表示程度上的相差。

2. at可用来表示速度、比率、价格、价值

He ran all the way here at full speed.［full speed前一般不用冠词］

The airplane came to land at (a) low speed. 飞机开始以低速降落。

Normally, we walk at a（或the）speed of 4 miles per hour.

The train is running at the rate of 80 miles an hour.

The bell rings at regular intervals. 每隔一定时间铃就响一次。

有时候，speed前也用with：

Martin finished the job with amazing speed. 马丁以惊人的速度完成了这项工作。

The car moved with great speed.

All right, we'll dispatch him with all possible speed. 好，我们将尽快地派遣他来。

注意　speed和with一起用时，中间不能用冠词，和at一起用时可以用也可以不用冠词。

例　“I think John will win the race.”

“Yes, he started off_____a great speed.”

A. with

B. at

C. through

D. by

［分析］答案为B。at在此表速率，作“以……的速度”解。A错，with表速度时，后面不用冠词，应把a去掉，即with great speed方可。

We sell goods at reasonable prices. 我们以合理价格售货。

The house with the garden is valued at 300,000 US dollars. 这幢房子连同花园估价300,000美元。

The amusement park was built at an immense cost. 这座乐园造价极高。

例　Modern technological advances are being made, but_____.

A. with highly considerable expense

B. at a great expense

C. with great expense involved

D. by a lot of expenses

［分析］答案为B。at可用来表示价格、价值，at a great expense作“花了很大的代价”解；but是并列连词，后面省去了they are being made，they指modern technological advances。

▶▶ at和for的区别。

at用来表示代价、单价或按……价出售或买进；要表示“花……钱（买进）”或“以……价钱（卖出）”时，也就是说，指整个价钱时，则用for。比较：

I bought these back numbers of magazines at 50 cents a piece. 我以每本5角的价格买了这些过期的杂志。

I bought these back numbers of magazines for five dollars. 我花了5美元买了这些过期的杂志。

He sells his apples at one dollar a pound. 他以1美元一磅的价格出售苹果。

He sold the remaining apples for three dollars. 他3美元卖掉了剩下的那些苹果。

3. at在表示速度、比率、价格方面的一些常见习语

at a blow 一下子；一举

It can't be finished at a blow; we'll have to come again tomorrow. 这不能一下子完成；明天还得再来。

at a dash 一气呵成地；一鼓作气地

The boy finished his homework at a dash and sat down to watch TV. 这个男孩一口气把作业做完了，然后坐下来看电视。

at a discount 打折扣；没有销路；有保留地

Those unsalable goods are to be sold at a discount. 那些滞销货拟打折扣出售。

I'm afraid they will take your suggestion at a discount. 恐怕他们对你的建议会有保留。

at a fast pace 快速

The plane brought food and medicine to the people of the severely afflicted area at a fast pace. 飞机快速给重灾区的灾民送来了食品和药品。

at a foot's pace 用步行速度

Philip went to school at a foot's pace. 菲利普以步行的速度走到学校。

at a run（跑步）

The soldiers went at a run on their way back to camp. 士兵一口气跑回到营房。

at a snail's pace 缓慢地；爬行地

It has taken you nearly two hours to get here! You must have walked at a snail's pace. 你花了将近两个小时才来到这里!你也实在走得太慢了。

at a sitting 一口气；一下子

The story was so thrilling that I finished reading it at a sitting. 这故事非常扣人心弦，我一口气把它读完了。

at a stretch 一口气地；不休息地

He worked (for) 14 hours at a stretch. 他不休息地连续工作了14小时。

at an increasing rate 以逐渐增长的速度

The production of our factory has been expanding at an increasing rate in recent years. 我们厂的生产近几年来正在以逐渐增长的速度增加。

at all costs/at any cost 不惜任何代价；无论如何

The border must be defended at all costs. 必须不惜一切代价守卫边界。

The bridge must be repaired within three days at any cost. 无论如何要在三天之内把桥修好。

at any price 无论代价如何

I won't sell this painting at any price. 无论给多少钱我也不卖这幅画。

at any rate 无论如何；不管怎样

At any rate you should have a try. 无论如何你应该试一试。

It's going to snow tomorrow; at any rate, the weather caster (=weather forecaster) says so. 明天要下雪，不管怎样，气象预报员是这样说的。

at intervals/at intervals of 隔一会儿；每隔一段距离

She brought us coffee at intervals. 她每隔一会儿就给我们送咖啡来。

During the march we took a rest at two-hour intervals. 在行军途中，我们每隔两小时休息一次。

Willows are planted along the lake at intervals of 50 feet. 湖滨每隔50英尺栽种一棵柳树。

at one stroke 轻而易举；一蹴而就

The four modernizations cannot be realized at one stroke.We must exert our utmost to attain the goal. 四个现代化不能一蹴而就，我们必须尽最大努力求其实现。

at that rate 照那样的话；照那种情况

It doesn't do to write your book without leaving out unnecessary material; you'll never get it finished at that rate. 你写书不删去多余的材料是不行的，你那样搞是永远写不完的。

at the cost of 牺牲；以……为代价

He saved the life of the child at the cost of his own. 他牺牲了自己的生命救了那孩子。

at the expense of/at sb's expense 由（某人）负担费用；使（某人、某物）受损失

I was educated at my sister's expense. 我读书的费用是由我姐姐负担的。

We had a good laugh at his expense. 我们尽情地取笑他。

He became a brilliant writer, but at the expense of his health. 他成为一位卓越的作家，但却牺牲了健康。

In writing, it is inadvisable to think too much of style at the expense of content. 在写作中，不宜一味追求文体而忽视内容。

at this rate 按这样速度

At this rate, we'll be through in half an hour. 按这个速度，我们半小时就可干完。

4. to 在表示数量、价值、比率时的几个意思

A. 比，对比。

Tim stands 1.90 meters, but he weighs only 130 pounds.His height is not in proportion to his weight. 蒂姆身高1米9，但体重仅130磅。他的身高和体重不成比例。

Our football team won the match with the score of three to one. 我们的足球队以3比1赢了那场比赛。

The ratios of 2 to 8 and 20 to 80 are the same. 2比8和20比80的比率是相同的。

Ten to one (=In nine out of ten) the film will win an Oscar. 十之八九该电影将获奥斯卡奖。

例　The specific gravity of a gas is the numerical (A) ratio of its (B) density with (C) the density of a standard of reference, usually (D) air.

［分析］C错，with不能表示比率，应改为to，the ratio of A to B作“A与B的比率”解，其中的to不能改用其他介词。

从以上可以看出，介词to表示“比”或“对比”时，着重比率；要着重表示“比较”这一含义的对比时，则要用against：

5,000 students have passed the entrance examination this year against 4,000 last year. 今年有5 000个学生通过入学考试而去年只有4 000。

Mr. Hall was elected Chairman of the board of directors by a majority of twelve votes against three. 霍尔先生以12票对3票的多数当选为董事长。

▶▶ against还可和as连用，使其意义得到强化，作“对比则为……”解：

The business done this year amounts to five hundred thousand pounds as against three hundred thousand pounds last year. 今年营业总额500 000镑，去年则为300 000镑。

against由“对比”这一意义常被引申来表示“衬托；相映”的意思：

Red flowers look more beautiful against green leaves. 红花有绿叶扶助才更好看。

A huge tree was boldly silhouetted against the blue sky. 大树轮廓在蓝天的衬托下清晰醒目。

B. 比喻这是从“比”中引申出来的意义，只用于极正式的书面语言中，句型是：

A is to B what（或as）C is to D意指“A对于B犹如C之对于D”。

Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. 读书对于思想，好比运动对于身体一样。

Parks are to the city as (=what) lungs are to the body. 公园对于都市正如肺对于人的身体一样。

An individual is to the collective as (=what) a screw is to a machine. 个人对于集体犹如螺丝钉对于机器一样。

Air is to us what (=as) water is to fish. 我们离不开空气，犹如鱼离不开水。

C. 到……表示数量上之增加或减少

The price of this article has been reduced to six dollars. 此物品的价格已降低到6美元。

The interest rate was raised to 3%. 利率提高到百分之三。

The child can already count up to one hundred. 这孩子已能数到一百。

D.（数量上的）配给

Ten pieces of cake are packed to each box. 10块蛋糕装一盒。

In our dormitory, every four students are assigned to one bedroom. 在我们宿舍中，每四个学生分配给一间寝室。

十二、表示比较的介词在用法上的区别

表示比较的介词有than，to，of，above。

1. than

than表示比较时，通常用作连接词，但在现代英语中也常被用作介词。比较：

He is older than I (am).［than用作连词，后接主格代词I，am通常被省略，这是than的正统用法］

He is older than me.［这里than用作介词，故后面也可接宾格代词。这种用法在现代英语里很常见，但在正式英语中仍被认为不正规］

例　Nobody speaks more clearly (A) than him (B), but his writing is frequently (C) difficult to make out (D).

［分析］B错，than him应改为than he，he后面的speaks或does省略了。

但在than whom（与……比较）这一固定词组中，than作为介词的用法已为正式英语所接受：

He is a person than whom I can imagine no one more courteous. 我想不出一个比他更有礼貌的人。

Present also was Sheridan, than whom there was no abler speaker in the group. 谢里登也出席了，在场人中没有一个人比他更有口才。

例　“Whose son?”

“He is her son, _____whom a kinder son does not exist.”

A. in

B. than

C. with

D. except

［分析］答案为B。在关系代词whom之前than可用作介词，已列为正式英语。句意是“他是她的儿子，世界上再也没有比他更好的儿子了。”

▶▶ than用作介词的一些常见词组：

less than/less...than... 少于；与其说是……倒不如说……

I won't sell my house for less than 60,000 dollars. 这幢房子少于6万美元我是不卖的。

Experience shows that success is due less to ability than to zeal.The winner is he who gives himself to his work, body and soul. 经验告诉我们：成功与其说是由于才能，不如说是由于热心。倾全身心于事业的人必能获得成功。

more than 超过；多于；不止

These chocolates cost more than three dollars a pound. 这些巧克力糖一磅要卖3美元以上。［more than可接名词］

I was more than pleased to hear of your success. 听到你的成功的消息我是十二分的高兴。［more than可接形容词］

I wish you'd come to my home, you'd be more than welcome.［接形容词］我希望你能来我家。我们都十分欢迎你。

You'll find my father in the pub more than likely.［接副词］你会看见我父亲八成是在酒店里。（more than likely作“很有可能”解）

She dresses more than simply. 她衣着何止朴素而已。［more than 可接副词］

The gain more than compensated for the loss. 所得多于所失。［more than 可接动词］

more...than meets the eye/ear 隐藏在背后的东西

On a first reading the plan looked all right, but there was more to it than met the eye. 乍一看，这个计划很好，但背后还有问题呢。

Everybody says there is more in his statement than meets the ear. 大家都说他话中有话。

more...than... 与其……倒不如说；是……而不是……

Jimmy is more mad than stupid. 吉米简直是发疯而不是愚蠢。

It is more a prose than a poem. 这与其说是一首诗，倒不如说是一篇散文。

Your son is more shy than unsocial. 你的孩子太腼腆而不是孤僻。

After doing the hard job for two hours, I was more dead than alive. 干了两小时那个重活后我简直累死了。［more dead than alive是习语，作“累死”解］

more praise than pudding=more flattery than material benefit 恭维多而实惠少，此习语源自俗语Praise is not pudding（恭维不能当饭吃）

I spent a whole day translating that important contract into English, but I got more praise than pudding. 我花了一整天把那份重要合同译成英文，但我得到的是很多赞扬，报酬却很少。

注：more... than... 通常都接平行结构，但也有例外，如be more sinned against than sinning［more后是分词词组，than后是动词化名词］，意指“所受的惩罚超过自己所犯的过失”。如：The jewelry robber was more sinned against than sinning. 该珠宝抢劫犯受到过重的处罚。该习用语源出莎士比亚名剧King Lear《李尔王》第3幕第2场：He was a man more sinned against than sinning. 他是个过错不多而报应过重的人。

(bite off) more than one can chew 贪多嚼不烂；承担力所不能及的事

He was biting off more than he could chew when he offered to finish proof-reading the book in a couple of hours. 他提出可以在两三个小时内校完这本书，真有点自不量力。

have more sense than+不定式有　理智（有头脑）不至于……

He has more sense than to go where he is not wanted. 他很有头脑不至于会到不需要他的地方去。

I have more sense than to do such a stupid thing. 我不会糊涂到做出这种蠢事。

no further than 只到……

We went no further than the station. 我们只走到车站。

no less than/little less than 不少于

There was no less than 30 dollars in the drawers. 抽屉里的钱不少于30美元。

no（或little）less...than... 与……一样地……

Sally is no less charming than Jean. 莎莉和简一样妩媚动人。

no（或little）better than... 完全是；简直是

Jack is in the habit of walking off with things; he is little better than a thief. 杰克有顺手牵羊的习惯，他简直和窃贼差不了多少。

no more than 只是

He is no more than a puppet. 他只不过是个傀儡。

no more...than.../not...any more than... 与……一样，也不……

I am no more insane than you (are). 我和你一样，也没有神志不清。

I can no more play tennis than you (can). 我同你一样，也不会打网球。

He is no more able to do it than I am. 他和我一样，也不能做这件事。

other than/other...than 除了；不是……

Do you have any books other than novels（或any other books than novels）? I want to read something on science. 你有没有除了小说以外的书籍？我想看一点科技方面的。

Have you no other suit than this? 你就只有这么一套衣服吗？

All parts of the car other than the brakes are in good condition. 除了刹车，这辆汽车的其他部件都很好。

The result was quite other than what I expected. 结果跟我预料的完全不同。

no (not, none, hardly) other than 就是；正是；只有

The new arrival was no（或none）other than the managing director. 新来的人就是总经理。

I can hardly（或can not）be other than grateful to you. 我对你只有感激。

nothing else than/nothing less than 完全是；只是；与……没有两样

What he told me was nothing else than nonsense. 他告诉我的完全是胡言乱语。

It is nothing less than stealing to take a thing away without the permission of its owner. 没有得到物主的同意擅自把东西拿走，和偷窃没有什么两样。

nothing other than 不过是

It is nothing other than the usual difficulty. 这不过是常有的困难。

else...than 除……以外还……

How else can we come than on foot? 除了步行以外，我们还能怎么来呢？

rather than/rather...than 宁愿……而不要；与其……倒不如

He is an artist rather than a philosopher.他与其说是哲学家，倒不如说是个艺术家。

Fred is rather diligent than clever. 弗雷德并不聪明，但很勤勉。

would sooner（或would rather）...than... 宁愿……而不

He would sooner（或rather）die than consent to such a plan. 他宁愿死也不肯同意这个计划。

这里要作几点说明：

① 在上列与than搭配词组中，than可看作介词或连词，这里一并作为介词归在一起，是以便于读者记忆。

② more...than...（与其……倒不如说；是……而不是……）这一词组结构表示的是同一人或同一事物的自身特点的比较，不是同类中两者间的比较，这一特殊性也体现在用法上的特殊性，即more后面如果接形容词，形容词必须用原级，否则便犯双重比较级的错误；也不能去掉more而改用形容词比较级，如果这样，就违反了这一特殊句型结构的要求。比较：

Your son is more shy than unsocial.［√］

Your son is more shier than unsocial.［×犯双重比较级错］

Your son is shier than unsocial.［×违反句型要求］

Oliver was more angry than frightened.［√句意是“奥利弗不是受了惊吓，而是很生气。”］

Oliver was more angrier than frightened.［×双重比较级］

Oliver was angrier than frightened.［×违反句型要求］

③ 掌握这些词组对日后应用、应试均有裨益。试以no more...than/not...any more than...为例。这一词组，虽具两种形式，但意义相同，均作“与……一样，也不……”解。掌握了“I am no more insane than you (are)”和“I can no more play tennis than you can”这两个例句后，便能正确理解下面一句难度较大的句子：

Nations are not to be judged by their size any more than individuals.

不难看出，上列句子含有“not...any more than...”这一词组，即等同于“no more...than...”，作“与……一样，也不……”解，实际上在individual后面省去了“are to be judged by their size”，故应理解为“国家和个人一样，也是不应该以其大小来判断的”。

例　“Anne acts quite unfriendly.”

“I think she's_____than unfriendly.”

A. shyer

B. shy

C. more shy rather

D. more shy

［分析］答案为D。符合more+原级形容词+than这一句型结构；She's more shy than unfriendly作“她倒不是不友好，而是怕羞”解。A错，因无此句型。C应去掉rather或more。B不合语法。

例　“This cake is delicious!”

“Well, at least it's_____the one I baked last week.”

A. as worse as

B. no worse than

C. as better than

D. not better as

［分析］答案为B，no worse than（不比……差）是上列一系列than词组中no more than之反义词组。A，C及D三项均不合语法。

例　“The exam was very stiff.”

“Now don't begin making excuses. Other boys_____have passed.”

A. not cleverer like you

B. no cleverer than you

C. as clever not like you

D. clever not than you

［分析］答案为B。no cleverer than和no better than属同一句型结构，句意是“其他不比你聪明的男孩都通过了。”其余皆不合语法。

例　He was so poor that he had_____than one hundred dollars.

A. no less

B. not less

C. no more

D. not more

［分析］答案为D。这四个选项意义近似，要搞清它们之间的微细差别才能作出正确的选择。A项no less+than作“不少于；多达”解，意同as much as；B项not less+than作“至少”解，意同at least；C项no more+than作“只；不过”解，意同only。D项not more+than作“至多”解，意同at most。看此句的意思应是“他非常穷，至多只有100美元。”故按句意应选D (not more)，其他三项不太合句意。

例　Our native language is a part of our natural heritage, a personal possession_____.

A. no more than our own as the geography of our birthplace

B. no less than our own as the geography of our birthplace

C. not so little our own than the geography of our birthplace

D. no less our own than the geography of our birthplace

［分析］答案为D, no less...than作“与……一样”解，=as...as；a personal possession系native language之同位语，后面省略了which is，句意是“我们的本国语是我们自然遗产的一部分，它和我们诞生地的地理环境一样，属我们个人所有。”A和B不合句意；C不合语法。

例　The population of many Alaskan cities has_____doubled in the past three years.

A. larger than

B. more than

C. as great as

D. as many as

［分析］答案为B。more than后可接动词，这里doubled用作动词。more than doubled作“不止增加一倍”解，又如His merits more than offset his demerits（more than后接动词），意思是“他的功不止抵过他的过失”；即“他功大于过”。其他皆不合语法。

2. to

介词to也可用来表示比较，源出拉丁文。表示比较时，to通常用在以-or结尾的形容词后面，再接被比较的对象。这类形容词不多，常见的有superior（优于），inferior（劣于，低于），senior（年长于），junior（年幼于），anterior（早于），prior（较先于），posterior（后于）等，多用于书面语言中：

Bob's strength is superior to mine. 鲍勃的力气比我的大。

Open-door policy is superior to closed-door policy. 开放政策比闭关政策优越。

My knowledge is inferior to yours. 我的知识不如你。

Colored people are by no means inferior to white people. 有色人种绝不比白人低劣。

Your father is senior to hers. 你的父亲比她的父亲年纪大。

His appointment is junior to mine by six months. 他的任命比我的迟六个月。

His arrival in New York is posterior to that (=the arrival) of his brother. 他比他的兄弟后到纽约。

I called on him prior to my departure. 我动身前去拜访了他。

从上列例句中可以看出，这些以-or结尾的形容词本身已具比较含义，前面不可再加more，后面只能接介词to，不能接than：

例　The songs of Bob Dylan are very popular among young people (A) who regard (B) him as more superior (C) to other musicians. (D)

［分析］C错，把其中的more去掉。

to还可用在动词prefer后面表示比较，作“喜欢……而不喜欢……”或“宁愿……而不愿……”解：

I prefer green tea to coffee. 我喜欢绿茶而不喜欢咖啡。

I prefer reading to talking. 我宁愿多看点书而不愿空谈。

如果prefer接不定式，则应把to改为rather than，句型是prefer+不定式+rather than+省掉to的不定式。比较：

I prefer reading to talking.

I prefer to read rather than talk.

I prefer staying home to going out on Sundays.

I prefer to stay home rather than go out on Sundays.

例　“What kind of pen do you want to have?”

“I prefer_____to that blue one.”

A. having this red pen

B. to have this red pen

C. had this red pen

D. this red pen having

［分析］答案为A，原句在介词to后面省略了动词having，即I prefer having this red pen to (having) that blue one，符合prefer+名词/动名词+to+名词/动名词这一句型。B错，prefer接不定式时，后面应用rather than不能用介词to。C及D不合语法。

3. of

of和than一样，也可用于两者之间的比较，但of和than的句型结构不一样。比较：

...+比较级+than+...

Jim is more stupid than Tom. 吉姆比汤姆更蠢。

...+the+比较级+of the two

Jim is the more stupid of the two (boys). 吉姆是两个男孩中更为愚蠢的一个。

注意，用than时比较级前无冠词，用of时则应在比较级前加定冠词the，of后面的the不可省掉。

Dorothy is prettier than Nancy.

Dorothy is the prettier of the two (girls).

有时候，为了强调可以把of the two这一表示比较的短语置于句首。

例　Of the two houses the family prefers_____.

A. the most isolated one

B. the one isolated more

C. the more isolated one

D. the isolated one more

［分析］Of the two houses置于句首，表示两者之间的比较，必须接带定冠词the的比较级，故应选C。

4. above

above表示比较时表现在以下几个方面：

A.（在质量、价值等方面）胜于……，重于……（better than；more than）

Health is above wealth. 健康比财富更重要。

I value honor above life. 我把名誉看得比生命更重要。

A statesman should put the interests of the public above everything else. 政治家应把大众的利益看得高于一切。

B.（表示品质、行为、思想、音量、清晰度等方面）超越；胜过；不属于；不至于。可以笼统地归纳为higher in quality than。

He is far above me in knowledge of history and geography. 他的历史、地理知识远胜于我。

Tommy is above meanness. 汤米是决不吝啬的。

Mr. Roberts is above taking profits for himself. 罗伯茨先生不屑为自己谋利。

The public official is very honest; he is above bribery. 这位公务人员非常诚实，他不会受贿的。

否定式be not above...作“不耻于……”解，正反两方面意思都可用：

If we want to learn well, we must not be above asking questions. 我们想要学得好，就得不耻下问。

The girl is not above telling a lie if it will serve her purpose. 只要能达到目的，撒撒谎那姑娘是无所谓的。

I can't hear the speaker above the din of the crowd. 人群声嘈杂，我听不清讲话人在说什么。

Never be above yourself. 切不可超越自己，即切不可自命不凡（或：自高自大）。

C.（表示等级、职位等）较高于……

His brother is above him by two grades in the school. 他的哥哥在学校里比他高两级。

A colonel is above a major. 上校高于少校。

下面一些above的常用词组表示有关比较或由比较引申出来的近似意义：

above all 尤其是；最重要的是

Don't tell it to anybody, above all to my father. 别把此事告诉任何人，尤其是［别告诉］我的爸爸。

Think about what I have told you; above all, don't breathe a word of it to any one. 考虑考虑我对你讲的话，最重要的是不要对任何人泄露一个字。

above price 无价的；极贵重的

The canvas stolen from the art gallery is above price. 从画廊偷走的那幅油画是无价之宝。

above suspicion 不容置疑

The student's good character is above suspicion. 该学生的良好品行是不容置疑的。

above sb's head 过于深奥，使人不能理解

The lecture was above the heads of the audience. 这个讲座过于深奥，听众理解不了。

get above oneself 自高自大；自视过高

It's not wise to get above yourself over your success. 你有了一点儿成就就自高自大，这是不明智的。

keep one's head above water 脱离困境；摆脱债务

My father's business is not doing well; he is finding it difficult to keep his head above water. 我父亲的生意近来不好，他开始感到债务难逃了。

十三、表示属性、特性的介词在用法上的区别

表示属性、特性的最常见介词是of和with。

1. of

1 　of后面通常接抽象名词。

这样用的of短语一般讲相当于该抽象名词相应的形容词；这一of短语可置于名词后作后置定语或置于be后作表语：

用作后置定语

a man of wisdom=a wise man

an explorer of determination=a determined explorer

a person of property=a wealthy person

men of courage=courageous men

a lady of virtue=a virtuous lady

fifty years of age=fifty years old

a man of years=an old man

a woman of learning=a learned woman

但有的of习语具有独特的意思，不能以相应的形容词代之来加以理解。如a man of his word是个习语，作“a keeper of promise（言而有信的人）”解，不能错误地理解为 a wordy（啰嗦的）man。

用作表语

This matter is of great importance (=very important).

Your information is of value (=valuable) to us.

The new products at the fair（交易会）are of particular interest (=particularly interesting) to the visitors.

2 　在日常应用中，of和age，color，help，height，length，no use，shape，size，thickness，width等名词一起用时，不论用作后置定语还是表语，of往往被省略，这种省略在正式英语中也得到确认。

When I was (of) your age, I was already learning a trade. 我像你这个年龄时，已在学做生意了。

The autumn leaves are (of) a glorious red. 秋叶红得一片绚烂。

The door was (of) a dark brown. 这门是深褐色的。

I am afraid my book will not be (of) much help to you. 恐怕我的书对你不会有多大帮助。

The two boys are (of) the same height. 这两个男孩一样高。

It is (of) no use learning without practice. 光学习而不实践是无用的。

My wardrobe is (of) the same shape as yours. 我的衣柜式样和你的相同。

Please give me a rope (of) that length. 请给我一根那么长的绳子。

I want another pair of shoes (of) the same size. 我再要一双同样尺寸的鞋子。

This wooden case is (of) the same thickness and weight as that one. 这个木箱的厚度和重量同那个木箱相同。

The plank is not (of) the right width. 这块木板的宽度不合适。

注：with和of的不同：

表示属性、特性时，with后面接的通常不是抽象名词，而是具体名词。with+具体名词这一结构用于说明人或事物的形状：

a coat with four pockets

A magazine with a pretty girl on the cover（封面）

a young man with curly hair（卷发）

a ship with two funnels（烟囱）

但with也可接具有某种抽象属性或特性的名词：

Asian countries with brilliant ancient civilizations（具有灿烂的远古文明的亚洲国家）

socialism with Chinese characteristics（具有中国特色的社会主义）

2. with

由“of+抽象名词”表示属性，特性这一结构可引申出另一结构，即of+a+名词，用以表示不同事物的共同性质、特征：

Birds of a feather flock together. 这是谚语，直译是“羽毛相同的鸟类聚在一起。”即“物以类聚。”

They are all songs of a type. 它们都是同一类型的歌曲。

These are two of a kind. 这些是同类中的两个。

由“of+a+名词”再可引申出“of+a+形容词+名词”这一结构，常用以表示人或事物的某种特性或特征：

Charlie is a man of an unyielding spirit（顽强不屈的人）.

The student is of an inquiring turn of mind（很有钻研精神）.

“with+具体名词”则没有这种引申结构；of，with所表示的属性、特性带有“具有”的含义，但这个“具有”的含义是指：人或物所具备的特性是和有关的人或物连在一起不可分开的。但当这一不可分开的“具有”含义引申为可分开的“具有”，即“随身携带”这一含义时，便需用with而不能用of：

I have no money with me.［在此句中也可换用about或on］我身边没带钱。

Never mind the rain; I have an umbrella with me. 下雨没关系，我带了把伞。

十四、引出间接宾语

1. 引出间接宾语的介词主要是to和for，在少数场合则用of

在英语中，有些动词可以有两个宾语，一个是直接宾语（direct object），另一个是间接宾语（indirect object）。直接宾语表示动作的承受者或结果，间接宾语则表示动作是对谁做或为谁做的。比较：

Please show me your I.D.card. (=Please show your I.D.card to me.) 请把身份证给我看一下。

She bought him a tie (=She bought a tie for him). 她给他买了一条领带。

在上列第一个例句中，I. D. card直接承受show动作，故是直接宾语，me则表示show动作是对我而做，故称为间接宾语。第二例中，bought him a tie这一动作是为他而作，故him是间接宾语；当然，tie是直接宾语，因它承受bought这一动作。从上列例句中我们可以找出两个规律：

① 当一个动词后面接双宾语时，人称代词常用作间接宾语、名词则用作直接宾词，但间接宾语却置于直接宾语之前，即主语+及物动词+间接宾语（通常是人称代词）+直接宾语。

② 如果间接宾语置于直接宾语之后，则要在间接宾语前按具体动词要求加上介词to或for，有时要加of，即主语+及物动词+直接宾语+to (for/of)+间接宾语。

2. 如何正确使用to，for，of来引出间接宾语

to，for或of的使用完全由句中的谓语动词的搭配来决定。换句话说，有些动词后面的间接宾语要由to来表示，有些则由for来表示，个别的用of或with来表示。现分述如下：

1 　引出to+间接宾语的动词。

这些动词有give，send，pass，return，write，promise，award，accord，refuse，pay，lend，teach，read，tell，throw，hand，wish，allow，deny，show，owe，bring等：

Has she paid him the money?

Has she paid the money to him?

Will you lend me five dollars?

Will you lend five dollars to me?

Our teacher taught us an English lesson.

Our teacher taught an English lesson to us.

Every night, the mother reads her child a short fairy tale（童话）before he goes to sleep（入睡）。

Every night, the mother reads a short fairy tale to her child before he goes to sleep.

He offered me a cigar.

He offered a cigar to me.

I owe my tailor 20 pounds.

I owe 20 pounds to my tailor.

Bring me that magazine.

Bring that magazine to me.

I'll return you the video recorder（录像机）tomorrow.

I'll return the video recorder to you tomorrow.

The government granted the farmer a loan（提供……一笔贷款）.

The government granted a loan to the farmer.

Pass me the pepper（胡椒粉）, please.

Pass the pepper to me, please.

Remember to write us a note（短信）when you get there.

Remember to write a note to us when you get there.

The nurse gave me an injection of penicillin（打了一针盘尼西林）.

The nurse gave an injection of penicillin to me.

They accorded him a hearty reception（热情地接待了他）。

They accorded a hearty reception to him.

Hand me the plate.

Hand the plate to me.

He told me a strange story.

He told a strange story to me.

注意，在上述（1）类动词中，有少数几个词如wish，deny，allow等通常用于动词+间接宾语+直接宾语这一结构中：

We wish you success.（通常不说：We wish success to you.）

We have to deny ourselves many of the comforts of life in order to send our son to college. 为了送孩子上大学，我们不得不放弃生活上的许多享受。（通常不说：We have to deny many of the comforts of life to ourselves in order to...）

The manager allowed him one week of vacation in the summer.（通常不说：The manager allowed one week of vacation to him in the summer.）

2 　引出for+间接宾语的动词。

这些动词有do，buy，fetch，paint，play，cook，sing，find，order，get，spare，save，make等：

She made me a cup of tea.

She made a cup of tea for me.

Her father bought her a new dress.

Her father bought a new dress for her.

Hilda ordered herself a new pair of shoes.

Hilda ordered a new pair of shoes for herself.

Will you do me a favor?

Will you do a favor for me?

Can you get me a copy of that book?

Can you get a copy of that book for me?

Can you spare me a ticket? 你能让一张票子给我吗？

Can you spare a ticket for me?

Fetch us a few chairs, will you? 给我们搬几把椅子来，行吗？

Fetch a few chairs for us, will you?

Please save me some. 请留一些给我。

Please save some for me.

Did you find him what he wanted? 你给他找到他所要的东西了吗？

Did you find what he wanted for him?

个别的动词如leave，play等引出间接宾语时所用的介词则需随着动词词义的变化而变化：

left作“为我留下……”解，间接宾语由for引出。

Have you left me anything?

Have you left anything for me?

left作“死后留下……（给谁）”解，间接宾语由to引出。

She left me $1,000.

She left $1,000 to me?

play作“（给［谁］演奏［乐曲］）”解，间接宾语由for引出。

I'll play you some nocturnes（夜曲）by Chopin（肖邦）.

I'll play some nocturnes by Chopin for you.

play表示运动，作“与（某人）下一盘棋”解，间接宾语由with引出。

I'll play you a game of chess.

I'll play a game of chess with you.

played作“诈骗或戏弄”解，间接宾语由on引出。

He played me a trick.

He played a trick on me.

3 　后面间接宾语不用to或for引出的动词。

这种不用to或for引出其间接宾语的动词极少，如ask，bear等：

Margaret asked me a question.

Margaret asked a question of me.

I bear you no grudge. 我对你没有怨恨。

I bear no grudge against you.

3. 介词引出间接宾语时应注意的问题

give的间接宾语由介词to引出，但当give的间接宾语不是人称代词而是一个指物的名词时，它的结构只能是give+由指物名词表示的间接宾语+直接宾语，不能换用give+直接宾语+to+由指物名词表示的间接宾语：

We'll give the classroom building（教学大楼）a thorough cleaning next week.［间接宾语是指物名词classroom building，不是人称代词，故通常不说：We'll give a thorough cleaning to the classroom building next week.］

You'd better give your clothes a good brush.［理由同上，不说：You'd better give a good brush to your clothes.］

1 　当直接宾语是代词时，应采用动词+代词（直接宾语）+介词（有时也可省略）+间接宾语这一句型结构。

Bruce brought it to me（或Bruce brought it me）.［不能说：Bruce brought me it.］

Doris sent it to him（或Doris sent it him, to 省略。）.［不能说：Doris sent him it.］

注意，一般情况下，大家还是用带介词to的结构。

2 　如果间接宾语远比直接宾语长，间接宾语只能置于直接宾语后以保持句子结构平衡。

The teacher showed the book to the students sitting around him.

不说　The teacher showed the students sitting around him the book.

The father bought a piano for his daughter who had won a scholarship for her academic excellence（因成绩优异而获奖学金）.

不说　The father bought his daughter who had won a scholarship for her academic excellence a piano.

3 　有些表示说话这一类动作的动词后面必须接带介词to的间接宾语。

这种动词的句型结构的特点是：它的间接宾语，不论是置于直接宾语之前或之后，必须由介词to引出，to不能省掉，也不可以用for或其他介词代替：

The teacher explained to us the hidden meaning of the difficult passage.（或The teacher explained the hidden meaning of the difficult passage to us.）

但不能说　The teacher explained us the hidden meaning of...

This letter discloses to us a secret.（或This letter discloses a secret to us.）

但不能说　This letter discloses us a secret.

The President expressed to his people his conviction that his new policy will be successful.（或The President expressed his conviction that his new policy will be successful to his people.）

但不能说　The President expressed his people his conviction that...

The manager dictated（口授）to his stenographer（速记打字员）the names of the clients to be invited.（或The manager dictated the names of the clients to be invited to his stenographer.）

但不能说　The manager dictated his stenographer the names of the clients to be invited.

He attributed the success of his work to his friend's encouragement.（或He attributed to his friend's encouragement the success of his work.）

但不能说　He attributed his friend's encouragement the success of ...

We pointed out to them the benefits of the joint venture project（中外合资企业）.（或We pointed out the benefits of the joint venture project to them.）

但不能说　We pointed out them the benefits of the joint venture project.

The guide described the scenic spots and historic sites（名胜古迹）to the tourists.（或The guide described to the tourists the scenic spots and historic sites.）

但不能说　The guide described the tourists the scenic spots and historic sites.

十五、常见的介词特殊结构

1. 单数可数名词（无冠词）+after (by/in/to)+单数可数名词（无冠词）

按语法规则，在句子中单数可数名词前要加不定冠词a(n)表示类别，或加the表示特指。但当两个单数可数名词并列使用而在中间穿插一个介词时，便可突破上述的语法规则，形成一个特殊结构，即两个相对并列使用的单数名词前不能加上冠词，也不可换用复数名词形式。用于这一特殊结构中最为常见的介词是after，其他还有in，by，to等。

1 　after。

Bus after bus passed by. 公交车一辆接一辆过去了。

The bad guy committed crime after crime till he was at last caught. 那坏蛋一次又一次地犯罪直至最终被抓获。

Date after date for the maiden voyage was chosen and abandoned. 处女航的日期选了一个又一个，然后又一个接一个地放弃了。

day after day of hot weather 日复一日的炎热天气

The pattern of child care tends to be repeated generation after generation. 儿童保育的方式往往是一代又一代地重复。

We drove mile after mile through great sections of desert in Arizona and California. 我们开着车一英里又一英里地穿过美国亚利桑那州和加利福尼亚州的大片沙漠区。

2 　by。

day by day 逐日；一天一天地

Things go on day by day.

drop by drop 一滴一滴地

The water falls from the tap（水龙头）drop by drop.

inch by inch 一点一点地；渐渐地

The water in the pond shallowed inch by inch. 塘里的水渐渐地浅下去了。

little by little 一点一点地

One accumulates one's experience little by little. 人的经验是一点一点地积累起来的。

one by one 一个一个地

They came in one by one.

step by step 一步一步地

Step by step, we finally managed to get everything finished. 我们终于设法把事情一步一步地办妥了。

3 　in。

arm in arm 臂挽臂地

Many young couples strolled arm in arm in the park. 许多一对对的青年情侣挽着手臂在公园里散步。

hand in hand 手拉手

The two little girls walked away hand in hand. 这两个小女孩手拉手地走了。

Theory and practice must go hand in hand. 理论与实践必须紧密联系。

4 　to。

face to face 面对面；当面

The student sat face to face with his tutor. 那学生和他的导师面对面地坐着。

I want to discuss this problem with him face to face. 我要当面和他讨论这一问题。

hand to hand 逼近地；短兵相接；肉搏

They fought against the enemy hand to hand. 他们和敌人短兵相接。

heart to heart 互相交心地；严肃诚恳地

For over an hour we sat there talking heart to heart.

She waited until they were alone, so she could have a heart-to-heart talk with him 和他开诚布公地谈.

这一特殊结构有一变体，即from+单数名词（无冠词）+to+单数名词（无冠词），用得也较多：

from...to...（接相同名词）

from age to age 世世；代代

The story has been told from age to age. 这故事一代一代地传下来。

from cover to cover（指书籍）从头到尾

I have read the book from cover to cover. 这本书我从头至尾读了一遍。

from day to day 逐日；天天

In those days life was hard for the man in the street（普通人，老百姓）; commodity prices went up from day to day. 那时候老百姓的日子不好过，物价天天上涨。

No one knows what will happen from day to day. 没有人会知道每天会发生什么事。

from door to door 挨家挨户

He went from door to door delivering the milk. 他挨家挨户地送牛奶。

from generation to generation 代代地

This tradition has been handed down from generation to generation. 这个传统已经代代相传了。

from hand to hand 一个传一个

The basketball was passed from hand to hand. 这个篮球从一个人手上传到了另一个人手上。

from house to house 挨家挨户

We went from house to house making inquiries, but could find no trace of the lost cat. 我们挨门挨户询问，可是那失踪的猫连影子也找不到。

from mouth to mouth 口头相传；广泛流传

The heartening news spread rapidly from mouth to mouth. 这个振奋人心的消息很快就传开了。

from place to place 各地；处处

Dialects vary from place to place in China, but the written language is the same throughout the country. 中国各地的方言千差万别，书面语言则全国统一。

from side to side 左右地；翻来翻去地

The ship was rolling from side to side over the waves. 船在浪中左右颠簸着。

After the operation, the patient slept badly all night, turning from side to side and groaning with pain. 手术后，那个病人整夜都没睡好，翻来覆去，痛苦地呻吟着。

from strength to strength 不断强大；日益壮大

Our defence capability will grow from strength to strength. 我们的国防力量将日益加强。

from...to...（接相对名词）

from beginning to end 从头到尾；自始至终

The novel is thrilling from beginning to end. 这本小说从头到尾都扣人心弦。

from hand to mouth 挣一天吃一天地；勉强糊口地

I've got no home. I'm living from hand to mouth. 我没有家，我是吃了上顿愁下顿。

from head to foot 从头到脚

The actress was dressed in red from head to foot. 那位女演员上下一身红衣服。

from pillar to post（与be driven连用）被逼四处奔走；弄得颠沛流离

After the European colonialists set foot on North America, the native Indians were driven from pillar to post and were eventually confined to the so-called“reservations”. 欧洲殖民主义踏上北美洲以后，土著印第安人被逼得流离失所，最后竟被圈禁在所谓“居留地”里。

from start to finish 自始至终（start和finish都用作名词）

The parade was a grand spectacle from start to finish. 游行队伍自始至终十分壮观。

from top to bottom 从头到底；彻底地

The high-rise was searched from top to bottom. 人们把整座高层大楼彻底搜了一遍。

from top to toe 从头到脚；完完全全地

He was caught in the rain and was drenched from top to toe. 他遭雨了，浑身上下淋了个湿透。

但在个别词组中，则要在名词前加上定冠词the：

The serf lived like a beast of burden from the cradle to the grave. 那农奴一辈子过着牛马般的生活。

注：后现代英语中，from... to... 也可出现形容词或名词短语，如：The under water shots range from interesting to breathtaking. 水下镜头从有趣到惊险，无奇不有。［接形容词］

My dear, I'm your devoted friend from the sole of the foot to the crown of the head.［from the sole of the foot to the crown of the head=thorough(ly)；complete(ly)］亲爱的，我是你的忠实朋友，百分之百的忠实朋友。［接名词短语］

2. 介词+最高级形容词

这一结构表示极点、极度，作“至……”，“最……”解。最常用于这一结构的介词是at。

1 　at+(the)+最高级形容词。

at (the) best 最好也不过；充其量也不过

at (the) latest 最迟；至迟

at least 至少

at (the) longest（指时间）至多，最迟/最晚

at most 至多

2 　at+one's/its+最高级形容词。

The season is now at its loveliest. 现在是这个季节最好的时候。

Ronald is always at his best when fighting against difficulties. 罗纳德和困难拼搏时总是显得最为出色。

This kind of flower is at its brightest in mid-May. 这种花在五月中旬开得最盛。

She was at her happiest in her home on the shore of the Black Sea.

From her tone I knew she was at her worst（情绪糟透）.

3 　in或with+the+最高级形容词+possible+名词（possible也可放在名词后）。

I'll try to finish the job in the shortest possible time（或in the shortest time possible）. 我会设法在尽可能短的时间内完成这项工作。

The matter is urgent.Please do it with the least possible delay（或with the least delay possible）. 事情紧急，办理时请尽可能不要耽搁。

例　We are of the (A) opinion that those in charge of the postal delivery fully realize (B) the importance of distributing the correspondence addressed (C) to the business houses with the little (D) possible delay.

［分析］D错。应把little改为最高级least，with the least possible delay作“尽可能不耽搁；尽可能快地”解。A不错，因be of (the) opinion...系固定搭配，作“认为……；意思是……”解。

3. by+反身代词

by+反身代词（往往在by前面加上all）。这一结构有两个近似的意思：

· 单独地；孤零零地

The temple stands on the mountain top all by itself. 那座寺院孤零零地坐落在山顶上。

· 独自地；独立地

Did you do this by yourself or did someone help you? 这是你一个人做的，还是别人帮了你的忙？

4. of的特殊结构

1 　限定词+被修饰名词+of+名词属格或名词性物主代词。

这一带有of的特殊结构称为双重属格，其中的限定词是指不定冠词、指示代词、疑问代词、不定代词或数词等词；名词属格在这一结构中是指表示人的名词+'s；名词性物主代词即mine，yours，hers，theirs等代词。这一带有of的双重属格结构，含有亲切的意味或带有爱憎褒贬等感情色彩：

He is a friend of mine.=He is one of my friends.［前者口气比较亲切］

I love this poem of Shelley's. 我喜欢雪莱的这首诗。［带有喜爱的感情色彩］

That clever child of your brother's is really lovely. 你兄弟那个聪明的孩子真可爱。［带有赞美色彩］

Those crimes of the traitor's are notorious. 该叛国贼的那些罪行是臭名昭著的。［表示憎恨］

Some comments of hers on the film hit the nut on the head. 她对这部电影的一些见解切中要害。［表示褒义］

应用这一结构时要注意以下几个问题：

A. 被修饰的名词前不能用定冠词the，如不能说“The novel of Dickens' is very popular in China”可改为：

This/That novel of Dickens' is very popular in China.

Which novel of Dickens' is very popular in China?

注意：名词Dickens本身结尾有s，故其属格在词尾加上“'”即可。

B. 在双重属格结构中，of后面只能接指人的名词，而且这一名词所表示的对象必须为双方都知道的：

This leg of your table's is a bit shaky.［×因of后面之名词table不指人，不能用双重属格，只能用of属格，把table's改为table，即This leg of your table is...，句意是“你桌子的这条腿有点儿摇动。”］

I like that interesting book of his. 我喜欢他那本有趣的书。［对象明确，为双方所知道，这里his是名词性物主代词，不是用作形容词的所有格代词his］

I read this play of Wilde's years ago. 我多年前就读过王尔德的这部剧本。［对象明确］

C. of接指人的名词时，双重属格和of属格所表示的仅是侧重点略有不同而已：

Tony is a friend of my brother's.［双重属格，侧重在说明我弟弟的朋友不止一个］

Tony is a friend of my brother.［of属格，侧重在说明托尼是我弟弟的朋友］

但在一定的上下文中，用双重属格或of属格往往带有不同的感情色彩：

A: Who told you such things?

B: A friend of your brother's.

A: If he says that, he is not a friend of my brother.

［在最后一句中，A方用了of属格，含义是这位朋友不该说那些话，说那种话的人就不是我弟弟的朋友了。如果也改用双重格局，那句话就失去了意义］

现再就双重属格和所有格进行比较；

her bright eyes 她明亮的眼睛［平铺直叙，无感情成分］

those bright eyes of hers 她那双明亮的眼睛［含有“她有一双明眸，很吸引人”这一感情成分］

在上列结构中需注意的是，of后的名词可用双重属格或of属格，但当of后面接人称代词时，则必须用名词性物主代词，即mine，ours，yours，his，hers，theirs来表示所有关系，而绝不能用人称代词的宾格形式。

例　“Who are those boys?”

“Those boys are friends of_____.”

A. them

B. they

C. their

D. theirs

［分析］答案为D。of+名词性物主代词theirs构成双重属格，表示所有关系。其他均不对。

例　“The tenor in the opera last night was very good.”

“Yes, he's a favorite_____.”

A. to me

B. to mine

C. of mine

D. of me

［分析］答案为C，a favorite of mine=one of my favorites。

D. 当of前被修饰的名词是portrait，picture，photo，bust，statue，printing等词时，双重属格和of属格在意义上差别较大，前者表示“某人所有或所收藏”，后者则指某人自己本身。

a portrait of the poet's［双重属格，表示“该诗人所拥有的一幅画像”］

a portrait of the poet［of属格，指“该诗人自己本身的一幅画像”］

a photo of Mr. Tailor's［泰勒先生所有的一张照片］

a photo of Mr. Tailor［泰勒先生本人的一张照片］

E. 如果of前是一个带有动词含义的名词时，后接双重属格或of属格在意义上便大相径庭，因前者表示主谓关系，而后者则表示动宾关系：

a criticism of Paul's［双重属格，表示主谓关系，意同a criticism offered by Paul，即“保罗对［别人］的批评”］

a criticism of Paul.［of属格，表示动宾关系，意同a criticism about Paul，即“［别人］对保罗的批评”］

了解这一区别使我们能灵活地处理表现手段，如说“伦敦时报对英国政府的批评”时，便可有两种表示法：

a criticism of the British government by the London Times［用of属格］

a criticism of the London Times' about（或on）the British government［用双重属格］

2 　表示动宾关系和主谓关系的of结构。

A. 动名词+of+宾语（用作逻辑宾语）。

The writing of that play took my husband three years.［of后的宾语that play作writing的逻辑宾语，相同于writing that play，故应译为“我丈夫写那本剧本花了三年时间。”］

B. 带有动词含义的名词+of+宾语（用作逻辑宾语）。

带有动词含义的名词即指由动词转化或派生的名词，如study（由动词study转化为名词，词形不变），treatment（由动词treat派生的名词，词尾加上后缀-ment）：

The professor emphasized the importance of the study of these works.［the study of these works=studying these works，故句意是“教授强调学习这些著作的重要性。”］

The punishment of the evil-doer affords general satisfaction.［The punishment of the evil-doer=Punishing the evil-doer句意是“对该作恶者施以惩罚大快人心。”］

Roy was perfect in the execution of his duties.［in the execution of his duties=in executing his duties.句意是“罗伊执行他的任务时无懈可击。”］

在这一结构中，只有用介词of才能表示动宾关系，一般讲，不能用其他介词来代替。

例　Upon completing (A) his examination over (B) the patient, the doctor offered his judgment of (C) her (D) condition.

［分析］B错，改为of。examination是由动词examine派生的名词，后面需跟介词of才能表示动宾关系。upon completing his examination of the patient作“他一完成对病人的检查”解。

在若干带有名词的介词词组中，当其中的名词是由动词转化或派生时，后面常用of，其原因就在于要表示动宾关系。以下是一些常见的词组：

▶▶ ［由动词派生的名词+of］

in anticipation of 期待；想到；预料

In anticipation of the picnic the next day the children couldn't sleep at all. 一想到第二天要去野餐，孩子们怎么也睡不着。

in appreciation of 赏识；感激

They wrote a letter of thanks in appreciation of our help. 他们写了一封感谢信，对我们的帮助表示谢忱。

in explanation of 解释；剖白

Had he anything to say in explanation of his conduct? 他有什么话要说以为其行为剖白吗？

in defiance of 无视；不怕

He was punished for acting in defiance of law. 他因无视法律的行为而受到惩罚。

in receipt of 收到

We are in receipt of your payment. 我们收到了你们的付款。

on receipt of 一收到

On receipt of this letter Lester frowned and went into a brown study. 一收到这封信，莱斯特皱起眉头，陷入了沉思。

▶▶ ［由动词转化的名词+of］

at the sight of 一看见

At the sight of his book on the shelf, he felt excited. 一看到自己的书出现在书架上，他感到兴奋不已。

at the mention of 当提到……时

At the mention of his name, Tommy instantly pricked up his ears. 当提到他的名字时，汤米顿时竖耳倾听。

at the risk of 冒着……的危险

I'll say what I honestly think, even at the risk of offending people. 我怎么想就怎么说，即使得罪了人我也还是要说。

at the thought of 一想到

At the thought of being sent to prison, the young man trembled with fear.

catch（或get）hold of 抓住；捉住

The child almost fell from the window; luckily the nurse caught hold of him. 那孩子几乎从窗口跌下去，幸好那名护士一把抓住了他。

catch sight of 看见

You may catch sight of the Shanghai Mansion from the window facing south. 你从朝南的窗口可以看到上海大厦。

catch（或get）a glimpse of 瞥见

When I left the hotel, I got（或caught）a glimpse of a man strolling past the window. 我离开旅馆时，瞥见一个男人慢步走过窗口。

for lack/want of 因缺乏

I sold the business for lack of the business capital. 我因资金匮乏而出售了我的企业。

have motion of 可以活动

The patient now has full motion of his right arm. 病人的右臂现在已经活动自如。

in aid of 帮助；援助

Train-loads of food and clothing were dispatched in aid of the earthquake victims. 一列车一列车的食品和衣服被运去支援遭受地震的灾民。

in disregard of 不顾；漠视；对……置之不理

They adopted the decision in disregard of our repeated warnings. 他们对我们的一再告诫置之不理，通过了该项决定。

in face of 面临；面对

Ken is a man who never shows any fear in face of danger. 肯是个在危险面前从不畏惧的人。

in favor of 赞同；有利于；以……为抬头或收款人

The committee decided in favor of the proposal. 委员会作出决定，同意该建议。

The score was 4 to 2 in favor of the host team. 主队以四比二获胜。

The check was drawn in favor of the school. The money was to be used to build a gymnasium. 支票开给了学校，这笔钱拟用来建造一个健身房。

in fear of 害怕

He went about in fear of his enemy. 他提心吊胆地走来走去，害怕遇到他的仇敌。

in honor of 为了纪念；为庆祝；为向……表示敬意

Many articles have been published in honor of this great historic event. 为了纪念这一伟大的历史性事件，报纸上发表了许多文章。

A 21-gun salute（礼炮）was fired at the airport in honor of the distinguished guests. 为了欢迎贵宾，机场上鸣二十一响礼炮。

in hopes of/in the hope of/in hope of 希望……

He did it in hope of a reward. 他干这事希望得到一笔酬金。

I went there in hopes of/in the hope of getting a variety suited to local conditions. 我到那里去，希望能获得一个适宜本地情况的品种。

in praise of 称赞；赞扬

Everyone spoke in praise of the girl's bravery. 人人都赞扬这位姑娘的勇敢行为。

in search of/in quest of 寻找；寻求

The prospecting team traversed far and wide in search of mineral deposits. 地质勘探队为了寻找矿藏而走遍了四面八方。

in (within) sight of 看得见……

We live in sight of the big canyon. 我们住的地方看得见大峡谷。

in support of 支持

He could produce no evidence in support of his allegation. 他拿不出证据来支持他的武断言论。

in view of 看得见；鉴于

In view of the circumstances we pardoned him. 鉴于那种情况，我们原谅了他。

in want of 需要；需求

They are so well provided that they are not in want of anything. 他们应有尽有，什么也不缺。

in witness of 为……作证

Would you stand in witness of what just happened? 你肯为刚才所发生的事情作证吗？

从上列众多的例句中可以看出，在表示动宾关系的of结构中带有动词含义的名词在意思上都是及物的，故of后面的宾语用作逻辑宾语。如果这个动作名词在意思上是不及物的话，那么of后面的宾语不再用作该动作名词的逻辑宾语，而是充当该动作名词的逻辑主语；这时，of表示的不是动宾关系，而是主谓关系。试比较：

The resignation of the Secretary of State was accepted.［resignation是由动词resign派生的动作名词，在意思上是不及物的，故of后接逻辑主语，句意应是“国务卿的辞呈已得到批准。”］

Gambling was his ruin, for it caused the loss of all his property.［动作名词loss在意思上是及物的，of后便接逻辑宾语，句意是“赌博毁了他，因赌博使他失去了所有的财产。”］

▶▶ 有时，of前的动作名词在意思上既可及物又可不及物；这时，of表示的是动宾关系还是主谓关系需视具体情况而定：

the shooting of the hunters［在这一词组中，动作名词shooting在意思上只能是不及物的，of表示主谓关系，故应理解为“猎人打枪”］

the shooting of the tiger［这里，shooting显然是及物的意思，of表示动宾关系，应作“打虎”解］

但有时只凭of短语还不能确定of是表示主谓关系还是动宾关系，如the love of father可理解为“父亲（对孩子）的爱”，也可理解为“（孩子对）父亲的爱”。如要明确of所表示的关系，需借助另一介词，即of短语后面用for是表示of的主谓关系，用by则表示of的动宾关系。

比较：

the love of father for his children［因接for，of表示主谓关系，即“父亲对孩子的爱”］

the love of father by his children［后接by，of表示动宾关系，即“孩子对父亲的爱”］

C. of常和make连用表示动宾关系或主谓关系。

一般讲，make接动作名词时，of后面的宾语用作逻辑宾语；make+动作含义不明确的名词时，of后面的宾语则起逻辑主语作用：

make+动作名词+of+逻辑宾语

make a circuit of 巡行；环行

The commanding officer made a circuit of the camp. 司令官在营地巡行了一周。

It takes a year for the earth to make a circuit of the sun. 地球绕太阳一圈要一年。

make a fool of 愚弄

Eddie did not know Rosa was making a fool of him. 埃迪不知道罗莎在愚弄他。

make a mess of 把……弄得一团糟

I must say you've certainly made a mess of things. 我得说实话，你确实把事情弄糟了。

make a practice of 经常进行……

If you want to keep fit, you must make a practice of rising early. 如要身体好，你得经常早起。

make a pretence of 假装；装作

He made a pretence of searching his pockets for money. 他假装在口袋里找钱。

make a study of 研究

Vincent is making a thorough study of social problems. 文森特正在仔细研究社会问题。

make an end of 结束

Let's make an end of this foolish quarrel. 咱们结束这场愚蠢的争吵吧。

make use of 利用；使用

We must make use of every advanced foreign technique in building socialism with Chinese characteristics. 在建设有中国特色的社会主义过程，我们必须利用每一种先进的外国技术。

make fun of 戏弄；取笑；拿……开玩笑

Because he stammered slightly, the other boys made fun of him. 因为他有点口吃，其他孩子就取笑他。

make game of 嘲笑

We should not make game of the weak and defenseless. 我们不可嘲笑弱而不能保护自己的那些人。

make mention of 提到；提及

I'll make special mention of it in my report. 我在报告里将特别提及此事。

make sense of 了解……的意义

Can you make sense of what I say? 你能理解我所说的意思吗？

make the acquaintance of 认识；结识

When did you make the acquaintance of his brother? 你什么时候认识他兄弟的？

make trial of 试用；试验

We are going to make trial of the seeds in an experimental plot. 我们打算在试验田里试种这批种子。

make+动词含义不明显的名词+of+逻辑主语

make a convenience of (sb.) 利用

Of course I was very angry when I realized that I had been made a convenience of. 当意识到自己被人利用时，我感到非常恼火。

make a day of it 花整整一天做［某事］

It's good weather for a picnic; let's make a day of it. 这种天气很适合野餐，我们痛痛快快地玩它一天吧。

make a monkey of (sb) 愚弄［某人］，拿［某人］当傻瓜

If you make a monkey of the lawman, you'll be severely punished. 如果愚弄执法人员，你会受到严厉的惩罚。

make a go of(sth) 把［某事］办成，将［某事］做成功

It's a strenuous job and I can't say if I can make a go of it. 这事很艰巨，我能否办成还很难说。

make a good job of (sth) 做好或处理好［某事］

We must make a good job of the sowing. 我们得把播种搞好。

make a habit of 养成……习惯

I occasionally have a glass of wine with my lunch, but I don't make a habit of it. 我偶尔吃饭时喝杯酒，但我没有养成习惯。

make a man of (sb) 使［某人］成人或成器

The parents are trying hard to make a man of their son by setting strict demands on him. 那两位家长对他们的儿子严格要求，努力想把他培养成为一个有出息的人。

make a meal of (sth) 把……当饭吃；把……做得太过分

It's all right to play mahjong once in a while, but one shouldn't make a meal of it. 偶尔打麻将是可以的，但不能拿它当饭吃，成天手不离牌。

make a hash/a muck of (sth)（［事情］弄糟）

Look, what a hash（或a muck）you have made of my things! 噍，你把我的东西弄得多乱！

make a night of it 花整个晚上做［某事］

Why don't we go to the ballroom after dinner and make a night of it? 我们干吗不在晚饭后去舞厅好好玩一个晚上？

make a note of (sth.)（把［某事］记下来）

When I come across a new word, I always make a note of it. 我碰到生字，总是把它记下来。

make a parade of (sth) 炫耀［某事］

Ron is modest, never making a parade of his achievements. 罗恩很谦虚，从不炫耀他的成就。

make a point of doing (sth) 坚持［做某事］

I make a point of reading a new book every month. 我坚持每月读一本新书。

make a success of (sth) 使［某事］成功

Through persistent efforts we made a success of our experiment. 通过坚持不懈的努力，我们的试验成功了。

make a virtue of necessity 把非做不可的事装作自愿去做的样子

Making a virtue of necessity, I put the best face I could upon it, and went about the work she set me upon. 我不得已而为之，只得装出一副乐意的样子，着手干她要我做的事。

make an ass of (oneself) 闹出笑话；出自己的洋相

A man who likes to boast is liable to end up making an ass of himself. 喜欢吹嘘的人最后往往使自己出洋相。

make an example of (sb) 惩罚［某人］以告诫别人；杀一儆百

The teacher made an example of the boy who copied from another student during a test. 老师惩罚在测试时抄袭别人的那个学生，以儆效尤。

make an exhibition of (oneself) 出洋相；当众出丑。

My father drank too much and made an exhibition of himself at the dinner last hight. 在昨晚宴会上，我爸爸因酒喝多了当众出丑。

make head or tail of (sth)［用于否定句］弄明白［某事］的意思

The letter was couched in such ambiguous terms that I could not make head or tail of it. 这封信用词隐晦，我弄不清是什么意思。

make heavy weather of (sth) 把［某事］搞得复杂化

You're making heavy weather of this simple problem. 你把这一简单的问题搞得复杂化了。

make light of (sth) 把［某事］不当回事；藐视［某事］

Ivan was badly injured, but he made light of it. 伊万伤得很厉害，但却不把它当回事儿。

I did give him some advice, but he made light of it. 我确实劝过他，但他把我的话当作耳边风。

make little of (sth) 认为［某事］无关紧要；难理解［某事］

He made little of his illness. 他认为自己的病无关紧要。

The poem is so difficult that I can make little of it. 这首诗太难了，我简直看不出什么名堂来。

make mincemeat of 把……彻底击溃，把［论点］驳得体无完肤

The visiting team made mincemeat of the home team by the score of 4:0. 客队以4比0的成绩把主队打得落花流水。

Science is making mincemeat of old-time religion. 科学正在粉碎旧时的宗教。

We presented irrefutable facts, which made mincemeat of his argument. 我们摆出了无可辩驳的事实，把他的论点驳得体无完肤。

make much of 重视；吹嘘；理解［最后这一意义用于否定或疑问句］

The factory leadership should make much of this incident. 厂方领导应重视这一事故。

Deeply affected by vanity, my niece makes too much of her connections with rich people. 我侄女爱慕虚荣，过分吹嘘她和有钱人家的关系往来。

I can't make much of this article; can you explain what it's all about? 这篇文章我看不大懂，你能给我讲讲它的内容吗？

make nothing of 把［某事］看作轻而易举；不懂［某事］

The old man is still hale and hearty. He makes nothing of walking a few miles a day. 这位老人的身子骨仍很硬朗，他一天走几英里路根本不在话下。

What is he talking about? I can make nothing of it. 他在讲什么？我一点也不明白。

make no question of (sth) 对［某事］不加怀疑

Alexis is perfectly reliable; I make no question of his statement. 亚历克西斯十分可靠，对他的话我是毫不怀疑的。

make the best/most of (sth) 尽量利用或充分利用［某物］

He made the best of opportunities to learn when studying abroad. 他在国外读书时，抓住一切机会学习。

We should make the most of our time. 我们应该充分利用我们的时间。

了解of能表示动宾关系和主谓关系这个功能后将大大有助于记忆上列这些of词组。

例　Several decades (A) ago when (B) I was wandering in Europe, I became (C) acquainted with a man who had roamed the world in search with (D) adventure.

［分析］D错，应改为of。in search of是固定介词词组，作“寻找”解，其中search是动词转化为名词，of表示动宾关系，故不能用with。

在表示类似“他们要把你培养成为一个优秀的运动员”这类句子时，英美人通常使用主谓关系的of结构，如“They will make a good athlete of you”而不说“They will make you a good athlete.”

3 　表示强调的of结构。

the+单数名词+of+相同的复数形式名词是of的强势结构，在这一结构中of表示“其中之最”的强调意思：

I said I loved her, but in my heart of hearts I knew it wasn't true. 我说我爱她，但在我的心坎深处我知道不是这么一回事。［这里，my不能改用the］

He is the hero of heroes. 他是最杰出的英雄。

People laud it as the song of songs.人们把它赞为最佳的歌曲。

西方曾有一些人用of这一强调结构来赞扬他们信奉的《圣经》和我国古代伟大的思想家、教育家孔子：

The Bible is the book of books.《圣经》是书中之经典。

Confucius is the teacher of teachers. 孔子是万师师表。

of的这一特殊结构是从the+最高级形容词+of+复数名词（或the+形容词）演变而来的：

Our representative protested in the loudest of voices. 我们的代表用最响亮的声音表示抗议。

She speaks in the softest of voices. 她用最柔和的声音说话。

They praised him as the bravest of the brave. 他们称赞他为勇士中的勇士。

4 　表示感情色彩的of结构。

It is (was)+形容词 of sb.+不定式——这一of结构带有强烈的感情色彩，意思是“承蒙……不胜感谢”或“……真是太……”：

It is kind of you to help me. 蒙你帮助，不胜感谢。

It was thoughtful of them to come and see me when I was ill. 我生病时蒙他们关心来看我，真是太感谢了。

It was stupid of Brian to make that silly remark. 布赖恩竟然讲了那句蠢话，简直是太傻了。

应用这一结构时，需注意以下几点：

① 在这一结构中，of实际上也是表示主谓关系，即of后的宾语是不定式的逻辑主语。一般讲，不定式的逻辑主语由for+宾语来表示，但在of的这一特殊结构中，of绝不可以由for来代之，如不可说“It is kind for you to help me.”需把for改为of。

② 这一of结构可以用“主语+be+形容词+不定式”来代换，但感情色彩则被大大冲淡，用的也比较少：

You are kind to help me.

Brian was stupid to make that silly remark.

③ 在口语体中，这一结构前往往加上how，使之成为感叹句，感情色彩更为强烈；这时，it is (was)通常略掉：

How kind (it is) of you to come and see me!

How stupid (it was) of Brian to make that silly remark!

有时，甚至连不定式也省略掉，请看下面两句对话：

A: Hob is going to lend Jan a big sum of money.

B: How generous (it is) of him (to lend Jan the big sum of money)!

5. with引出的独立结构

with引出的独立结构是英语表达中常用的模式，它通常表示伴随情况或补充说明，有时也具有时间、条件、原因等含义。这种结构的模式是：

with+名词通格或代词宾语+现在分词（主动意义）或过去分词（被动意义）

在应用这一结构中，要注意以下三点：

① with后面接代词时，通常用代词宾格，而不用代词属格。

② with的宾语在意义上是分词的逻辑主语，表示主动意义时用现在分词，表示被动意义时则用过去分词：

A car roared past with smoke pouring from the exhaust. 汽车轰鸣而过，烟从排气管中大量排出。［主动，故用现在分词pouring］

With Michael working in New York and Lucy travelling most of the week, the house seems pretty empty. 迈克尔在纽约工作，露西一周的大部分时间都在外面跑，故这幢房子看来倒像一间空房。［主动，用working和travelling］

I can't concentrate upon my academic work with him fussing me all the time. 由于他一直在烦扰我，我不能专心搞学术工作。［用现在分词fussing表示主动］

With the problem solved we turned our talk to another topic. 这问题解决后我们把谈话转到另一话题上。［意义被动，故用过去分词 solved］

③ 从句法功能讲，with宾语后面所跟的分词起宾语补语作用；因此，有时with的宾语后面也接形容词或介词短语：

In summer I sleep with the windows open. 夏天我是开着窗睡觉的。

With you as my wife I am as happy as happy can be. 有你做我的妻子，我是最幸福也没有了。

例　He lay on a straw mat with his_____.

A. closed eyes and his mouth open

B. eyes closed and his open mouth

C. closed eyes and open his mouth

D. eyes closed and his mouth open

［分析］答案为D，with his eyes closed（过去分词）and his mouth open（形容词）符合with引出的独立结构的句型。

十六、两步表达法的介词结构

介词是个非常活跃的词类，因它具有极强的搭配能力，它能与动词、名词、形容词、分词等构成各种搭配，表示各种不同的意义。介词与英语中的某些动词的固定搭配便形成了两步表达法的介词结构。这一独特结构表现为以下两种形式：

1. 及物动词+宾语【第一步（表示笼统内容）】+介词+the+身体部位【第二步（表示具体内容）】

The soldier was wounded in the leg. 这士兵的腿部受了伤。

I had a cold in the chest. 我胸部受了寒。

She became very red in the face. 她脸涨得通红。

The ball hit the boy on the nose. 球打在了男孩的鼻子上。

He took the thief by the collar. 他抓住贼的领子。

His sarcastic remarks cut her to the heart. 他的冷言冷语使她伤透了心。

这里需作三点说明：

A. 在上述结构及例句中，定冠词the不能换用物主代词，如不能说“The soldier was wounded in his leg”或“I had a cold in my chest.”按这一结构的特殊要求，需把物主代词改用the才能引出身体的具体部位。

B. 在这一结构中，介词不能固定，用什么介词需视句意而定，在前三个例子中，情况发生在身体部位的里面，故都用in。第四个例句表示“球打在鼻子上”，则用on；第五个例句说明如何抓住贼的方法，便用by。第六个例句中因cut后面需接to。

C. 上面列举的六个例句的汉语译文都采用直接的一步法，不采用由笼统进到具体这种两步的模式来表达；这是英汉两国语言表达上的不同方法之一。反过来，如果上面五个例句的内容也由两步改用一步来表示的话，如“The soldier's leg was wounded.”“The ball hit the boy's nose.”“He took the thief's collar.”等，便或多或少成为中国式英语。掌握这一结构能帮助我们用正统的英语来表达思想。试以“他的家人支持他作出的决定”这一个普通句子为例，我们便可用两步法来表示，即“His family supported him in his decision.”这远远要比一步法“His family supported his decision”好得多、地道得多。注意，在这一例句中，介词in后面的宾语不是指身体的部位，故decision前面用物主代词his，而不用the。

2. 及物动词+宾语【第一步（表示笼统意思）】+介词+宾语【第二步（表示具体内容）】

用于这个两步结构的介词是由该介词和句中谓语动词的搭配关系所决定，一般讲，常见的有of，from，in，on，with，for等。

现举数例说明如下：

Nothing can release him from his pain.

第一部分表示笼统意思，第二部分说明具体情况，汉语译文应采用一步法，直接译为“什么也不能解除他的病痛。”

They cleared the street of snow.

同上，译文应是“他们扫清路上的积雪。”但这句英语不能改为“They cleared the snow of the street.”这样讲，便不合习惯。

I congratulate you on your marriage.

译成汉语时用一步法，即“恭贺你新婚之喜。”但这句英语则绝不能用一步法说成“I congratulate your marriage.”

He instructs me in modern history.

动词instructs需采用两步结构，介词in不能省略，如把动词改为teach则用一步式结构“He teaches me modern history.”两式句意相同，即“他教我近代史。”

I am pressed for time/money.

这是典型的英语句子，第一部分笼统说明“我很紧迫”，第二部分由介词for引出具体事物“时间/钱”。但正确规范的译文应是“我时间/钱很紧。”英语则不能说“My time/money is pressed.”在英语中，用于两步法结构的动词为数也不是很多的，它们后面的介词也是由习惯用法固定下来，不能随意改动的。现把常见的这些动词按它们后面固定的介词分类如下：

1 　of。

The police accused him of theft. 警方指控他犯盗窃罪。

Please advise/inform/notify me of your room number. 请把你的房间号码告诉我。［advise，inform和notify三字词义和用法相同，不能说“Please advise/inform/notify your room number to me.”］

I am ashamed of your conduct. 我为你的行为感到羞耻。

We assure you of our best cooperation. 我们保证给你们最好的合作。

He has broken himself of the bad habit. 他已戒掉那个坏习惯。［注意，不能说“He has broken the bad habit.”］

I can't convince him of his mistake. 我不能使他相信他是错的。

The doctor cured my father of his heart disease. 医生治好了爸爸的心脏病。

Sickness deprived her of her life. 病魔夺去了她的生命。［不能说“Sickness deprived her life.”］

What you said disburdens my mind of worries. 你讲的话消除了我的思想负担。

Fears dispossessed him of his senses. 恐惧使他失去了理性。

They discharged him of his post for his neglect of duty. 他们因他失职而免去了他的职务。［不能说“They discharged his post for his neglect of duty.”］

Three years of war drained the country of men and resources. 三年的战争使该国家耗尽了人力和资源。

He is dull of memorizing, but brisk of understanding. 他记忆力差，但理解力强。［不能说“His memorizing is dull, but his understanding is brisk.”］

The medicine will ease you of your pain. 这药将缓解你的疼痛。

This photo reminds me of my days in Los Angeles. 这张照片使我想起在洛杉矶的那些日子。

What is the best way to rid a house of cockroaches? 除掉屋子里的蟑螂的最好办法是什么？

Thieves stripped the house of everything valuable. 贼偷去了家中所有贵重的东西。

They suspect him of stealing the watch. 他们怀疑他偷了那只表。

They warned me of（或against）the danger. 他们告诫我要谨防危险。

2 　from。

You must not absent yourself from school. 你绝不能缺课。

They defended the city from（或against）an air attack. 他们保卫城市，使之不受空袭。

We should discourage them from climbing the mountain without a guide. 我们应劝他们无向导不要去爬山。

The President dismissed the minister from his office. 总统免去了该部长的职位。

He doesn't know what's good for him.He can't discriminate right from wrong. 他不知好歹，分不清是非。

He dissuaded his wife from buying that hat. 他劝阻他妻子买那顶帽子。

The noise in the street distracted me from my reading. 街上的嘈杂声使我不能专心读书。

How can we divert her thoughts from her sad loss? 我们如何使她不再想她的可悲的损失？

The teacher excused me from taking the examination. 老师准我不参加考试。

He excused himself from coming. 他托故不来。

We should inhibit ourselves from wrong desires and impulses. 我们应该抑制自己不正当的欲望和冲动。

The parents keep their son from smoking. 父母禁止他们的孩子吸烟。

As her husband was in a bad mood, she kept anything untoward from him. 因她丈夫情绪不好，她把一切不顺心的事都瞒着他。

The law prohibits people from gambling. 法律禁止人们赌博。

We must protect these plants from the cold. 我们必须保护这些植物使其不受冻。

He raised his arm to shield himself from the blow. 他抬起手臂，防止遭打。

They tried to prevent him from going, but he still went. 他们试图阻止他前往，但他还是去了。

Nothing can stop us from achieving our lofty goal. 什么都阻挡不了我们实现宏伟的目标。

I cannot tell that girl from her sister. 我辨别不出她们姐妹俩谁是谁。

3 　in。

He differs from me in the analysis of the problem. 他对这一问题的分析同我不一样。

Instead of wasting her time, Mary employs herself in reading. 玛莉不浪费时间而把它用于看书上。

Professor Richardson encourages me in (doing) research. 理查森教授鼓励我搞研究工作。

I have gained 10 pounds in weight. 我体重增加了10磅。［不能说“My weight has gained 10 pounds”］

Tom is growing in statue but not in wisdom. 汤姆的个子在长高，但智力却没增长。［不能说“Tom's statue is growing, but his wisdom is not”］

He invests every spare minute in trying to improve his mind. 他把业余的每一分钟都用于智力投资上。

They are widely different in opinion. 他们的意见大相径庭。

Once a beauty, she is now very dry in appearance. 她曾是一位美人，可现在形容枯槁。

Buying an expensive car involved me in debt. 买了一部高档的汽车使我负了债。

I sympathize with you in your sufferings.我同情你的遭遇。［现在也有人说“I sympathize with your sufferings”，但不算正规］

His speech is deficient in clearness. 他的演说缺乏清晰度。［不能说“The clearness of his speech is deficient”］

I think he is quite honest in his intentions. 我认为他的意图是诚恳的。［不能说“I think his intentions are quite honest”］

4 　on。

I wish to consult you on（或about）an important matter. 我想向您请教一个重要的问题。

The teacher enjoined diligence on the students. 教师嘱学生们要好好用功。

John congratulated her on her success. 约翰对她的成功表示祝贺。

Don't force your idea on me. 别把你的想法强加给我。

The government has imposed new duties on wines and spirits. 政府已对酒类征收新税。

The judge inflicted the death penalty on the criminal. 法官对该罪犯处以死刑。

The boss is hard on his employees. 那老板对他的雇员很苛刻。

He plumed himself on his accomplishment. 他对自己的成就自夸自赞。

The judge laid（lay之过去式）the blame on the driver of the car. 法官把此事归咎于汽车司机。

He spent a lifetime of study on this research project. 他花了一生时间搞这项研究。

The Finance Minister urged the need for economy on (upon) the people. 财政部长向人民力陈节约的必要。

5 　for。

I must apologize to you for my lateness. 很抱歉，我来晚了。

Please apply to the secretary for information. 了解情况，请与秘书联系。

Don't blame me for the accident! 这事请勿怪我。

You must compensate me for this loss. 你得赔偿我的这一损失。［不能说compensate my loss，但可说compensate for my loss］

He counts/depends/relies on his parents for everything. 他一切靠他的父母。［count，depend，rely三字意义及用法均相同］

I am grateful/thankful/indebted to you for your timely help. 我感谢你及时的帮助。［grateful，thankful，indebted三字意义和用法相同］

The weather took a turn for the better/worse in the afternoon. 下午天气转好/坏。

Those who are far-sighted take thought for the good morrow. 有远见的人总是为将来着想。

He is famous/known/noted for his good humor. 他以幽默著称。［famous，known，noted三字意义和用法相同］

At a distance I mistook him for an old friend whom I hadn't seen for years. 老远看去，我把他错当成多年不见的老朋友了。

The doctor operated on the patient for a benign tumor. 医生为病人动手术切除良性肿瘤。

Our school is hard pressed for money. 我们学校经费短缺。

He is qualifying himself for the doctor. 他正在为取得做医生的资格而积极准备着。

That dress is fit/right/suitable for the occasion. 那件衣服适合于那种场合。［fit，right，suitable三字意义和用法相同］

I am sorry for your misfortunes. 我为你的种种不幸而难过。

They are zealous for liberty. 他们渴望自由。

6 　with。

Travel will acquaint you with new customs. 旅行会使你了解一些新的习俗。

The streets were alive with people. 马路上满是来往的行人。

We associate the name of Nelson with the battle of Trafalgar. 纳尔逊的名字使我们联想起特拉法尔加战役。

The problem was beset with difficulties. 这个问题难点重重。

He busies himself with routine work. 他忙于日常事务工作。

My wife is always busy with her housework. 我妻子总是忙于家务。

The critic classed him with the best writers of the age. 批评家将他列入当代第一流作家中。

If you compare Marx's work with Hegel's, you'll find many differences. 如果你把马克思的著作和黑格尔的比较一下，你定会发现许多不同之处。

You have confused adverbial particles with prepositions. 你把小品词和介词混淆了。

They credit him with the invention. 他们把这项发明归功于他。

Father deposited money with mother. 父亲把钱存放在母亲处。

My parents will be disappointed with（或in）me if I fail the TOEFL examination. 如果我通不过托福考试，我父母会对我很失望的。

Nature has endowed him with great ability. 天赋给予他很大的才能。

Can I entrust you with the task? 我可以将此事交给你办吗？

Before you go to the United States for further study, you should be familiar with the English language. 你去美国深造前，应熟悉英语。

Before playing the game, familiarize yourself with the rules. 玩这游戏之前要先熟悉规则。

He filled the glass with soda water. 他在那只玻璃杯里倒满了汽水。

A bad workman finds fault with his tools. 蹩脚的工匠总是埋怨自己的工具不好。

This enterprise is fraught with risks. 这一事业充满着风险。

He was good enough to furnish me with the necessary information. 蒙他好意相助，提供我所需要的信息。

All has gone well with him. 他一切顺利。

We are gratified with the result of our experiment. 我们对试验的结果很满意。

Linda is absent; she is ill with influenza（患流感）.

After retirement, he occupies himself with（或is occupied with）writing his memoirs. 退休以后，他专心于写回忆录。

The customer was pleased with his new suit. 顾客对他的新套装很满意。

Tom is so amusing that he is popular with girls. 汤姆非常风趣，很受女孩子们的欢迎。

Our class presented the school with a quartz clock. 我们的班级送给学校一只石英钟以作纪念。

We must provide our children with a good education. 我们必须给孩子提供良好的教育。

It would be unwise to rest content with our limited experience. 满足于我们有限的经验是不明智的。

I am satisfied with your explanation. 对你的解释我很满意。

My uncle was suddenly seized with apoplexy yesterday. 我叔叔昨天突然患了中风。

He is quite skillful with tools. 他动手能力很强。

We shall stock the shop up with woolen sweaters of various sizes in mid-September. 我们将于九月中旬给这家商店办齐各种尺寸的羊毛衫。

That big corporation supplied us with the money for the research project. 那家大公司提供我们钱款来实施该研究项目。

Most of my time is taken up with writing and teaching. 我大部分时间被写作和教书所占用。

The air is thick with dust. 空气里充满了灰尘。

Are you through with your work? 你做完工作了吗？

上面许多实例清楚说明，这些介词的两步表达法实际上是由它们和某些特定动词的搭配关系所构成。

例　There has been (A) many an attempt (B) to cure the patient his lung cancer (C), but none of them were (D) successful.

［分析］C错。动词cure的两部结构为cure sb.of his disease，故应把C改为of his lung cancer。

例　We feel grateful_____your help.

A. to

B. for

C. in

D. with

［分析］形容词grateful的两步结构为be（或feel）grateful to sb.for sth.，本句里无sb.，只有sth.（指help），故应选B。

十七、介词的省略

在现代英语里，介词在某些结构中往往被省略，在口语中尤其如此。在下列情况下介词往往被省略：

1. 某些结构中介词的省略

1 　在“this way，”“that way”，“one's own way”，“the hard way”，“one way or another”等词组前介词in通常省略。

Come (in) this way, please. 请往这儿走。

The stranger went (in) that way. 陌生人往那边走了。

We'll never manage it (in) that way. 我们那样做是行不通的。

Do it (in) your own way if you see fit. 如果你认为合适，就照你自己的办法做吧。

Such good luck never comes (in) my way. 这种好运气我从来碰不到。

It always pays to learn self-reliance (in) the hard way. 从艰苦中学会自力更生总是值得的。

We will get the work done (in) one way or another. 我们无论如何要想方设法完成这项工作。

2 　在nearer to，nearest to等结构中，以及在某些如give，send等带双宾语的及物动词后面，介词to有时可省。

Air is also compressible, which means that it is more compressible or denser nearer (to) the ground. 空气也可压缩，这意味着离地面越近，空气越具压缩性，密度也越高。

Pick a few apples from the nearest tree, the one nearest (to) the house. 从最近的树上，即从离屋子最近的树上，采几只苹果下来。

Bruce gave it (to) me as a keepsake before I left for home. 在我动身回国前，布鲁斯把它作为纪念品送给我的。

A new catalog was sent (to) him without delay. 一本新的目录单立即给他寄去。

3 　动名词前介词的省略

在动名词前省略介词的倾向日见普通，在美国英语中尤其如此：

（1）在下列结构中的动名词前通常省去in：

It is no good/no use (in) doing sth. 做某事没好处/没用

It is no good/no use (in) reading such books. 看这种书没好处/没用。

There is no hurry (in) doing sth. 不必急于［做某事］

There is no hurry (in) bringing a suit against him. 不必急于向他提出起诉。

lose no time (in) doing sth. 立即或抓紧［做某事］

The doctor lost no time (in) giving the patient first aid. 医生立即对病人进行抢救。

by busy (in) doing sth. 忙于［做某事］

Jude is busy (in) writing his term paper. 祖德正在忙于撰写学期论文。

busy oneself (in) doing sth. 忙于［做某事］

Irene busied herself (in) tidying up her room. 艾琳忙于整理她的房间。

spend one's time/money (in) doing sth. 花时间/金钱［做某事］

Professor David spent five years (in) writing this book. 戴维教授花了五年时间撰写这部著作。

be long (in) doing sth. 迟迟［做某事］

He is awfully long (in) getting here. 他姗姗来迟。

I hope you won't be long (in) making up your mind. 我希望你从速作出决定。

There is no point/use (in) doing sth.［做某事］无意义

There is no use (in) discussing the matter further. 这件事再讨论下去便无意义。

have difficulty/trouble/a hard time (in) doing sth.（日子不好过）

Do you have difficulty (in) solving your academic problems? 解决学业方面的问题有困难吗？

At first my son had a little trouble following the lectures. 起先我儿子上课听讲有点困难。

In those days my father earned a small income, so we had a hard time (in) making ends meet（使收支相抵）.

have a good time/a big time (in) doing sth. 玩得痛快或愉快

The tourists had a good time (in) visiting the West Lake and other scenic spots. 旅游者游览西湖及其他风景区时玩得很高兴。

have a time (in) doing sth. 费好大的劲；玩得开心

The mother has a time (in) trying to get the children to go to bed. 妈妈费好大的劲才哄孩子们上床睡觉。

have a terrible struggle (in) doing sth. 花九牛二虎之力才……

We had a terrible struggle (in) finding this ore. 我们费了九牛二虎之力才找到这种矿石。

take turns(in或at）doing sth. 轮流［做某事］

They took turns (in) watching him when he had fever. 他发烧时，他们轮流看护他。

Let's take turns(at) doing it. 让咱们轮流干这件事吧。

但需注意，spend one's time/money (in) doing sth.这一结构用于被动态时，介词in一般不可省略。试比较：

We spent the whole morning (in) cleaning the house.［in可省］

The whole morning was spent in cleaning the house.［in不可省掉］

（2）在下列结构中往往省去of，by，from，with：

What's the good (of) bragging? 夸夸其谈有什么意思？

What's the use (of) talking? 空谈管什么用？

He started earning his living (by) selling newspapers. 他开始靠卖报谋生。

I just ruined my clock (by) trying to repair it. 我想把钟修好，结果却修坏了。

Can you stop the boy (from) making trouble? 你能阻止那男孩不捣蛋吗？

How can we prevent him (from) taking drugs? 我们怎么能阻止他不吸毒？

I am through (with) asking questions. 我已把要问的问题问完了。

When he was through (with) talking, Dick got up and went to his own desk. 迪克讲完了话就站起来，朝自己的办公桌走去。

2. 以疑问词whose，what，when，how及whether引导的从句或不定式短语前介词of的省略

I have no idea (of) whose residence this is. 我不知道这是谁的住宅。

We haven't the slightest idea (of) what the speaker meant. 我们一点儿都不清楚讲话人的意图是什么。

Christine must have some notion (of) what has happened to her boy friend. 克里斯蒂娜一定知道她的男朋友出了什么事。

I am not aware (of) how long Grace is going to stay here. 格雷斯打算在这里待多久，我可心中无数。

Stella is always careful (of) where to spend her hard-earned money. 斯特拉总是很仔细地考虑该把她辛苦挣来的钱用在哪里。

The question (of) whether to go to Japan or the United States for further study is still undecided. 到日本还是到美国去深造，这一问题仍未决定。

注意　在下列情况也可省略of：

① 在on board和on this side之后通常省去of

We went on board (of) the Peace. 我们登上了和平号轮船。

Is the village on this side (of) the river? 村庄在河的这一边吗？

② 在某些具体量词的短语结构中，美国英语有时也出现省略of的现象，如：

a pair (of) trousers 一条裤子

one pack (of) cigarettes 一包香烟

one bottle (of) beer 一瓶啤酒

a couple (of) days 两三天

3. 以who，what，which，when，where，how及whether引导的从句或不定式短语前介词about或as to的省略

Sylvia hesitated (about) what to major in. 西尔维娅对于该主修什么犹豫不定。

Dennis and I had a bet (as to) who could stick out longer. 我和丹尼斯打赌，看谁能坚持得更久。

I am not informed (as to) why he left, when he left, or where he went. 他为什么走的，什么时候走的，去了哪里，这些我都不知道。

I'm not certain（about或as to）where I can find him. 我不能确定什么地方能找到他。

I am in doubt（as to或about）whether I should stay behind or leave. 我拿不定是留还是走。

The customer looked from one to the other of these articles, as if uncertain (as to) which one he was to choose. 顾客把这些商品一件件地看过来，好像不知道该选哪一件。

4. 表示时间短语前介词的省略

在表示时间的短语前，各有关介词往往省略，在口语里尤其如此：

You may come and see me (at) any time in the evening. 晚上你随时可以来看我。

I'm expecting his reply (at) every minute. 我时刻在盼着他的回信。

Samuel has been away from the corporation（during或in）the last ten days. 近十天来塞缪尔一直没在公司。

He spoke (for) twenty minutes at the meeting. 他在会上讲了20分钟的话。

You are very familiar with Tokyo; you must have stayed there (for) a long time. 你对东京很熟，肯定在那里呆了很久。

I'll be here (from) Monday through Wednesday. 星期一到星期三我都会在这里。

The office hours here are (from) 8 a.m.to 5 p.m. 这里的办公时间是上午八点到下午五点。

A week (from) now will be the Spring Festival. 从现在起再过一星期便是春节了。

My book was published (in) August 1986. 我的书是在1986年8月出版的。

We met again (on) the following day. 第二天我们又碰头了。

Kathleen called me (on) Thursday, telling me that she was very busy. 星期四凯瑟琳打电话给我，告诉我说她很忙。

Douglas will be here (on) the first of the week（下周第一天）.

The negotiation（谈判）will take place (on) Thursday night.

We shall spend the week ending (on) September 5 in the country. 我们将在乡下度过一周，到9月5日结束。

They arrived here (at) about two o'clock.I picked the purse up (at) about dusk. 我在大约黄昏的时候拾到这个钱包的。［注意，at about连用表示时间时，at是介词，about是副词；如省略at，about便用作介词；表示其他意义时，at则不能省略，如“We'll offer the goods to you at about the same price”；这里，at about表示价格，at通常不予省略］

注意，介词for在下列情况下不可省略：

① 在否定句中，for通常不省略：

The airplane will not arrive for twenty minutes. 飞机还要过20分钟才到。

I haven't ridden a bicycle for two years. 我已有两年未骑自行车了。

We have not heard from each other for a long time. 我们俩已有很长时间未通信了。

② for引导的介词短语置于句首时，for一般不予省略：

For hours we waited anxiously for their news. 我们好几个小时焦急地等待着他们的消息。

For a minute or two, he was transfixed at the sight. 看见这个情景，他呆住了，有一两分钟不能动弹。

5. 在表示方位方向、距离、方式方法、估量、重量及价值等短语结构中，介词往往省略

1 　方位方向。

Normally, a man knows (on) which side his bread is buttered. 一般讲，人是知道他自己的利益所在的。

My house is opposite (to) the stadium. 我的家在体育馆对面。［to省略后opposite便由形容词转化成为介词］

Turn your eyes (to) this way. 朝这边看。

“Where are you going (to)?”“(To) The symposium（研讨会）.”

2 　距离。

The desert stretches (for) hundreds of miles. 沙漠方圆绵延数百英里。

On a fine day we can see (for) miles and miles from this hill-top. 在晴朗的日子里，我们从这个山顶上能看得很远很远。

3 　方式方法。

The train is going (at) 60 miles an hour. 火车正以每小时六十英里的速度行驶。

Julie is prettier in profile than (at) full face. 朱莉的侧面比正面好看。

The Smiths cook (in) the Japanese style. 史密斯夫妇的烹调具有日本风味。

The pupils walked out of school (in) single file. 小学生们排成单行走出校门。

Jean dresses (in) the same way as her twin sister does. 琼的穿着和她的孪生姐妹一模一样。

When I came back from my lunch, the two of them were still arguing (with) hammer and tongs. 我吃完中饭回来时，他们俩还在拼命地争个不休。

表示邮寄方式时，by往往也可省略：

My baggage will be sent (by) express（以快递方式）.

We will send you those new samples (by) parcel post（以邮包方式）.

The matter is urgent.We'll have to send the letter (by) special delivery（以快递方式）.

Send the letter (by) airmail.

表示以何种方式乘飞机或轮船时，by也往往可省：

I want to go (by) economy (class). 我要经济舱。

We travelled (by) first class. 我们乘头等车（船）旅行。

4 　估量。

Zackery is (by) a head taller than Benjamin. 扎克里比本杰明高出一个头。

Your room is (by) four square meters larger than mine. 你的房间比我的大四平方米。

The water level has risen (by) two feet. 水位上升了两英尺。

5 　重量。

My son weighs (at) 130 pounds. 我的儿子体重130磅。

6 　价值。

This violin is worth (for) 10,000 dollars. 这把小提琴价值10 000美元。

6. 在with引导的独立结构中介词的省略

在with引导的独立结构中，介词with在下列情况下往往省略：

1 　(with)+宾语+介词短语。

在这一结构中with省略时，宾语及介词短语中的冠词和物主代词也宜同时省略：

Earl stood there, (with his) hat in (his) hand and (a) pipe in (his) mouth. 厄尔站在那里，手里拿着帽子，嘴里叼着烟斗。

2 　(with)+宾语+分词。

省略介词with时，如宾语前有物主代词也应同时加以省略：

(With my) Head bowed, I stood before my teacher, deeply ashamed of my foolish behaviour. 我低头站在老师面前，深深为自己愚蠢的行为感到羞愧。

He paced up and down his room, (with his) chin sunk on his chest. 他低垂着脑袋在屋子里踱来踱去。

Away go the two vehicles, (with) horses galloping, (with) boys cheering, (with) horns playing loud. 两辆车子开走了，马奔驰着，男孩们欢呼着，喇叭高声响着。

3 　with+宾语+and all。

同样，宾语前的物主代词也必须省掉：

Felix jumped into the water to save the drowning young boy, (with his) clothes and all. 费利克斯穿着衣服跳进水里去救那个溺水的小男孩。

7. 名词、动词或形容词的并列结构中介词的省略

两个或两个以上并列的名词、动词或形容词各接相同的介词短语时，按一般用法的惯例，在第一个名词、动词或形容词后面的介词短语不需重复，而予以省略：

1 　在第一个名词后。

Conversation should be on a fifty-fifty basis, and it should be an exchange (of idea), not a monopoly, of idea. 交谈应在平等的基础上进行，应是交换意见，而不是一言堂。

The Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn are imaginary lines, one to the north (of the equator) and the other to the south, of the equator. 北回归线和南回归线是两条假想的线，前者在赤道之北，后者在赤道之南。

2 　在第一个动词后。

One of the most common forms of correct usage is that certain nouns are preceded (by certain prepositions)and certain nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are followed, by certain prepositions. 一个最常见的正确用法是，某些介词置于某些名词之前，而某些介词却接在某些名词、动词、形容词和副词之后。

You cannot regulate society by the light of nature and a good heart any more than you can spin cotton, by the light of nature and a good heart. 你不能凭本能或善良的心愿来治理社会，正如你不能凭本能或善良的心愿来纺棉花一样。［by the light of作“凭……”解］

3 　在第一个形容词后。

I feel glad (about leaving), and I feel sad, all at the same time, about leaving. 离别使我觉得高兴，同时又使我觉得难过。

但应注意，当一个句子中的两个谓语部分需接不同的介词时，两者中的第一个介词绝不可省略。这是个写作中有时会碰到的实际问题：

He has received thousands of letters from both home and abroad, all expressing gratitude for, or interest in, his cosmetics. 他收到了国内外成千上万的来信，都对他的化妆品表示感谢或有兴趣。

在上列实例中，gratitude按其搭配接介词for，interest则应接in，两个介词不同，故第一介词for不可省略。

The State will further improve the regulations for, and methods of tightening overall control over, consumption funds for the purpose of making the increase in such funds correspond with the development of production and the growth of national income. 国家将进一步改善有关消费资金的条例，并将进一步改善如何加强全面控制消费资金的办法促使消费资金的增加同生产的发展与国民收入的增长相适应。

regulations接for，control接over两者用不同介词组成搭配关系，故在上面所引实例中第一介词for不予省略，这是规范化的写法。

8. 起限定作用的介词短语的省略

起限定作用的介词短语，当它的意义不言自明时，通常都予以省略：

I like the novel, but I don't like the language (of the novel). 我喜欢这部小说，但是不喜欢这部小说的语言。

The mechanic examined the car. The front (of the car) was slightly damaged. 机修工检查了那辆汽车，车的前端稍有损坏。

介词虽然数量不多，但却是一个非常活跃的词类，因它能和名词、动词、形容词等词搭配，表示种种不同的意思。英语中绝大部分的用语都是由介词和其他词搭配而成的，故掌握介词的最好办法是通过大量阅读，最快速的方法则是设法记忆大量常见的、有实用价值的介词短语及其例句。

Exercises

以of，from，for，to，with或其他介词填空

1. Instead of wasting time, he employs himself_____looking after his garden.

2. Economize_____petrol.

3. The police accused him_____theft.

4. You will solve your problem if you concentrate_____it.

5. He counts_____his parents_____everything.

6. My father engages_____foreign trade.

7. They warned me_____the danger.

8. He often borrows money_____his friends.

9. He is very experienced_____repairing recorders.

10. We must rely_____our own efforts_____socialist construction.

11. I believe_____taking my time.（我喜欢从容办事。）

12. The soldiers are prohibited_____leaving camp_____dark.

13. Beware_____the dog. It is dangerous.

14. Many customers complained_____the manager_____the poor service.

15. The patient complained_____a splitting headache（头痛得要裂开来似的）.

16. I can't draw any information_____him.

17. I must draw some money_____the bank.

18. He persisted_____carrying on his work_____spite_____great difficulties.

19. He instructed me_____the best way_____doing the job.

20. I depend_____you_____help.

21. He invested every spare minute_____trying to improve his mind（把全部业余时间用在知识投资上）.

22. I always lean_____your advice.

23. He never tires_____helping others（助人不倦）.

24. I raised my arm to protect my face_____the blow.

25. We demand an answer_____you_____return (of mail)（要求你立即回信）.

26. Oil does not mix_____water.

27. She was overcome_____joy when she heard the news.

28. In China traffic keep_____the right.（在中国车辆是靠右走的。）

29. He applied varnish_____the surface_____an article_____furniture_____a brush（用刷子把漆涂在一件家具上）.

30. The needle of the compass points_____the north.

31. The doctor made an experiment_____rabbits_____various purposes.

32. Kindly refrain_____smoking（请勿吸烟）.

33. We put on our mackintoshes（胶布雨衣）to protect us_____the rain.

34. A friend_____need is a friend indeed（患难之中见朋友）.

35. Hydrogen combines_____oxygen to form water.

36. I perfectly agree_____your opinion.

37. Korea lies_____the east of China.

38. _____receipt_____his postal order（汇款单）, the bookstore immediately sent him the books.

39. Pupils took part in athletic sports_____large numbers.

40. Children are listening_____a story, sitting_____a circle.

41. Theory should go hand_____hand_____practice（理论应当联系实际）.

42. _____the leadership_____the Communist Party, our country is advancing_____a great speed.

43. We must consult_____the technicians and veteran workers_____technical problems（就……问题同……商量）.

44. The town is several miles distant_____the Dongting Lake.

45. They set sail_____Shanghai_____Qingdao.

46. Nothing can compensate_____the loss_____one's health.

47. I must apologize_____you_____my lateness.

48. My grandfather lived_____eighty.

49. That man is easy to deal_____.

50. The medicine will ease you_____your pain.

51. He has broken himself_____the bad habit_____smoking and drinking.

52. It is far_____perfect（离开完美相去甚远）.

53. The tree is bare_____leaves（光秃秃没有叶子）.

54. The policy conforms_____the interests of the people（符合）.

55. He does not go to bed_____eleven o'clock every night.

56. Don't be so hard_____your children.（不要对你孩子如此严厉。）

57. We heard the news_____the radio.

58. This sound is_____harmony_____that.

59. I found_____my joy that he had succeeded.

60. His speech moved his audience_____tears.

61. The scientific experiment is_____an end.

62. I will send_____the doctor（派人去请医生来）.

63. The football match is_____its height.（比赛处于高潮）

64.“Genius”is nothing_____labor and diligence.

65. The ship disappeared_____the horizon.

66.The rooms are_____the use_____teachers.

67. The letters MP stand_____Member of Parliament（指英国的国会议员）.

68. The rain is falling_____torrents.

69. Because_____his carelessness, he was discharged_____his post（被免去职务）.

70. _____leaving school he joined the army（一离校即参军）.

71. One bus and two cars were involved_____the traffic accident.

72. He often acts_____my suggestion.

73. We should always base our opinions_____facts.

74. I can't convince him_____his mistake.

75. England is separated_____France_____the English Channel.

76. The naughty boy delights_____teasing his little sister（喜欢惹他的小妹妹）.

77. On New Year's Eve, every member of the family except married daughters and sons, shares_____a big family dinner（吃年夜饭）.

78. We assure you_____our best cooperation.

79. Business hindered me_____coming here yesterday.

80. May I be excused_____the meeting?（这个会我能不参加吗？）

81. We must protect our country_____attack.

82. I decided_____a new bike.

83. We experiment_____monkeys_____a new method.

84. Many people have come to help_____the irrigation project（灌溉工程）.

85. I differ_____you_____my analysis of the situation.

86. The doctor operated_____the patient_____a benign tumour.

87. His actions accord_____his words（言行一致）.

88. The soloist（独唱者：独奏者）sang popular folk songs_____the piano accompaniment（在钢琴伴奏下）.

89. _____my great surprise, he managed to accomplish the task only_____a few days.

90. I am glad that you both have come_____an understanding（达成谅解）.

91. They sheltered_____an umbrella_____the rain.

92. I sympathize_____you_____your sufferings（同情你的苦难遭遇）.

93. The minister shook hands_____the foreign guests and had a talk_____them.

94. Your promise to help has disburdened my mind_____worries.（你答应帮忙，消除了我的思想顾虑。）

95. Machinery dispenses_____much labour（节省劳力）.

96. It is necessary to break_____bad habits.

97. I never cross the road_____looking both ways first.

98. It is dangerous to lean_____or stand_____a tree when it is thundering.

99. They tried to prevent him_____going, but he still went.

100. The sun emerged_____the clouds.

101. They refused to comment_____the election results.

102. We expect help_____you.

103. The passage consists_____three paragraphs.

104. Don't indulge_____smoking and drinking.

105. The girl despairs_____becoming a great artist（不再抱有成为伟大艺术家的希望）.

106. Please advise me_____your room number.

107. While they were fighting in Korea, some of the Volunteers（志愿军）lived_____a time_____salt and snow.

108. The girl is leaning_____her boy friend's shoulder.

109. The factory leadership encouraged him_____his scientific research.

110. He insisted_____my going with him.

111. The doctor cured me_____my disease.

112. Some gas is escaping_____the pipe.

113. Have you heard_____the place?（你曾听说过那地方吗？）

114. The safety devices（完全措施）defend the workers_____any danger.

115. I have embarked_____a new profession.

116. Many people suffer_____insomnia（患失眠症）.

117. He is far-sighted. I always lean_____his advice.

118. The police suspect him_____murder.

119. Shanghai in one_____the largest cities_____the world.

120. Wuhan is situated halfway_____Beijing and Guangzhou.

121. It is something_____a chair and a sofa.（这东西看起来又像椅子、又像沙发。）

122. The moon moves_____the earth and the earth moves_____the sun.

123. People all wonder_____his good knowledge_____foreign languages.

124. I was surprised_____seeing him there.

125. A pair of orioles（金莺）alighted_____the frisking branch of a weeping willow（飞下来停在一枝摆动的垂柳枝上）.

126. How did you hit_____such a god idea（想出）?

127. Your luggage weighs_____excess（行李超重）.

128. Yesterday evening I waited_____you_____10 o'clock.

129. The student studied electrical engineering_____the evening（整个晚上）.

130. I know_____him, but I don't know him personally（听说过他，但不认识他）.

131. Eggs are sold_____one yuan and two jiao a jin（鸡蛋售价是每斤一元二角）.

132. The train runs_____the rate_____75 miles an hour.

133. George is jealous_____his younger sister.

134. She is well-qualified_____typing and very efficient_____her work.

135. We are fortunate_____having sufficient supplies_____fuel_____the winter.

136. Contrary_____my expectations, there was no need to be uneasy_____the results of the match.

137. I am not very familiar_____his novels and not very keen_____reading them.

138. I know he is slow_____understanding, but you have to be patient_____him.

139. It is obvious_____everyone that he is not responsible_____this mistake.

140. I think be is quite honest_____his intentions.

141. He is not only indifferent_____other people; he is often extremely rude_____them as well.

142. The two countries are_____war.

143. We walked along_____an easy pace for the last few miles.

144. That is my reason_____declining the invitation.

145. I haven't seen him for years. What has become_____him?

146. An oil painting hangs_____the wall.

147. Our corporation does business_____many foreign companies and firms_____general merchandise（百货）.

148. The academic problem is still_____discussion.

149. He has come here_____a visiting scholar（作为访问学者）.

150. No one is entirely free_____mistakes.

151. Shandong is_____the east of China.

152. We called_____him_____his absence（去拜访他时，他不在）.

153. He has very much of the scholar_____him（很有学者风度）.

154. If you do that, you will get_____trouble.

155. In summer we rise_____the sun and begin(our)work immediately.

156. We all rejoiced_____your achievements.

157. Many people were asleep_____the lecture（听讲座时）.

158. It is spring. The hills are clad(=clothed)_____verdure（披上绿色新装）.

159. Children remain dependent_____their parents_____a long time.

160. I should be grateful_____any advice you can give.

161. He is quick_____understanding, but he is not capable_____remembering anything.

162. He is intent_____（一心）passing the TOEEL examination, but I am doubtful_____his chances（可能性）.

163. That boy is far ahead_____everyone else in the class.

164. He is ill. He is_____high fever.

165. He worked up the data_____a thesis（把材料整理成论文）.

166. That's just_____him（他就是那个样子。）.

167. What is the best way to rid a house_____rats（消灭屋子里的老鼠）?

168. Your conclusions are not consistent_____the facts.

169. I'm not sure_____the exact date, but I think he arrived here_____June 10.

170. _____close investigation he was found guilty_____a great many crimes.

171. One should not be sensitive_____criticism（不应该听不进批评）.

172. This passport is valid_____all countries_____China.

173. A lot of traditional Chinese paintings are_____show.（=are being shown正在展出）

174. Eggs are sold_____tens and twenties（按十、二十出售）.

175. Many factories have done much_____the way_____technical innovations.

176. A button is_____your coat.

177. What is learned_____the cradle lasts_____the grave（儿时所学，到死不忘）.

178. Let's hope_____the best and prepare_____the worst.

179. These rooms are_____the use_____teachers.

180. There is no cause_____anxiety（无担忧的必要）.

181. I heard of the matter_____your uncle.

182. Employ your time_____the best advantage（最好地使用你的时间）.

183. We have been corresponding_____each other for years（相互通信）.

184. How do you account_____this?（你如何说明这一情况？）

185. Do you object_____my smoking?

186. You must reply_____his letter.

187. I have some important business to attend_____（料理）.

188. Has it occurred_____you that she must have arrived_____London_____now?

189. You must comply_____the rules of the game.

190. Poor Matilda! She has so much to cope_____.（应付这么多事情）

191. Don't blame me_____the accident!

192. I'm disgusted_____your behaviour!

193. It is rude to stare_____people（盯住人看）.

194. His debt now amounts_____500 yuan.

195. Whom does this book belong_____?

196. She is accustomed_____living_____comfort.

197. She parted_____him years ago.

198. She'll never part_____her precious possessions.

199. The spy surrendered_____the enemy and was condemned_____death.

200. I'll see_____the cooking tonight.

201. I have known him_____my childhood.

202. London is_____the Thames（在泰晤士河河畔）.

203. The factory director showed the foreign visitors all_____the workshops（领外宾上上下下地参观了所有的车间）.

204. They hung a curtain_____the window.

205. This room serves_____a meeting-room（用作）.

206. Many villages are short_____doctors.

207. He is dull_____memorizing, but brisk_____understanding（记忆力差，但理解力强）.

208. What do you do_____a morning?

209. Success often comes_____failure（失败中往往孕育着成功。）.

210. The choice rests_____you（由你来选择）.

211. Choose_____these, please.（从这些中选择。）

212. The naughty boy came out_____the table（从桌子下）.

213. When they left, he came out_____the curtain（从窗帘后面）.

214. I felt fatigued_____having sat up all night（因通宵不眠而感到疲倦）.

215. Not having heard_____him for a long time, all his friends gave him up_____lost（以为他死了）.

216. He spoke English so well_____the telephone that I took him_____a foreigner.

217. Tom is growing both_____statue and_____wisdom.

218. I was walking_____the street when I came_____an old friend_____mine.

219. You must not absent yourself_____school.

220. I am ashamed_____having done such a thing.

221. I have gained 10 pounds_____weight.

222. It is wrong to be envious_____others' success.

223. The Prime Minister will be_____the air tonight（作广播演说）.

224. He turned_____me_____help even after I had quarrelled_____him.

225. He is hopeful_____success_____the scientific experiment.

226. Please apply_____the secretary_____information.

227. Foreigners are fearful_____catching cold.

228. There is a note attached_____the parcel.

229. I was sick_____waiting（等得不耐烦了）.

230. Just guess_____the price of this carpet.

231. Don't be tired_____studying English when you meet_____difficulties.

232. How long have you been working_____this exercise?

233. The deeds of the people's heroes are worthy_____being remembered forever.

234. How much did they charge you_____that?（你买那东西他们要你付多少钱？）

235. I tried the work and became conscious_____my want_____ability.

236. Can we buy goods_____credit here（用赊欠的方式购货）?

237. All experience rests_____practice（建立在实践上）.

238. They gave their lives_____their country.

239. Mr. Li is a Chinese_____the Chinese（典型的中国人）.

240. Many foreign students in the States study_____day and work_____night.［the States=the United States］

241. Thoughts are expressed_____means_____words.

242. The house is hidden_____view_____trees.

243. Japanese differs greatly_____Chinese_____pronunciation.

244. We rest_____work_____Wednesday（星期三休息）.

245. They wore dark spectacles to shield their eyes_____the glare_____the sun（戴黑色眼镜保护眼睛免受强烈日光照射）.

246. A lamp hung_____the ceiling.

247. He began to play the violin_____the age_____seven.

248. If you marry_____haste, you will repent_____leisure（草率结婚，懊悔不尽）.

249. Our teacher urged_____us the necessity_____studying mathematics hard.

250. _____answering the phone, he threw_____his overcoat and went out（一接电话，匆忙穿上衣服）.

251. It was_____midnight（过半夜）when we arrived home.

252. Don't lay the blame_____him.It is your fault.

253. He did not go to work_____the ground_____ill health（因身体欠佳不上班）.

254. Health is_____wealth（健康胜于财富）.

255. It is_____comprehension（不能理解）.

256. His house is just_____the post office（在邮局对面）.

257. He lives in a small town_____the name_____（名叫……）Beixioqing.

258. Though she is rich, she is anything_____happy（绝不幸福）.

259. Everyone_____Hob answered the question correctly.

260. But_____the heat of the sun（要不是……）, nothing_____the world could live.

261. We should put the interests of the state_____our own（把国家利益置于个人利益之上）.

262. Pride goes_____a fall（骄者必败）.

263. Work should come_____pleasure（工作重于娱乐）.

264. Many young people are desirous_____going abroad_____further study_____private expense（自费）.

265. _____English, I have to study German and Japanese.

266. The bridegroom（新娘）is standing_____his bride（新娘）.

267. What you say may be true, but it is_____the point（不切题）.

268. Be courteous to all, whether they are_____or_____you.

269. It is_____your dignity to do such a thing（做这种事有失你的身份）.

270. Success is_____our grasp now（成功在望了）.

271. These bars are placed_____of bounds_____all military servicemen（所有军人禁止进入这些酒吧）.

272. The firemen worked_____the clock to rescue the miners who were trapped_____the coal mine.

273. Betty was born_____a silver spoon in her mouth（生于富贵人家）and is now living_____comfort.

274. I should be grateful_____an answer from you_____your earliest convenience.

275. I would not be persuaded_____buying a new air-conditioner as（因为）the ones we are using is still_____good condition.

276. Your application_____a loan of five thousand dollars is_____our consideration.

277. They congratulated me_____my recovery_____illness.

278. The result of the investigation_____the scandal will be announced_____due course.

279. What do you think_____dividing the money_____your four children?

280. My wife agrees_____me_____whatever I say.

281. Mr. David is_____the sunset_____his life（年已迟暮）.

282. _____times past, women were confined_____needlework.

283. His father did not approve_____his working_____the farm.

284. The man who was charged_____murder was sentenced_____death by the judge.

285. _____what extent do you think we will benefit_____the new regulation?

286. Gregory was dismissed_____his job_____neglecting his duties.

287. He advised us_____his arrival_____Boston.

288. The Association appealed_____the public_____the donation of blood.

289. The committee members differed_____one another_____opinion.

290. He attributed his success_____the assistance_____his friends.

291. The injured man put_____a claim_____compensation（提出赔偿要求）.

292. I am answerable_____my employer_____my conduct（我的所作所为要对我的雇主负责）.

293. I am glad_____hearing_____your success_____the competition.

294. We are very much indebted_____you_____your valuable suggestion.

295. The archaeologist was completely disappointed_____his search_____fossils.

296. The general was hanged_____betraying the city_____the enemy.

297. They aimed_____raising one million dollars_____the building of a recreation center.

298. I must apologize_____you_____not answering your letter in time.

299. Martin was apprehended_____a charge_____forgery.（因被指控犯伪造证件罪而被逮捕）

300. Now that you have come_____age（成年）, you should be independent_____your parents.

301. The young lawyer who is gifted_____rare eloquence has succeeded_____getting a seat in the municipal council（获得市评议会中的一个席位）.

302. Our whole family depends_____him_____support.

303. They put the blame_____me_____the accident.

304. Their argument is based_____the belief that the earth moves_____the sun.

305. Eunice is graceful_____manners, but corrupted_____heart.

306. The storm burst_____us_____all its fury（风暴向我们狂暴袭来）.

307. He calculated_____receiving at least one thousand dollars_____his work.

308. When the bell rang_____dinner, the boarders（寄膳者）streamed_____（涌入）the canteen（公共食堂）.

309. I did not coincide_____him_____his opinion.

310. We are not_____a position to comment_____the situation at the moment.（目前我们不能对这一形势发表意见。）

311. I condole_____you_____the death of your mother（我向你吊唁令堂之死）.

312. We agreed_____the suggestion that we should dispense_____all formalities（免掉一切礼节）.

313. He disputed_____me_____the actual meaning of the word.

314. My wife dissuaded me_____taking part_____the car race.

315. Before his departure_____Europe, he entrusted me_____the care of his property.

Keys

1. in

2. on

3. of

4. on

5. on；for

6. in

7. of (or: against)

8. from

9. in

10. on；for

11. in

12. from；after

13. of［beware of 当心，谨防］

14. to；about

15. of

16. from

17. from

18. in；in；of

19. in；of

20. on；for

21. in

22. on

23. of

24. from

25. from (or; of)；by

26. with

27. with

28. to

29. to；of；of；with

30. to

31. on；for

32. from

33. from

34. in

35. with

36. with

37. to

38. On；of

39. in

40. to；in

41. in；with

42. Under；of；at

43. with；on

44. from

45. from；for

46. for；of

47. to；for

48. to

49. with

50. of

51. of；of

52. from

53. of

54. with

55. till (or; until)

56. on

57. on (or; over)

58. in；with

59. to

60. to

61. at

62. for

63. at

64. but

65. beyond

66. for；of

67. for

68. in。in torrents或in a torrent

69. of；from

70. On

71. in

72. on

73. on

74. of

75. from；by

76. in

77. in

78. of

79. from

80. from

81. from (or; against)

82. on

83. on；with

84. in

85. from；in

86. on；for

87. with

88. to

89. To；in

90. to

91. under；from

92. with；in

93. with；with

94. of

95. with

96. with

97. without

98. against；under

99. from

100. from behind

101. on

102. of (or; from)

103. of

104. in

105. of

106. of

107. for；on

108. against

109. in

110. on

111. of

112. from

113. of

114. from(or; against)

115. on

116. from

117. on

118. of

119. of；in

120. between

121. between

122. round；round

123. at；of

124. at

125. on

126. on(or: upon)

127. to

128. for；till (or: until)

129. throughout

130. of

131. at

132. at；of

133. of

134. for (or: in)；at

135. in；of；for

136. to；about

137. with；on

138. of；with

139. to；for

140. in

141. to；to

142. at

143. at

144. for

145. of

146. on

147. with；in

148. under

149. as

150. from

151. in

152. on；in

153. in

154. into

155. with

156. in（或at, over）

157. during

158. in

159. on；for

160. for

161. of；of

162. on；about (or: of)

163. of

164. in

165. into

166. like

167. of

168. with

169. of；on

170. On (or: After)；of

171. to

172. for；except

173. on

174. in

175. in；of

176. off

177. in；to

178. for；for

179. for；of

180. for

181. through或from

182. to

183. with

184. for

185. to

186. to

187. to

188. to；in；by

189. with

190. with

191. for

192. with

193. at

194. to

195. to

196. to；in

197. from，part from接人

198. with，part with接物

199. to；to

200. to，see to sth：料理

201. since

202. on

203. over

204. over

205. as (or: for)

206. of

207. of；of

208. of (a morning=in the morning)

209. out of

210. with

211. from among

212. from under

213. from behind

214. from

215. from；for

216. on(over)；for

217. in；in

218. along (or: down；up)；across；of

219. from

220. of

221. in

222. of

223. on

224. to；for；with

225. of；in

226. to；for

227. of

228. to

229. of

230. at

231. of；with

232. at

233. of

234. for

235. of；of

236. on

237. on

238. for

239. of

240. by；by

241. by；of

242. from；by

243. from；in

244. from；on

245. from；of

246. from

247. at；of

248. in；in

249. on (or: upon)；of

250. On；on

251. past

252. on

253. on；of

254. above

255. above (or: beyond; past)

256. across (or: across from; oppsite)

257. by；of

258. but

259. except

260. for；in

261. before (or: above)

262. before

263. before

264. of；for；at

265. Besides (or: In addition to)

266. beside (or: by the side of)

267. beside (or: off)

268. above；beneath (or: below)

269. beneath (or: below)

270. within

271. out of；to

272. round (or: around)；under

273. with；in

274. for；at

275. into；in

276. for；under

277. on；from

278. into；in

279. of；among

280. with；in

281. in；of

282. In；to

283. of；on

284. with；to

285. To；from

286. from；for

287. of；in

288. to；for

289. from；in

290. to；of

291. in；for

292. to；for

293. of；about (or: of)；in

294. to；for

295. in；for

296. for；to

297. at；for

298. to；for

299. on；of

300. of；of

301. with；in

302. on；for

303. on；for

304. on；round

305. in；at

306. on；in

307. on；from

308. for；into

309. with；in

310. in；on

311. with；on

312. to；with

313. with；over

314. from；in

315. from；with

Table of Contents

序

PREFACE

第一章 冠词

一、不定冠词

1. 不定冠词的常见用法

2. “a”和“an”用法上的区别

3. a(n)和one含义上的差别

4. a(n)的一些惯用结构

5. 带a(n)的若干习惯用语

二、定冠词

1. 定冠词的常见用法

2. 带 the的若干习惯用语

三、冠词的省略

Exercises

第二章 数词

一、英语中万的表达法

二、表示“许多”的数词用法及一些常用量词短语的用法

三、英语中倍数增减的表达法

1. 倍数增减的表示法

2. by和to表示倍数的用法

四、英语中概数的表示法

1. about，some，nearly，or so，more or less

2. more than，above，over，odd

3. less than，under，below

五、“每”和“每隔”的表示法

六、长度、宽度、高度、重量等的表示法

七、年代、年月、年龄等的表示法

1. 年代、年月的表示法

2. 年龄的各种表示法

八、运用数词的一些常见习语

Exercises

第三章 名词

一、名词的性

1. 表示人及动物的性别相对的名词

2. 有些名词在词尾加上“-ess”构成阴性

3. 名词前后加man，woman，he，she等表示性别

4. 拟人化的阳性词和阴性词

二、名词的可数与不可数

三、不可数名词的转化

1. 一些抽象名词数的转化

2. 一些物质名词数的转化

3. 不可数名词（物质名词及抽象名词）的转化实例

4. 专有名词数的转化

四、不可数名词和可数名词的用法

1. 不可数名词前量词的用法

2. 抽象名词+itself

3. all+某些复数名词

4. 不可数名词前冠词的用法

5. 不可数名词数的表示法

6. 单数可数名词前不加冠词的特殊结构

7. a(an)+单数名词+of+a+单数名词

8. many+a+单数名词

9. the+单数名词+of+相同的复数名词

10. the+最高级形容词+of+复数名词

11. of+抽象名词=形容词

12. a man of his/a woman (girl) of her+单数名词

13. what+(little/few)+名词

五、名词的数

1. 名词用作前置形容词的数的问题

2. 集体名词的数的问题

3. 以-ics结尾的名词的数

4. 以-s结尾的名词的数

5. 单复数同形的名词

6. 复合名词的数

7. 名词由单数变复数应注意的问题

8. 名词的单复数在意义上的不同

六、名词的格

1. 格的种类

2. 's属格的形成

3. 's属格使用的对象

4. 应用's属格需注意的问题

5. 名词's属格的其他作用

6. of属格的使用

7. 's属格和of属格在使用上的区别

8. 双重属格

9. 's属格的常见习语

Exercises

第四章 代词

一、代词的分类

二、代词的格、人称和数

三、人称代词

1. 人称代词的格的句法功能

2. 人称代词的格的灵活处理

3. 人称代词在句中的词序

4. 人称代词的常见习用语和谚语

四、单数第三人称代词it的用法

1. 代替人以外的第三人称单数名词

2. 表示天气、时间、距离、环境等情况

3. 用来指代一个未亲眼看到、面目不详的人

4. 用来代替整个句子或该句中谓语部分所表示的意思

5. 用于“It is (was)...that (who/whom)...”强调结构中

6. it用作形式主语或形式宾语

7. 用来指代句子尾部的名词短语

8. 用作无具体意义的主语

9. 用作不定宾语

10. it的若干实用写作句式及口头表达法

五、物主代词

1. 物主代词的分类

2. 物主代词用法上的区别

六、反身代词

1. 反身代词的构成

2. 反身代词的用法

3. 和反身代词连用的一些常见动词

4. 关于self的用法

七、相互代词

1. 相互代词用法上的区别

2. 相互代词的所有格在应用上需注意的问题

3. 相互代词不能用作主语

4. 汉译英时相互代词的灵活处理

八、指示代词

1. this/these和that/those在时空上的差别

2. this和that在行文叙述上的差别

3. this/that和these/those用于表示种类、类型时的结构

4. that和those用于表示比较结构

5. those和they，them用法上的区别

6. Those who...的数的含义

7. and that构成的习惯用法

8. and...at that

9. 指示代词such的用法

10. such的一些常用习惯表达法

11. 指示代词former和latter的用法

12. 指示代词same的用法

13. same的习用语

九、关系代词

1. 关系代词who，whom，whose，that和which的基本用法

2. 关系代词who，whom，which和that的主要用法

3. 关系代词的省略

4. 用于限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句的关系代词

5. 关系代词as的用法

6. 关系代词but的用法

十、连接代词

1. 连接代词和关系代词的异同

2. 连接代词和疑问代词的转化

3. 连接代词的合成词

4. 连接代词what的用法

十一、不定代词

1. both，all

2. either，neither，any，each，none，every，some

3. one，other，another

4. most

十二、准代词than

Exercises

第五章 一致性

一、主谓一致

1. 主谓一致的分类

2. 主谓一致原则的具体应用

二、主语和主语补语的一致

三、代词的一致

四、并列（又称平行排比）结构中成分宜保持一致性

Exercises

第六章 动词

一、不规则动词

二、特殊连系动词

1. 特殊连系动词的分类

2. 特殊连系动词的固定搭配

3. 特殊连系动词与实义动词

4. 表层结构和深层结构在特殊连系动词结构中的应用

三、情态动词

1. can (could)和be able to用法上的区别

2. may 和 might

3. have to 和 must

4. 情态动词need和行为动词need

5. 情态动词dare和行为动词dare

6. shall的用法

7. should的用法

8. ought to的用法

9. 情态动词will和would

10. had better的用法

11.

Exercises

第七章 时态

一、一般现在时的用法

1. 表示客观真理或科学真理

2. 表示格言或警句

3. 表示客观存在

4. 表示现在习惯性的、经常重复的或定期发生的动作

5. 表示能力、性格、个性等

6. 多用于表示状态的动词

7. 表示报道或表演中的解说词，其动作与话语同时发生

8. 在I hope，I bet等后面的宾语从句中，可用一般现在时代替将来时以加强语气

9. 用来表示没有时间性的事物，诸如书面材料内容、图片说明等

10. 在宾语从句或定语从句中可用现在时来代替将来时

11. 表示按照时间表或事先的安排即将要发生的动作

12. 用在置于句首的Here或There后面表示正在进行的动作

二、现在进行时的用法

1. 表示现在正在发生的事情，通常是正在进行的短暂的动作或状态

2. 表示现阶段正在进行的、长期的或重复性的动作，而说话时动作未必正在进行

3. 与连系动词连用

4. 用现在进行时表示非进行意义

5. 一般现在时和现在进行时在表示将来时的含义上的区别

三、现在完成时的用法

1. 表示现在之前已发生或完成的动作或状态

2. 同表示不确定的过去时间状语连用

3. 同表示频度的时间状语连用

4. 同包括现在时间在内的时间状语连用

5. 表示现在之前已完成的动作，其效果或影响现在依然存在

6. 现在完成时在对话中的使用

7. 表示一个人的经历、言行或作用对现在和将来具有长期现实意义和深远影响

8. 同since一起用

四、一般过去时的用法

1. 表示在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或状态

2. 用来表示过去的习惯动作

3. 在日常会话中用一般过去时来表示现在时间

五、过去完成时的用法

1. 表示过去某一动作或状态发生或结束在另一过去动作之前

2. 表示到过去某一时间之前已经完成或结束的一个过去动作或状态

六、过去进行时的用法

1. 表示过去某一时刻正在发生的动作

2. while或when引导的从句

3. 以某种持续的动作为背景，而以一般过去时引出的新动作为主要描述对象

4. 表示按计划安排在过去某事将要发生的动作

5. 在问到一段时间怎么度过时，过去进行时要比一般过去时有礼貌

6. 一般过去时和过去进行时的区别

七、一般将来时的用法

八、将来进行时的用法

1. 表示将来某时进行的状态或动作，或按预测、计划在较近的将来会发生的事情

2. 用将来进行时和一般将来时提问时在含义上的区别

3. 将来进行时、现在进行时和一般将来时的区别

九、将来完成时

1. 到将来某一时间之前将要完成的动作

2. 在将来某一动作完成前完成的动作

3. 表示将来发生的事情的一种可能性或假设

十、过去将来时

1. 过去将来时由 would (should)+动词原形构成

2. 由were (was) going to+动词原形构成

3. 由were (was) to+动词原形构成

4. 由were (was) about to+动词原形

Exercises

第八章 被动语态

一、被动语态的形式

二、被动语态的应用

1. 强调动作的承受者

2. 动作的执行者不明或不需明确提出

3. 为了诸如礼貌、策略、婉转等缘故不提出动作的执行者

4. 在现代英语及口语中的应用

5. 主动句的宾语是由that引导的从句在变为被动句时，应补添it作形式主语

6. 被动结构常用于公告、通知中

三、主动语态变成被动语态的步骤

四、使用被动语态时应注意的问题

1. 动作执行者前用by或with的原则

2. 主动语态变成被动语态的一些例外情况

3. 表示状态的动词

4. 动词短语的处理

5. 某些动词表示被动意义的方式

6. 使用被动语态的基本原则

7. 动词不定式符号“to”的处理

Exercises

第九章 分词

一、分词的功能

二、现在分词和过去分词用作形容词时在用法上的区别

1. 现在分词和过去分词表示的意思不同

2. 分词用法上矛盾时所依据的准则

3. 分词构成合成形容词时用法上的差别

4. 个别分词位置的前后不同所产生的意思上的差异

5. 现在分词用作后置形容词时应注意的问题

三、分词用作状语

1. 用作原因状语从句

2. 用作时间状语从句

3. 用作伴随性状语从句

4. 用作条件状语从句

5. 用作结果状语从句

6. 用作让步状语从句

四、分词用作状语应注意的问题

五、状语从句变成分词短语的步骤

六、分词短语用作独立成分

七、分词短语用作独立结构

1. 分词短语和独立结构在形式上的区别

2. 独立结构的作用

3. 状语从句变成独立结构的步骤

4. 使用独立结构应注意的问题

八、分词用作宾语补语

1. 作宾语补语时，分词只用在感官动词和表示“使役”或“致使”的动词后面

2. 用于感官动词后的现在分词和不带to不定式两者在含义上的区别

3. 过去分词用在have，like，want，wish，order等动词后面时应注意的问题

九、分词用作主语补语

Exercises

第十章 动名词和不定式的比较

一、用作主语、宾语、表语和同位语时在意义上的区别

二、动名词和不定式作后置形式主语时应注意的问题

三、接动名词的动词，接不定式的动词和动名词、不定式都可接的动词

1. 接动名词的动词和动词词组

2. 接不定式的动词

3. 接动名词和不定式的动词

四、动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语

五、动名词和不定式用作逻辑宾语时的差别

六、动名词和不定式的被动态和主动态的用法

1. 动名词

2. 不定式

七、动名词和不定式的时态形式

1. 动名词的时态形式

2. 不定式的时态形式

八、介词+动名词结构和不定式结构的相互转换

1. 介词位于名词后面和不定式的互换

2. 介词位于动词后面和不定式的互换

3. 介词位于形容词后面和不定式的互换

九、动名词和不定式的否定结构

十、动名词和不定式的逻辑主语

1. 不定式的逻辑主语

2. 动名词的逻辑主语

十一、动名词和不定式作状语时用法上的区别

1. 动名词用作状语

2. 不定式用作状语

3. 表示目的时应用不定式

十二、动名词和现在分词在用法上的区别

1. 作定语时的区别

2. 作表语时的区别

3. 现在分词可以单独作状语；动名词却不能

4. 现在分词可以作宾语的补足语；动名词不可以

5. 动名词可以作动词或介词的宾语；现在分词不能

十三、不定式作定语与分词作定语的区别

十四、动名词和不定式各自的特殊结构

1. 动名词的特殊结构

2. 不定式的特殊结构

十五、带不定式符号“to”的短语和带介词“to”的短语

1. 带有不定式符号to的短语，后接动词原形

2. 带介词to的短语，后接动名词或名词

Exercises

第十一章 荡空结构

一、荡空结构的概念

二、荡空结构的种类

1. 荡空分词结构

2. 荡空动名词结构

3. 荡空不定式结构

4. 荡空省略从句结构

Exercises

第十二章 形容词

一、定语形容词和表语形容词

1. 绝大部分的形容词既可用作定语又可用作表语

2. 来自法语和拉丁语的定语形容词

3. 一些习惯表达法

二、形容词并列用作定语时的位置

1. 表大小的与表形状的形容词并列

2. 表大小、形状和颜色的形容词并列

3. 表年龄、新旧与表颜色的形容词并列

4. 表年龄、新旧、颜色的与表国籍、地区、出处的形容词并列

5. 限定词与形容词并列

三、形容词的级

1. 原级形容词

2. 形容词比较级和最高级的构成

3. 形容词比较级的用法

4. 形容词原级和比较级的同时使用

5. 形容词最高级的用法

四、形容词的一些特殊用法

1. most

2. enough

3. the+形容词（包括分词形容词）

4. 形容词修饰形容词

5. 动词+形容词

6. 运用比较级或最高级形容词的常见习语

五、易混淆的形容词

1. 一些主客观意义易混淆的形容词

2. 意义极容易混淆的形容词

Exercises

第十三章 副词

一、副词的功能

二、副词的分类

三、副词的位置

1. 修饰形容词或其他副词时的位置

2. 修饰实义动词时副词的位置

3. 程度副词及频度副词的位置

4. 修饰整个句子的副词的位置

5. 疑问副词的位置

6. 几个副词同时出现在同一个句中时它们位置的先后

四、副词的级

五、副词的构成

1. 大多数副词由形容词或分词在词尾加-ly构成

2. 几点值得注意的问题

六、副词enough，too，none，never，not，not...and和not...too的特殊用法

1. enough

2. too

3. none

4. never

5. never的一些常见习用语

6. not

7. not和and连用时的特殊意义

8. cannot和too连用时的特殊意义

9. 和not有关的常见习语

七、用法上易混淆的副词和形容词

1. such和so用法上的区别

2. very和much用法上的区别

3. too much...和much too...的区别

4. also，too和either的区别

5. 副词not和形容词no在一些常见结构中意思上的差别

6. 同形的形容词和副词

Exercises

第十四章 排比结构

一、排比结构的分类

1. 单词排比

2. 短语排比

3. 从句排比

二、使用排比结构应注意的问题

三、排比结构中代词、介词或冠词省略时应注意的问题

四、三项式排比结构

1. 主语三项式排比

2. 谓语三项式排比

3. 宾语三项式排比

4. 定语三项式排比

5. 表语三项式排比

6. 分词短语三项式排比

7. 不定式三项式排比

8. 介词或介宾短语三项式排比

9. 分句三项式排比

Exercises

第十五章 虚拟语气

一、虚拟语气和陈述语气在条件句中的应用

1. 陈述语气用于真实条件句

2. 虚拟语气用于非真实条件句

二、虚拟语气和陈述语气用来表示条件的一些其他结构形式

1. 与祈使句一起用表示条件的结构形式

2. 与代词it一起用表示条件的结构形式

3. 省略if表示条件的结构形式

4. if以外其他从属连词表示条件的结构形式

5. 与并列连词and或or一起用时表示条件的结构形式

6. 跳层式的条件结构形式

7. 与介词连用表示条件时的结构形式

三、虚拟语气在宾语从句中的应用

1. 用在表示假设的动词wish所引导的从句中

2. 用在表示要求、建议或命令等动词所引导的从句中

四、虚拟语气在主语从句中的应用

五、虚拟语气在表语从句及同位语从句中的应用

六、虚拟语气在某些否定或疑问形式动词所引导的宾语从句中的应用

七、虚拟语气在If only，Would(that)，I'd(He'd)rather，as if (though)，It is time，for fear that和lest等结构中的应用

1. If only...；Would that...

2. I'd (He'd) rather

3. as if和as though用法相同

4. It is time+过去时从句

5. for fear that，lest (that)表示“唯恐，以免”

八、虚拟语气的一些特殊应用

1. 应用于单独条件句

2. 表示祝愿或诅咒

Exercises

第十六章 主从结构和并列结构

一、何谓主从结构

二、主从结构的表达形式

1. 以状语从句形式表示的从属结构

2. 以分词形式（包括独立结构）所表示的从属结构

3. 以who，whom，that，which引导的定语从句表示的从属结构

4. 以连接副词、连接代词和连词that引导的从句表示从属结构

5. 以从属连词引导的表示从属关系的省略结构

6. 以关系副词where，when，why引导的定语从句

7. 以介词短语形式表示的从属结构

8. 以同位语形式表示的从属结构

三、何谓并列结构

四、并列连词和连接性副词的区别

1. 位置上的区别

2. 用法上的区别

五、一些常见并列连接词的用法

1. and

2. both...and...

3. nor和neither

4. neither...nor...

5. or

6. either...or...

7. not only...but also...

8. but

9. for

10. as well as

11. as much as

Exercises

第十七章 倒装

一、部分倒装

1. 何谓部分倒装

2. 部分倒装的用法

二、全部倒装

1. 何谓全部倒装

2. 全部倒装的用法

三、倒装句和主题前置强调句之间的区别

1. 宾语或宾语从句移至句首

2. 介词的宾语移至句首

3. 表语移至句首

4. 宾语补语移至句首

5. 副词或状语短语移至句首

6. 在though或as引导的让步从句中，形容词、名词或副词常移至从句之首以起强调作用

Exercises

第十八章 介词

一、介词的分类

二、介词短语及其句法功能

1. 充当介词宾语的成分

2. 介词短语的句法功能

三、介词词组的分类及其同状语或定语从句的相互转换

四、表示时间的介词在使用上的区别

1. at，on，in，of

2. during，for，in，over，throughout

3. after，in，for

4. since，after

5. behind，after

6. to，till，until，by

7. with

8. inside of

9. as

10. about，around

11. toward(s)

12. between

五、表示地点、位置的介词在使用上的区别

1. at，in，on

2. underneath，over，under，above，below，beneath

3. at，by，beside，besides，alongside (of)，near，next to

4. before，in front of，behind，after，at the back of，back of

5. about，round，around

6. about，with，on，by

7. to，towards，toward，for，in

8. in，into，inside，inside of，within

9. out of，outside，outside of，without

10. along，across，by，through，past，beyond，throughout

11. through，throughout，over

12. up，down

13. from，to，for，off

14. between和among

六、表示原因、理由的介词在使用上的区别

1. of，from，through，for，by，with，in，on，at

2. due to，owing to，thanks to，because of，on account of

七、表示“除外”的介词在使用上的区别

1. but，except，save

2. except，excepting，except for，but for

3. except that，but that

4. as well as

八、表示“让步”的介词在用法上的区别

1. despite (=in spite of)

2. regardless of，notwithstanding

3. for all one's...，with all one's...

4. 在特殊情况下，through也被用来表示“让步”，如：

九、表示“关于”，“至于”的介词在用法上的区别

1. with regard to，in regard to，regarding，as regards

2. concerning，respecting，touching，as regards

3. with reference to，with respect to，in respect of，in the matter of

4. as for，as to

5. on，about

十、表示方法、手段或工具的介词在用法上的区别

1. by

2. with

3. on

4. in

5. through

十一、表示标准、比率、对比、速度、价格的介词在用法上的区别

1. by可用来表示标准、度量单位，作“以……计”，“按……计算”解

2. at可用来表示速度、比率、价格、价值

3. at在表示速度、比率、价格方面的一些常见习语

4. to 在表示数量、价值、比率时的几个意思

十二、表示比较的介词在用法上的区别

1. than

2. to

3. of

4. above

十三、表示属性、特性的介词在用法上的区别

1. of

2. with

十四、引出间接宾语

1. 引出间接宾语的介词主要是to和for，在少数场合则用of

2. 如何正确使用to，for，of来引出间接宾语

3. 介词引出间接宾语时应注意的问题

十五、常见的介词特殊结构

1. 单数可数名词（无冠词）+after (by/in/to)+单数可数名词（无冠词）

2. 介词+最高级形容词

3. by+反身代词

4. of的特殊结构

5. with 引出的独立结构

十六、两步表达法的介词结构

1. 及物动词+宾语+介词+the+身体部位

2. 及物动词+宾语+介词+宾语

十七、介词的省略

1. 某些结构中介词的省略

2. 以疑问词whose，what，when，how及whether引导的从句或不定式短语前介词of的省略

3. 以 who，what，which，when，where，how及whether引导的从句或不定式短语前介词about或as to的省略

4. 表示时间短语前介词的省略

5. 在表示方位方向、距离、方式方法、估量、重量及价值等短语结构中，介词往往省略

6. 在with引导的独立结构中介词的省略

7. 名词、动词或形容词的并列结构中介词的省略

8. 起限定作用的介词短语的省略

Exercises